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 C a m b r i d g e L i b r a r y C o ll e c t i o n
Books of enduring scholarly value

Religion
For centuries, scripture and theology were the focus of prodigious amounts
of scholarship and publishing, dominated in the English-speaking world
by the work of Protestant Christians. Enlightenment philosophy and
science, anthropology, ethnology and the colonial experience all brought
new perspectives, lively debates and heated controversies to the study of
religion and its role in the world, many of which continue to this day. This
series explores the editing and interpretation of religious texts, the history of
religious ideas and institutions, and not least the encounter between religion
and science.

On the Relation Between Science and Religion

George Combe (1788-1858) rose from humble origins to tour widely in
Europe and the United States lecturing on phrenology, the popular Victorian
belief that character traits were determined by the configuration of the
skull. His most famous book, The Constitution of Man, published in 1828,
put forward a naturalist agenda and sold approximately 350,000 copies,
distributed by over 100 publishers, by 1900. In 1857, Combe published On
the Relation between Science and Religion. He describes his childhood
bafflement as to how God governs the world, his delight on observing the
laws of nature, and his disillusionment with human social organisation. He
denounces dogmatism and sectarianism, and argues insistently that religious
leaders should encourage the study of science as revealing God’s governance,
rather than discourage it. He proposes that phrenology sheds light on the
divine purpose and moral laws through an improved understanding of the
workings of the human mind (identifying ’affective’ and ‘intellectual’ areas
of the brain responsible for traits such as ‘benevolence’, ‘wonder’, and ‘hope’),
and criticises both scientists and religious leaders who maintain that higher
thought and moral behaviour has nothing to do with the brain. His book
ranges widely across the concerns of Victorian educated classes, referring to
books (including Paley’s Natural Theology as well as the phrenology works
of Gall and Spurzheim), statistics on church attendance, popular views on
Eastern religions, spiritualism, and Roman Catholicism, and current affairs.
It is a fascinating document of its time, and addresses questions many of
which still resonate today.
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On the Relation
Between Science
and Religion
GEORGE COMBE

..... :·:Y' CAMBRIDGE

;.; UNIVERSITY PRESS
 C a mbridge U niversi t y P ress

Cambridge New York Melbourne Madrid Cape Town Singapore São Paolo Delhi

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108004510

© in this compilation Cambridge University Press 2009

This edition first published 1857

This digitally printed version 2009

ISBN 978-1-108-00451-0

This book reproduces the text of the original edition. The content and language reflect
the beliefs, practices and terminology of their time, and have not been updated.
 UN

'l'HE RELATION
DETW I!RN

SCIENCE AND RELI GI 0 N.

IJY

G E 0 R G E C0 M B E.

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'7T£~i T_'ili ~e«?'I'~TtJ~
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TRANSLATION.

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thing terrible, Ill the rea.tly t c rrib l~ t blng."

.. lmpiety clCArt the aout or II a conHCrated errore, but It rlou not ft11 tbe he-•rt or man. Jnl pl•t.ratone
wiU ne"er ruin a. hu111An wo rt hlp. A raitb destroyed mu"l. lle rep1Aud by a fai th. It 1.. no t ~Yt u to Jr.
religion to destroy a r t11r lon o n eutb. Jt ia but a ,..l ~ lon more enlil!btentd wh i~h t::lln r t ally triumph
::; j, ':. ~~~ne~~~~h :.!:1~~7~:J>:.t~'i, ~!1~~~!.: ·~· Ril~~7oj~Z:'9i:!,:d~(v:\~~~:ttM ,•~:~i::r'
1 1 1

FOURTH- AND PEOPLE'S EDITION,

p ,·irc Shilli ll!fS, r.,..,

EDINBURGH :
MACLACHLAN AND STEW ART.
LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL , AND CO.
1857.

The Right of Tt·aMlation is Resm:ecZ by the A ltth or.

 To CHARLES 1\L\CK.\ Y, Esq., LL.D.

MY DEA R Srn,
A friendship of long duration, admiration of
your genius, and cordial sympathy with the purposes to which you

haYu devoted it, induce me to dedicate this 1·olnme to you as a mark of

a,nection and esteem.

I nm,

My Dear Sir,

Yours very sincerely,

GEO. ('OMBK

l~ •·t:-:nuRon, 31 tt Ma., ..,, 1857.

 TAB J.J E 0 F 0 0 N TE K T:-:.

T~TRODUCTION.
C.IIAI'. T. On the present state of the relation between Science an•\
Religion,
II. Definition of the words Scienc.e and Religion, ami Elucida·
tion of the ~omplex character of Religion, 15
III. Beet. l. Of the Physical Elements of Mnn, 23
H . Of the Mental Organs and Faculties of Man , '29
II I. Of the Particular Facultie~ of the lllind, their
cerebral organs, modes of activity, and u~cs
and abuses, 33
IV. I s Man naturally a Religious Being? 34
\ '. Is Man naturally a Moral Being ? 45
\'I. Is there any Natural Standard of .Moral and Re·
ligious Truth? ~7

IV. Of the exten t to which Man is able to discover the Ultimate

Elem~uts or Essence of the External World, 51
V. OfGod, 66
VI. Can we trace Divi ne Govern ment in the Phenomena of the
Physical a nd Moral Worlds 1 And if so, by what means
is it maintained and rendered efficient? 82
Sect. I . Of the Government of the Physical World, 82
II. Can we discover the Means by which the J\Joral
World h Governed f • 84
Ill. Of L ife-Jlcalth- Dise3se- and Death, 89
IV. Of the Divine Government of Human Action s, 109
\'. Means by which the Indi vidual Human Faculties.
as Jl(oral Forces, are regulated in their Action, .118
\ ' l. Effects of t he Predominance of particular Groups
of Organs in I ndividuals in determining their
qualities as Moral Agents, 130
Th e effects of Predominance of Size in the Animal
Region of the Brain, • 132
Effects when both the Animal and Intellectual
Organs are large, and the Mom] Organs are
small, 136
l :ffec ts wbeo the Animul, 111oral, and Intellectual
R egioM of tbe Bt·ain, are all large and nearly
equally balnnced, 139
ll CONTENTS.

Page
CH AP. Vl. Sect. VI. Effect.~ when the 1\Ioral and Intellectual Organ s
are large ln proportion to those of the Pro -
pensiti~s. H4
Rammohun Roy, HS
Effects of Special Combinations of the Mental
F orces as they occur in I ndividuals, 160
Robert Burns, 154
Note on Mr Hugh Mill er, 157
VIr. Of Nations considered os llloral Forces, 160
Vll. Historical :Evidence that tho Divine Governm ent of Na-
tions is Moral, . 171
VIti. Is this World, such as it now exists, an Institution ?-0•·
is it the Wreck of a better System~ 179
Sect. 1. Is this World an Institution? ib.
II. 1s th is World the Wreck of a better System ? 185
IX. Practical Considerations, 191
Sect. I. IIow sbonld we act, if the\\' orld is a n Institution~ ib.
U . 'l'he consequences which have followed from the
prevailing religious Dogmns, 218
X. Conclusion, :?53

AP PENDI X.
No. I. Names of the Phrenologlca.l Organs and 'their situations in the
bead, t•efert•ed to in page 33, . 261
H . Evidence of the Influence of the Brain on 'Feeling and 'l'hough t,
referred to on page 28, 262
I II. Descriptions of Heaven and Hell, &c., from Catechism by Joseph
llay, A.M., Mloi,ter, Arbroath, refQrred to on page 233, 26!
IV . On )Tan-Concocted .Arlicles of Faith, referred to on page 233. 266
V. Definition of the " Personality" of the Deity, 268
VI. On the Worship of the Shakers, referred to on pages 204 and 213, 269
VI I. Letters from the late Dr Samuel l:lrown to George Combe, on the
Natur .. I EvidoncDfor the Existence nod Attributes of God, and
othet• topics, 270
VIII. Note on Dr M'Cosh'e " .Method of the Divine Government,'' 276
I X. Note on " Faith in God and l'l odern Atheism compared,'' by
James Buchanan, D.O., referred to in the Introduction, page
xu., 277
X. Speech of lrOI'd J ohn Russell on Teaching Natur Q1 Theology ln
Common Schools, . . . . . . 277
);. (. Recommendations to teach Physiology in Common School~. r e-
ferred to on pnge £57 , 278
 A DYER 'l' I 8E:\I E~T.

'l'he substance of this work appeared first in tho Phreuological

Journal, vol. xx., published in 18-!7.

The present, Ol'fourth edition, which is gl'Nttly en-

larged, consists of-
Cupios a.t 5s. eacll , 500
P eople's edi tiou, copies at 2s. each, 1500
'l'otal, 2000 copies.
The working classes are indebted to tho generosity of R. F . Breed,
Esq., Balla.ughton H ouse, Douglas, Isle of Man, for the People's Edi-
tion, he ha.viog desired its publication, and provided funds to c.ove1·
the extra expense attending it.

Edinourgk, 31$t March 18·57.

 INTRODUCTION.

THE present work first appeared in 1847 as a pamphlet, and

attracted considerable attention. It has for some time been
out of print, and as it continuos in demand, I have been led
by circumstances to enlarge it in the present edition. As the
investigation contained in it is of great extent, and embraces
a consideration of the present religious cree<ls of Europe, I
shall introduce it by a brief notice of the incidents which
led me to take au interest in the subject. By puxsuing t.his
course, I shall be under the necessit.y of introducing a portion
of my personal history-which may expose me to the charge
of vanity and egotism; but on the other hand, the nanative
will shew that the questions here discussed have long formed
topics of earnest and serious consideration in my mind, and
that the views now advanced are brought forward in no light
spirit, but are founded on deep and solemn convictions.
An event so common and trivial as almost to appear ludi-
crous when introduced into a grave discourse, but which is
'real, gave rise to the train of thought which is developed in
this work. ·when a child of six or seven years of age, some be-
nevolent friend bestowed on me a lump of sugar-candy. The
nursery-maid desired me to give a share of it to my younger bro-
thers and sisters, and I presented it to her to be disposed of as
she recommended. She gave each of them a portion, and when
she returned the remainder to me, she said, "That's a good
boy-God will reward you for this." These words were uttered
by her as a mere form of pious speech, proper to be addressed
to a child ; but they conveyed to my mind an idea ;-they
suggested intelligibly and practically, for the first time, the
conception of a Divine reward for a kind action ; and I in-
b
Vl INTRODUCTION.

stantly put the question to her, "How will God reward me?"
" He will send you everything that is good." " What do you
mean by' good'-Will he send me more sugar-candy?" "Yes
-certainly he will, if you are a good boy." "Will he make
this piece of sugar-candy grow bigger?'' " Yes-God always
rewards those who are kind-hearted."
I could not rest c.ontented with words, but at once proceeded
to the verification of the assurance by experiment and obser-
vation. I forthwith examined minutely all the edges of the
remaining portion of sugar-candy, took an account of its di-
:~pensions, and then, wrapping it carefully in paper, put it into
a drawer, and waited with anxiety for its increase. I left it. in
the drawer all night, and next morning examined it with eager
curiosity. I could discover no trace of alteration in its size,
either of increase or decrease. I was greatly disappointed ;
my faith in the reward of virtue by the Ruler of the world re-
ceived its first shock, and I feared that God did not govern the
world in the manner which the nursery-maid had represented.
Several years afterwards, I read in the Grammatical Exer-
cises, an early class-book then used in the High School of
Edinburgh, these words : "Deus g~tbe'rnat mundum," " God
governs t he world." cc M~c.ncl~W> gubematur a Deo," " The world
is governed by God." These sentences were introduced into
the book as exercises in Latin grammar; and our teacher,
the late M.r Luke Fraser, dealt with them merely as such,
without entering into any consideration of the ideas embodied
in them.
This must have occurred about the year 1798, when I was
ten years of age ; and the wol'ds " Deus g~tbernat m1l1zd1tm-
Mundus gube'rnatu1· a Deo," made an indelible impression and
continued for years and years to haunt my imagination.' As
a child, I assumed the fact itself to be an indubitable truth
but felt a restless curiosity to discover how God exercises hi~
jurisdiction.
Some time afterwards, I read in the Edinburo·h Advertiser
that Napoleon Buonaparte (instigated and assi~ted as I used
to. hear, by the devil) ?overned France, and gover~ed it very
":lCkedly; and that Km~ <?eorge III., Mr Pitt, and Lord Mel-
Vllle, g?verned Great Bntam a.nd Ireland-not very success-
fully e1ther, for I read of rebelhon, and murders, and burnings,
 INTRODUCTION. vii
and executions in Ireland; while in Scotland my father com-
plained of enormous Excise duties which threatened to involve
him in ruin. I saw that my father ruled iu his trade, and my
mother in her household affairs, both pretty well on the whole ;
but with such evident marks of imperfection, that it was im-
possible to trace God's superintendence or direction in their
administration.
In the class in the High School of which I was a member,
Mr Luke Fraser seemed to me to reign supreme ; and as I felt
his government to be harsh, and often unjust, I could not re-
cognise God in H either. Under his tuition, and that of Dr
Adam, the Rector of the High School, and of Dr John Hill,
the Professor of Latin in the University of Edinburgh, I be-
came acquainted with the literature, the mythology, and the
history of Greece and Rome ; but in these no traces of the Di-
vine government of the world were discernible.
These were the only governments of which I then had ex-
perience, or about which I could obtain any information ; and
in none of them could I discover satisfactory evidence of God's
interference in the affairs of men. On the contrary, it ap-
peared to me, that one and all of the historical personages
before named did just what they pleased, and that God took no
account of their actions in this world, however He might deal
with them in the next. They all seemed to acknowledge t'n
wo'rds that God governs the world ; but, nevertheless, they ap-
peared to me to act as if they were themselves independent
and irresponsible governors, consulting only their own notions
of what was right or wrong, and often pursuing what they
considered to be their own interests, irrespectiYe of God's
asserted supremacy in human affairs. Most of them professed
to believe in their accountability in the next world; but this
belief seemed to me like a rope of sand in binding their con-
sciences. They rarely hesitated to encounter all the da11gers of
that judgment when their worldly interests or passions strong-
ly solicited them to a course of action condemned by their
professed creeds.
F rom infancy I attended regularly an evangelical church,
was early instructed in the Bible, and in the Shorter and
Larger Catechisms, and the Confession of Faith of the Assem-
bly of Divines at "\Vestminster ; and read orthodox sermons
Vl ll IN TRODUCTION.

and treatises by various distinguished authors. In the Old

Testament there were narratives of God's government of the
J ewish nation, by the exercise of special acts of supernatur~l
power, and I understood this as a clear ancl satisfactory exposi-
tion of Divine government. I n the New Testament, also, cer-
tain special acts of Divine interference with the affairs of men
were recorclecl, which likewise gave me great satisfaction, as
evidences that God governs the world ; but I never could apply
these examples to practical purposes.
I learned, in some way which I do not now recollect, that
during many ages after the close of t(he Scripture records, the
Roman Catholic priesthood had asserted that such acts of
special supernatural administration continued, and that they
themselves were the appointed instruments through \\·hose
medium it pleased God thus to manifest his power. But I
never saw instances of this kind of government in my own
sphere of life.
In the course of time I read arguments and criticisms which
carried with them au irresistible conviction, that these preten-
sions of the Roman Catholic priesthood had been pious frauds
practised on an ignorant and superstitious people. Here, then,
was another shock t o my belief that God governs the world ;
aud the difficulty was increased by an obscure jmpression, that
notwithstanding this -denial by the Protestant divines, of the
continuance of a special supernatural Providence acting through
the Roman Catholic priesthood, they and their followers seemed
to admit something very similar in their own favour.* As
however, I could not discover, by observation, satisfactory evi-
dence of special acts of Divine interference in human affairs,
taking place in consequence of thei1· solicitations, any more
than in c_onsequence of those of the Roman Catholic priesthood,
I arrived at th~ conclusion that all special aets of DiYine
administration had ceased with the Scripture times ; and thus
I was again sent adrift into the great ocean of doubt, and no
longer saw traces of the manner in which God governs the
world in our day, whatever He might have done in the days of
the J ewish nation.
As I advanced in understanding, my theological studies

"' S~ examples in I Oint in Chapter I.

 INTRODUCTION. lX

rather increased than diminished these perplexities. I read

that " not a sparrow falls to the ground without our heavenly
Father," and that " the very hairs of our heads are numbered ;"
which seemed to indicate a very intimate and minute govern-
ment of the wodd. But, simultaneously with this information,
I was taught that God forgives those who offend against his
laws, if they have faith in Jesus Christ and repent; and that
He often leaves the wicked to run the course of their sins in
this world without punishing them, reserving his retribution
for the day of judgment. This seemed to me to imply that
God really does not govern the world in any intelligible or
practical sense, hut merely takes note of men's actions, and
commences his actual and efficient government only after the
resurrection from the dead.
During the time these speculations engaged my. atten-
tion, my mind opened to the import of the Calvinistic theo-
logy which had formed the staple of my religious instruction.
I was taught to repeat the Catechism from which an extract is
given on page 186, and I attended regularly a chmch in which
Calvinism was preached by one of the ministers, in a form
which, to me, was very terrible. Conscious of being no hetter
than my fellow-creatures, I could discover no reason why, if
any we1·e to be pa!3sed over to the left hand at the day of judg-
ment, I should not be one of the number. The narrative of
the sufferings and death of J esus Christ, exeited in me only
strong feelings of compassion for Him, and of indignation
against his persecutors. I was overwhelmed by the terrors of
a future judgment, and wished myself an inferior animal with-
out a soul. So deep aud habitual was the gloomy impression,
that summer was rendered appalling by the prospect of thun-
der storms, in one of which I might he struck instantaneously
dead and precipitated in a moment into everlasting misery.
In the autumn evenings, I used to climb high up on the rocks
of Edinburgh Castle, which ove.rhung my father's house, and
gaze with intense interest on " The Evening Star," or planet ,
that shone with resplendent brilliancy in the wake of the de-
parted sun ; I longed to see into its internal economy, and
thought: " Oh ! could I but discover that summer and winter,
beat and cold, life and dea.th, prevail in you as they do here,
how happy should I be I I should then believe that this world
X INTRODUCTION.

is not cursed, but that you, the planet,-and we, the earth,-
are both such as God intended us to be!"
The distress occasioned by these impressions was aggravated
by finding such doubts and difficulties described in_ the Cate-
chism " as punishments of sin," and ascribed to " blindness of
mind, a reprobate sense, and strong delusions." I believed
this to be the fact, because at that time I had not heard or
read a word calling in question the absolute t ruth of the doc-
trines of the Catechism. The only information I then pos-
sessed about " unbelief" and " unbelievers" was derived from
sermons preached against them ; and it was not till a much
later period that I became convinced that the feelings now
mentioned arose from the 'intuitive revulsion of the moral,
religious, and intellectual faculties with which I bad been en-
dowed, against the dogmas of Calvin .
The only relief from these depressing views of man's qualities
and condition was afforded by the perusal of " Ray on the Wis-
dom of God in Creation," and subsequently "Paley's Natural
Theology.'' At first, I feared that their views also were "strong
delusions,'' but as myunderstanding gained strength,these works
confirmed my faith that God does govern the world ; although,
owing to their containing no clear exposition of the manner in
which H e does so, they conveyed rather a.n impression ~han a
conviction of the fact.. Moreover, as I never saw any person
aeting on that faith, it maintained itself in my mind chiefly as
an impression ; and it t.hus remained for many years, not only
without proof, but often against apparent evidence to the con-
trary. li:Iy course of inquiry, therefore, was still onward ; and
with a view to obtaining a solution of the problem, I studied a
variety of works on moral and metaphysical subjects ; but from
none of them did I receive any satisfaction.
In point of fact, I reached to man's estate with a firm faith
that God governs the world, but utterly baffled in all my at-
tempts to discover how this government is effected. Inter-
course with society revealed to me that my earnest and literal
application of the Calvinistic doctrines was idiosyncratic, and·
that ordinary believers were in the habit of modifying the
sense in which they accepted them, pretty much to suit their
own tastes. When I suggested that this was pract ising con-
ventional hypocrisy, I was told that no other course was left
 1NTRODUCTION. Xl

open to a young man who depended on public opinion for suc-

cess in his profession; for were he to disclose his dissent from
the religious standards of the country, he would be branded
with the stamp of infidelity, suspected of immorality, and ob-
structed in every step of his career. Besides, it was hinted
that Scripture itself recognises the admissibility in such cases
of compliance with the established forms of worship, even
when these are idolatrous. See 2 Kings, chap. v., verses 17,
18, and 19.*
The feeling of disappointment became more intense in pro-
portion as a succession of studies presented to my m ind clear
and thoroughly convincing evidence, that in certain depart-
ments of nature God does unquestionably govern the 'vorld.
·when , for example, I comprehended the laws of the solar sys-
tem, as elucidated by Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, and L a-
place, and perceived the most perfect adaptation, harmony, and
regularity, pervading the revolutions of the planets and their
satellites, the convict~on that God governs in that system was
at once irresistible, complete, and delightful. 1'he planets,
however, were far away, and I longed to discover the same
order and harmony on earth; but in vain.
My next studies were Anatomy and Physiology. From these
sources new ligh t broke in upon ~y mind. Clear, however, as
the examples of Divine government afforded by these sciences
appeared to be, I found no application made of them beyond
the domains of surgery. No practical inference was deduced
from them to regulate human conduct in the ordinary circum-
stances of life. ·when I left the medical school, all traces of
the government of God in the world were lost, and my feeling
of disappointment returned.
Chemistry was the next science \Vhich engaged my atten-
tion, and in the qualities and relations of matter, it preseuteil

• "Naama.n" (the leper, captain of the host of the King of Syria) " said" (to Elisha.
who had cured him by bidding him wash in J ordan), " Sha.JJ the.r e not then, I pray
thee, be given t,o thy servant two mules' burden of earth? for thy servant will hence-
forth offer neither bm·n t.offering nor sacrifice unto other gods, but unto the Lord. In
this thing the Lord pardon thy servant, that when my master goeth into the House of
Rimmon to "orsbip there, and be leanetb on my band, and I bow myself in the house
of Rimmon ; when I bow myself in the House of Rimmon, the Lord pardon thy servant
in this thing. And be said unto him, Go in peace. So he departed from him a little
way."
xii INTRODUCTION.

extraordinary illustrations of Divine government. In the re-

velations made by this science, I discovered powers conferred
on matter, capable of producing the most stupendon_s . results,
yet all reo-ulated
0
in their action with a degree of preclSlon that
admitted of even mathematical and arithmetical computation,
and appeared irresistibly to proclaim the all-pervading God.
Yet when I left the chemical laboratory and returned into the
world of business, these delicious visions fled, and I could no
longer trace the Divine government in the affairs of men.
I n this con<lition of mind I continued for several years, and
recollect lll<:eting with only two works which approached to
the solution of any portion of the enigma which puzzled my
undorshml1ing. These were " Smith's vVealth of X ations,"
and " Malt.hus on Population." The first appeared to me to
demonstrate that God actually governs in the relations of com-
merce; that He has established certain natural laws "·hich
regula-te the inteH·sts of men in the e:>;.change of commodities
and la.bour; and that tl1ose laws are in harmony with the die-
totes of our moral and intellectual faculties, and wisely related
to the natural productions of ~he different soils and climates of
the earth.
I first read the work of :ur Maltbus in 1805, and he ap-
peared to me to prove that God reigns, through the medium
of fixed natural Jaws, in another department of h uman affairs
- namely, in that of population. The facts adduced by him
shewed that the Creator has bestowed on mankind a power of
increasing their numbers much beyond the ratio of the dimi-
nu t.ion that, in favourable circumstances, will be caused by
death; and, consequently, that they must limit their increase
by moral restraint; or augment, by ever-extending cultivation
of the soil, their means of subsistence in proportion to their
1wmbers, or <·xposc themselves to the evil of being reduced
by dif'c:n"e and famine to the number which the actual pro-
duction of fooil will maintaiu . These propositions, like the
doctrines of Adam Smith, met with general rejection; and
tl•eir author, fa.r from bein~ honoured as a successful ex-
pounJer of a portion of God's method of governing the worltl,
was assailed with umnitigated abuse, and his views were stre-
nuously resisted in practice.
Tiishop Butler also threw a. flash of ligh t across the dark
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