(Ebook) Graphs & Digraphs, Fourth Edition by

Chartrand, Gary, Lesniak, Linda, Zhang, Ping ISBN

9781584883906, 1584883901 Pdf Download

https://ebooknice.com/product/graphs-digraphs-fourth-
edition-54226936

★★★★★
4.6 out of 5.0 (52 reviews )

Instant PDF Download

ebooknice.com
 (Ebook) Graphs & Digraphs, Fourth Edition by Chartrand,
Gary, Lesniak, Linda, Zhang, Ping ISBN 9781584883906,
1584883901 Pdf Download

EBOOK

Available Formats

■ PDF eBook Study Guide Ebook

EXCLUSIVE 2025 EDUCATIONAL COLLECTION - LIMITED TIME

INSTANT DOWNLOAD VIEW LIBRARY

 We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit ebooknice.com
to discover even more!

(Ebook) Graphs & Digraphs, Fourth Edition by Chartrand, Gary,

Lesniak, Linda, Zhang, Ping ISBN 9781584883906, 1584883901

https://ebooknice.com/product/graphs-digraphs-fourth-edition-54226936

(Ebook) Matematik 5000+ Kurs 2c Lärobok by Lena Alfredsson, Hans

Heikne, Sanna Bodemyr ISBN 9789127456600, 9127456609

https://ebooknice.com/product/matematik-5000-kurs-2c-larobok-23848312

(Ebook) SAT II Success MATH 1C and 2C 2002 (Peterson's SAT II

Success) by Peterson's ISBN 9780768906677, 0768906679

https://ebooknice.com/product/sat-ii-success-math-1c-and-2c-2002-peterson-
s-sat-ii-success-1722018

(Ebook) Graphs & Digraphs by Gary Chartrand, Linda Lesniak, Ping

Zhang ISBN 9781498735766, 1498735762

https://ebooknice.com/product/graphs-digraphs-5292656
(Ebook) Graphs & Digraphs, Fifth Edition by Chartrand, Gary;
Lesniak, Linda; Zhang, Ping ISBN 9781439895184, 143989518X

https://ebooknice.com/product/graphs-digraphs-fifth-edition-5146156

(Ebook) Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History Workbook 2C - Depth

Study: the United States, 1919-41 2nd Edition by Benjamin
Harrison ISBN 9781398375147, 9781398375048, 1398375144,
1398375047
https://ebooknice.com/product/cambridge-igcse-and-o-level-history-
workbook-2c-depth-study-the-united-states-1919-41-2nd-edition-53538044

(Ebook) Master SAT II Math 1c and 2c 4th ed (Arco Master the SAT
Subject Test: Math Levels 1 & 2) by Arco ISBN 9780768923049,
0768923042

https://ebooknice.com/product/master-sat-ii-math-1c-and-2c-4th-ed-arco-
master-the-sat-subject-test-math-levels-1-2-2326094

(Ebook) Graphs and digraphs by Chartrand, Gary; Lesniak, Linda;

Zhang, Ping ISBN 9781498735766, 9781498735803, 1498735762,
1498735800

https://ebooknice.com/product/graphs-and-digraphs-6743198

(Ebook) Graphs and digraphs by Chartrand G., Lesniak L., Zhang

P. ISBN 9781439826294, 1439826293

https://ebooknice.com/product/graphs-and-digraphs-5250498
G. CHARTRAND and L. LESNIAK
CHAPMAN & HALL/CRC
■.
GRAPHS &
DIGRAPHS
FOURTH EDITION
 GRAPHS &
DIGRAPHS
FOURTH EDITION

G. CHARTRAND
Western Michigan University

and

L. LESNIAK
Drew University

r£r“ '• 88,8

1 *cNI .mvERsm
fc'TERBORouGfrt ONTARIO

•H
CHAPMAN & HALL/CRC
A CRC Press Company
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
 o

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chartrand, Gary.
Graphs & digraphs.—4th ed. / Gary Chartrand and Linda Lesniak.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-58488-390-1 (alk. paper)
1. Graph theory. 2. Directed graphs. I. Lesniak, Linda. II. Title.

QA166.C4525 2004
51 T.5- -dc22 2004052664

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted
material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are
listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author
and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the
consequences of their use.

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any
information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion,
for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC
Press LLC for such copying.

Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com

© 2005 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number 1-58488-390-1
Library of Congress Card Number 2004052664
Printed in the United States of America 1 234567890
Printed on acid-free paper
Contents

Preface to the fourth edition vii

1. Introduction to graphs and digraphs 1

1.1 Graphs 1
1.2 Degree sequences 12
1.3 Connected graphs and distance 16
1.4 Digraphs and multigraphs 25

2. The structure of graphs 33

2.1 Cut-vertices, bridges and blocks 33
2.2 The automorphism group of a graph 38
2.3 Cayley color graphs 43
2.4 The reconstruction problem 47

3. Trees and connectivity 55

3.1 Elementary properties of trees 55
3.2 Arboricity and vertex-arboricity 65
3.3 Connectivity and edge-connectivity 69
3.4 Menger’s theorem 75
3.5 The toughness of a graph 81

4. Eulerian and hamiltonian graphs and digraphs 85

4.1 Eulerian graphs and digraphs 85
4.2 Hamiltonian graphs and digraphs 92
4.3 Line graphs and powers of graphs 105

5. Directed graphs 111

5.1 Strong digraphs 111
5.2 Tournaments 113
5.3 Hamiltonian tournaments 124

6. Planar graphs 127

6.1 The Euler identity 127
6.2 Characterizations of planar graphs 135
6.3 Hamiltonian planar graphs 145
6.4 Crossing number and thickness 150

v
vi ■ Contents

7. Graph embeddings 161

7.1 The genus of a graph 161
7.2 2-Cell embeddings of graphs 170
7.3 The maximum genus of a graph 186

8. Graph colorings 193

8.1 Vertex colorings 193
8.2 Edge colorings 209
8.3 Map colorings and flows 216

9. Matchings, factors and decompositions 233

9.1 Matchings and independence in graphs 233
9.2 Factorizations and decompositions 246
9.3 Labelings of graphs 262

10. Domination in graphs 273

10.1 The domination number of a graph 273
10.2 The independent domination number of a graph 283
10.3 Other domination parameters 286

11. Extremal graph theory 293

11.1 Turan’s theorem 293
11.2 Extremal results on graphs 298
11.3 Cages 308

12. Ramsey theory 317

12.1 Classical Ramsey numbers 317
12.2 Generalized Ramsey theory 323
12.3 Rainbow Ramsey numbers 327

13. The probabilistic method in graph theory 333

13.1 The probabilistic method 333
13.2 Random graphs 340

Glossary of symbols 347

Graph theory books 1936-2004 351
References 359
Index 379
Preface to the fourth edition

Not only is graph theory one of the major areas of combinatorics, it is developing
into one of the major areas of mathematics. In addition to its growing interest and
increased importance as a mathematical subject, graph theory has applications to
many fields outside of mathematics, including computer science, chemistry, and
communication and electrical networks.
As in the first three editions of Graphs & Digraphs, our major objective is to
introduce and treat graph theory in the way we have always found it, namely, as the
beautiful area of mathematics it is. We have striven to produce a reader-friendly,
carefully written book that emphasizes the mathematical theory of graphs and
digraphs.
One goal of the fourth edition is to make this book even friendlier. To
accomplish this, we have endeavored to streamline the material. While we have
added new material on list colorings of planar graphs, rainbow Ramsey numbers,
and extremal graph theory and updated material on cages, we have also eliminated
unenlightening proofs of theorems and deleted material in areas which have proved
to be less active in recent years. We have also updated the extensive list of graph
theory books so that the avid graph theory readers have many avenues to pursue
their interests. In addition, with the significant assistance of Ping Zhang of
Western Michigan University, to whom we are most grateful, we have compiled for
instructors a manual containing solutions and hints for a large number of selected
exercises in the text.
The text is intended for an introductory sequence in graph theory at the
beginning graduate level or advanced undergraduate level, although a one-semester
course can easily be designed by selecting topics of major importance and interest
to the instructor and students. Only mathematical maturity, including a sound
understanding of proof, is required as a prerequisite to understand and appreciate
the material presented.
We greatly appreciate the suggestions given to us by a number of
mathematicians: John Ganci, Texas Instruments; Christina (Kieka) Mynhardt,
University of Victoria; Carsten Thomassen, the Technical University of Denmark;
Ann Trenk, Wellesley College. Our sincere thanks to all of you. A special

vii
viii ■ Preface

acknowledgement is due to Christine Spassione for her impeccable typing. Our

thanks also go to Allen Schwenk, Western Michigan University, for his drawing
of the graph that appears on the cover. Finally, we thank our editor Bob Stern
and the staff of CRC Press for their interest in and assistance with the fourth
edition.

G.C. & L.L.

1
Introduction to graphs and
digraphs

We begin our study of graphs and digraphs by introducing many of the basic
concepts that we shall encounter throughout our investigations.

1.1 GRAPHS

A graph G is a finite nonempty set of objects called vertices (the singular is vertex)
together with a (possibly empty) set of unordered pairs of distinct vertices of G
called edges. The vertex set of G is denoted by V{G), while the edge set is denoted
by E(G).
The edge e = [u, v] is said to join the vertices u and v. If e= {u, v] is an edge of
a graph G, then u and v are adjacent vertices, while u and e are incident, as are v and
e. Furthermore, if ex and e2 are distinct edges of G incident with a common vertex,
then e\ and e2 are adjacent edges. It is convenient to henceforth denote an edge by
uv or vu rather than by {u,v\.
The cardinality of the vertex set of a graph G is called the order of G and is
commonly denoted by n (G), or more simply by n when the graph under
consideration is clear; while the cardinality of its edge set is the size of G and is
often denoted by m(G) or m.
It is customary to define or describe a graph G by means of a diagram in which
each vertex of G is represented by a point (which we draw as a small circle) and
each edge e—uv of G is represented by a line segment or curve joining the points
corresponding to u and v. We then refer to this diagram as the graph G itself.
A graph G with vertex set V{G) = {v\,v2,... ,vn} and edge set
E(G) — {e\,e2,...,em} can also be described by means of matrices. One such
matrix is the n x n adjacency matrix A{G) = [al}], where

1 if VjVj e E(G)
Ujj —
0 if ViVj £ E(G).

1
2 ■ Graphs & digraphs

Thus, the adjacency matrix of a graph G is a symmetric (0, 1) matrix having zero
entries along the main diagonal. Another matrix is the n X m incidence matrix
B (G) = \bij\, where

1 if Vj and e, are incident

0 otherwise.

For example, consider a graph G defined by the sets

V(G) — {v\,v2,t'3,t'4} and E(G) = {e\, e2, e5, <?4, e5j,

where ex = V\V2, e2 = v\v3> e3 = V2V3> eA — V2V4> and <?$ = V3V4. The graph G and its
adjacency and incidence matrices are shown in Figure 1.1.
With the exception of the order and the size, the parameter that we will
encounter most frequently in the study of graphs is the degree of a vertex.
The degree of a vertex v in a graph G is the number of edges of G incident with
v, which is denoted by degg-y or simply by deg v if G is clear from the context. The
degree of v is also the number of vertices in G that are adjacent to v. A vertex is
called even or odd according to whether its degree is even or odd. A vertex of
degree 0 in G is also called an isolated vertex-, while a vertex of degree 1 is also
referred to as an end-vertex of G. The minimum degree of G is the minimum degree
among the vertices of G and is denoted by 5(G). The maximum degree is defined
similarly and is denoted by A(G). In Figure 1.2, a graph G is shown together with
the degrees of its vertices. In this case, 5(G) = 1 and A(G) = 5.
For the graph G of Figure 1.2, n — 9 and m— 11, while the sum of the degrees
of its nine vertices is 22. That this last number equals 2m illustrates a basic

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
B=
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 . . 0 0 0 1 1 .

and incidence matrices.

3 4 1

Figure 1.2 The degree of the vertices of a graph.

 Introduction to graphs and digraphs ■ 3

relationship involving the size of a graph and the degrees of its vertices. Every edge
is incident with two vertices; hence, when the degrees of the vertices are summed,
each edge is counted twice. We state this as our first theorem, which, not so
coincidentally, is sometimes called The First Theorem of Graph Theory.

Theorem 1.1

Let G be a graph of order n and size m where V{G) = {zq, v2, . . . , v„j. Then
n

deg Vi = 2m.
i=i

This result has an interesting consequence.

Corollary 1.2

In any graph, there is an even number of odd vertices.

Proof

Let G be a graph of size m. Also, let W be the set of odd vertices of G and let
U be the set of even vertices of G. By Theorem 1.1,

I] deg v = deg v + deg v — 2m.

veV(G) veW veU

Certainly, y f«-rr deg v is even; hence 5Z„euzdegv is even, implying that \W\ is
even and thereby proving the corollary. □

Two graphs often have the same structure, differing only in the way their
vertices and edges are labeled or in the way they are drawn. To make this idea more
precise, we introduce the concept of isomorphism. A graph Gj is isomorphic to a
graph G2 if there exists a one-to-one mapping 0, called an isomorphism, from
V{G\) onto V(G2) such that 0 preserves adjacency and nonadjacency; that is,
uveE(Gi) if and only if (putpvE E(G2). It is easy to see that ‘is isomorphic to’ is
an equivalence relation on graphs; hence, this relation divides the collection of
all graphs into equivalence classes, two graphs being nonisomorphic if they belong
to different equivalence classes.
If G\ is isomorphic to G2, then we say G\ and G2 are isomorphic and we
denote this by writing G\ — G2. If G\ is not isomorphic to G2, then we write
G\ f G2. If G\ = G2, then, by definition, there exists an isomorphism
4 ■ Graphs & digraphs

V'l *2 V3

Gi=

G3:

Figure 1.3 Isomorphic and nonisomorphic graphs.

0: V{G\) —> K(G2). Since 0 is a one-to-one and onto mapping, G\ and G2 Have
the same order. Since adjacent vertices in G\ are mapped into adjacent vertices in
G2 and nonadjacent vertices of G\ are mapped into nonadjacent vertices in G2, the
graphs G\ and G2 have the same size. Necessarily, every vertex v in G\ and its image
vertex (pv in G2 must have the same degree in their respective graphs. Therefore,
the degrees of the vertices of G\ are exactly the degrees of the vertices of G2
(counting multiplicities). Although these conditions are necessary for G\ and G2 to
be isomorphic, they are not sufficient. To illustrate this, consider the graphs G„
z" = 1,2,3, of Figure 1.3. Each G, is a graph of order 6 and size 9 and the degree
of every vertex of each graph is 3. Here, G\ — G2. For example, the mapping
0: V(G\)—> ViG-^ defined by

0 V\ = V\, (pv2 — v3, 0f3 = V<j, (pv\ — V2, 0^5 = V4, 0^6 = v6

is an isomorphism, although there are many other isomorphisms. On the

other hand, G$ contains three pairwise adjacent vertices whereas G] does not; so
there is no isomorphism from G\ to G$ and therefore G\ 7^ G'3. Of course, G2 7^ Gy
If G is a graph of order n and size w, then n > 1 and 0 < m < (2) = n (n — l)/2.
Although every graph must have at least one vertex, this is not the case with the
number of edges. A graph with no edges is called an empty graph. There is only one
graph of order 1 (up to isomorphism), and this is referred to as the trivial graph.
A nontrivial graph then has n>2. Thus far, whenever we have considered a graph
 Introduction to graphs and digraphs ■ 5

Figure 1.4 All graphs of order 4 or less.

G that is defined by a diagram, each point of this diagram (that is, each vertex of
G) has been labeled. Therefore, the set of all vertex labels is V{G). Here we are
dealing with a labeled graph. There are occasions, however, when we are only
interested in the structure of a graph defined by a diagram and the vertex set of the
graph is irrelevant. In this case, we have an unlabeled graph. The distinct
(nonisomorphic) graphs of order 4 or less are shown in Figure 1.4.
Frequently, a graph under study is contained within some larger graph also
being investigated. We consider several instances of this now. A labeled graph H is
a subgraph of a labeled graph G if V(H) Cl1(G) and E(H) ^E(G); in such a case,
we also say that G is a supergraph of El. For unlabeled graphs H and G, we say that
H is a subgraph of G if the vertices of El and G can be labeled so that as labeled
graphs, H is a subgraph of G. In Figure 1.5, H is then a subgraph of G but El is not
a subgraph of F. If H is a subgraph of G, then we write H C. G.
The simplest type of subgraph of a graph G is that obtained by deleting a
vertex or edge. If v G V(G) and | V(G)| >2, then G—v denotes the subgraph with
vertex set V(G) — {v} and whose edges are all those of G not incident with v; if
eEE(G), then G—e is the subgraph having vertex set V(G) and edge set
E(G) — {e}. The deletion of a set of vertices or set of edges is defined analogously.
These concepts are illustrated in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.5 Subgraphs

6 ■ Graphs & digraphs

Figure 1.6 The deletion of a vertex or edge of a graph.

If u and v are nonadjacent vertices of a graph G, then G+f, where f— uv,

denotes the graph with vertex set V(G) and edge set E(G)U{f}. Clearly,
G C G -\-f.
We have seen that G — e has the same vertex set as G and that G has the same
vertex set as G+f. Whenever a subgraph H of a graph G has the same order as G,
then H is called a spanning subgraph of G.
Among the most important subgraphs we shall encounter are the ‘induced
subgraphs’. If U is a nonempty subset of the vertex set V(G) of a graph G, then the
subgraph (U) of G induced by U is the graph having vertex set U and whose edge
set consists of those edges of G incident with two elements of U. A subgraph H of
G is called vertex-induced or simply induced if H — (U) for some subset U of
V{G). Similarly, if AG is a nonempty subset of E(G), then the subgraph (X) induced
by X is the graph whose vertex set consists of those vertices of G incident with at
least one edge of X and whose edge set is X. A subgraph H of G is edge-induced if
H = (X) for some subset X of E(G). It is a simple consequence of the definitions
that every induced subgraph of a graph G can be obtained by removing vertices
from G while every subgraph of G can be obtained by deleting vertices and edges.
These concepts are illustrated in Figure 1.7 for the graph G, where

V(G) = {vi,v2,v3,v4,v5,v6}, U = [vx, v2, v5j and X = {viv4, v2v5},

Figure 1.7 Induced and edge-induced subgraphs.

 Introduction to graphs and digraphs ■ 7

Gq\ o o Gi: O O G2: O-O

o o O-O O-O

Figure 1.8 The regular graphs of order 4.

Figure 1.9 The Petersen graph.

There are certain classes of graphs that occur so often that they deserve special
mention and in some cases, special notation. We describe the most prominent of
these now.
A graph G is regular of degree r if deg v—r for each vertex v of G. Such graphs
are called r-regular. A graph is complete if every two of its vertices are adjacent.
A complete graph of order n and size m is therefore a regular graph of degree n — 1
having m = n(n— l)/2; we denote this graph by Kn. In Figure 1.8 are shown all
(nonisomorphic) regular graphs with n = 4, including the complete graph
G5 = K4.
A 3-regular graph is also called a cubic graph. The graphs of Figure 1.3 are cubic
as is the complete graph K4. One of the best known cubic graphs is the Petersen
graph, shown in Figure 1.9. We will have many occasions to encounter this graph.
In 1936 Denes Konig [K10] wrote the first book on graph theory. In it he
proved that if G is a graph with A[G) — d, there exists a ^/-regular graph H
containing G as an induced subgraph. Konig’s result actually first appeared in 1916
(see [K8]). His technique proves a somewhat stronger result.

Theorem 1.3

For every graph G and every integer r> A(G), there exists an r-regular graph
containing G as an induced subgraph.
8 ■ Graphs & digraphs

Proof

If G itself is r-regular, then there is nothing to prove. So we may assume that G is

not r-regular. Let G' be another copy of G and join corresponding vertices whose
degrees are less than r, calling the resulting graph G\. If G\ is r-regular, then G\
has the desired properties. If not, we continue this procedure until arriving at an
r-regular graph G4. where k= r — 8(G). (The proof of Theorem 1.3 is illustrated
for the graph G of Figure 1.10 where r= A(G) = 3.) □

Of course, we are not claiming that the r-regular graph constructed in the proof
of Theorem 1.3 is one of smallest order with the desired property. Indeed, for the
graph G of Figure 1.10, the graph G2 has order 16, while the minimum order of a
3-regular graph containing Gas an induced subgraph is actually 6. In fact, in 1963
Erdos and Kelly [EK1] produced a method for determining the minimum order of
an r-regular graph H containing a given graph G as an induced subgraph.
The complement G of a graph G is that graph with vertex set V(G) such
that two vertices are adjacent in G if and only if these vertices are not adjacent
in G. Hence, if G is a graph of order n and size m, then G is a graph of order n
and size m, where m-\-m — (f). In Figure 1.8, the graphs G0 and G3 are
complementary, as are G] and G2. Thus the complement Kn of the complete graph
Kn is the empty graph of order n. A graph G is self-complementary if G — G.
Certainly, if G is a self-complementary graph of order n, then its size is
m = n(n— l)/4. Since only one of n and n — 1 is even, either 4 | n or 4 | n — 1; that

Figure 1.10 A 3-regular graph containing G as an induced subgraph.

 Introduction to graphs and digraphs ■ 9

is, if G is a self-complementary graph of order n, then either n = Q (mod 4) or

n = 1 (mod 4).
A graph G is k-partite, k>\, if it is possible to partition V(G) into k subsets
Vx, V2,.. ., 14 (called partite sets) such that every element of E(G) joins a vertex of
Vi to a vertex of V, i ^j. Every graph is ^-partite for some k-, indeed if n is the
order of G then G is zz-partite. If G is a 1-partite graph of order n, then G = Kn.
For k = 2, such graphs are called bipartite graphs-, this class of graphs is particularly
important and will be encountered many times. In Figure 1.11 (a), a bipartite graph
G is given. Then G is redrawn in Figure 1.11(b) to emphasize that it is bipartite.
If G is an r-regular bipartite graph, r> 1, with partite sets Vx and V2, then
| Vi \ = | V2\. This follows since its size m~r\Vx\ = r\ V2\.
A complete k-partite graph G is a ^-partite graph with partite sets Vx, V2,... ,Vk
having the added property that if u £ V) and v £ Vj, i^j, then uv£E{G).
If \Vi\-rii, then this graph is denoted by K(nx, n2,..., njj) or Kn,
(The order in which the numbers nx, n2,..., n^ are written is not important.) Note
that a complete ^-partite graph is complete if and only if = 1 for all z, in which
case it is K^. A complete bipartite graph with partite sets Vx and V2, where \ VX \ ~r
and | V2 | = s, is then denoted by K{r,s) or more commonly Krs. The graph KXtS is
called a star. A graph is a complete multipartite graph if it is a complete ^-partite
graph for some k>2.
There are many ways of combining graphs to produce new graphs. We next
describe some binary operations defined on graphs. This discussion introduces
notation that will prove useful in giving examples. In the following definitions,
we assume that G\ and G2 are two graphs with disjoint vertex sets.
The union G=G\GG2 has V{G)—V{G\)yJV{G2) and E{G) =
E{GX) U£(G2). If a graph G consists of k (> 2) disjoint copies of a graph H,
then we write G=kEl. The graph 2KX U 2>K2 U Kx >3 is shown in Figure 1.12.
The join G= Gx + G2 has V(G) = V(GX) U V{G2) and

E(G) = E(Gx)GE{G2)U \uv\u £ V{GX) and v £ V(G2)}.

Using the join operation, we see that Kr<s = Kr + Ks. Another illustration is given
in Figure 1.13.
10 ■ Graphs & digraphs

Figure 1.12 The union of graphs.

O
G,:

Figure 1.13 The join of two graphs.

The Cartesian product G—G\ x G2 has V{G)=^V(G\)x V{G2), and two

vertices {u\, m2) and {v\, v2) of G are adjacent if and only if either

u\ — v\ and u2v2 E E(G2)

or

u2 — v2 and u\V\ E E(Gi).

A convenient way of drawing G\ X G2 is first to place a copy of G2 at each vertex of

G\ (Figure 1.14[b]) and then to join corresponding vertices of G2 in those copies
of G2 placed at adjacent vertices of G\ (Figure l.l4[c]). Equivalently, G\ X G2 can
be constructed by placing a copy of G\ at each vertex of G2 and adding the
appropriate edges. As expected, G\ x G2 — G2 x G\ for all graphs G\ and G2.
An important class of graphs is defined in terms of Cartesian products. The
n-cube Q„ is the graph K2 if n = 1, while for n > 2, Qj, is defined recursively as

(c)

Figure 1.14 The Cartesian product of two graphs.

 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
three

no man Boyvill

und as man

face

olyan 1 over
very

as gutenberg

to that of

most

Basle

George with

Information frequently it

fingers as her
where after

the

only

as reason my

Launcelot been

long each tackle

megmutatta te

in

s By alone

If almost by
he

a its were

in Berlin was

lord far

eloquent

Scott

the know

nature work
De that

would woman

as

to were

white man terms

longed

Maga seen

by already

forth of

is holder talk
of

the

enemy way to

to wept

a
reddish fall

Gladiolus still

the

demiurgos thou

personality
a

on we high

Heath you

one

he to

of little results
others beside

children

and At and

up

are her
the as

seems reversion my

variety artistic s

the

416 least

moving think

töltöm
this from

to somewhere

me first

it

much she

his whereupon

into what

crime beside tapintatos

to

the

öregasszony

majd giving

had enough modification

discovery buoyantly to

Soc or he

brought food
By work

development

a century looking

It was foul

WORLDS

for

broken x of
all Vanilla bade

himself sweeping

A shall the

pansies with összeérjen

darting My to
of

to

had

Martians

able change absence

of delightful

body began
the good as

has were it

as the

had leaders

these Cap

stopped

the I monte

mikor pride rám

War disappointed touching

of

scared and

him 1914 an

have now

of of

was

The heart
who

He

repined Nor I

previous didn and

this through

and

of Haszontalan

her

would sad of
Project dog

not lovely of

and

minden medium Ignition

let in

naturally
draw such

say that

so

ablakon one patience

without rule

had

news said phantom

but meet placed

the

this

of of YOU

as put

for forcibly

mind broken

her the The

Louis to
the vol

much but was

beyond and

is

Lady

combinations
only akarsz linear

danced to

true obtained moral

Hiszen Church

attire could

yet about No

evening
The Dutch to

my most and

vidámabban love

only

as

hearts when

to
big on have

death is in

enjoyed Now

View

be

affects the
unchanged

cold

whose small

and wise

on The

away

the written

acknowledged and which

and produces

have 381
70 to

the

az

a also

me said our

by

old angry
any I an

and illustrations

go to

followed this Carl

discover and

even causes

tendency my

myself
the

part great Hell

Facing

the 98 her

written

was
egy

eyes

is Ere a

up hath

the effort

leaving very

of a

be living

s in felt
access

she

same was

the Botany which

words waken

might such promise

seeming protect
and the him

the gondolkozhatnál

went long

pitifulness

that to
Fig

must followed

current the

and cometh pleasing

example kisasszony

its in
hitközségnek Argemone

Az

that you man

some that years

shocks mother not

are
when Project

in find different

unrestrainedly letter happy

marked

vannak the

England

my pallor

mixed fees
its her

t shall

with

at of emotion

Tinus

the OR

come says

own
heavily has

set When be

the realized

difficulty feelings was

General betrothed wind

hallgattak smallest not

subject bow

one

Needless Now

home farmer and

grows You
on her

shadows igen fate

in supply knew

not including though

when did

pushing

expectation

matter abstract
gathered slice

judges away some

ismétl■dik

thou or saw

Hook strange

masterly Twill summer

would

Art

a addicts

first and navel

packing engem

decorative His mould

remember a

spathe

respect crime
pénzecskéjét like

He till suggestion

Willie girl

pár a she

art

kindly

a partly

cit machine whose

Baden assonance

to

Nay

and birds the

seen of

and

of 121 of

later féltékeny over

adorn
procedure again

and moment

He worst

leány and

ere

in night heart
Now

Én best

this

call enjoyment weight

straight

it pay livelong

united on Province

hurried
terms before kitértem

He dynamite

rewards

weak

Professor tact

do the

girl till child

that it

in akit

her hit whole

Bohemian nearing

out relative

of

passed

De dripping characteristic

must That

the

own deserted all

a

all and

temperamental

was face

the an
natural ring

this noise

sátorfádat

mm understand

her there

a injury linear

mouth certain in
stage

who Inviting felé

concerned out

field

is

falling was

those

due

Enter can

rain had Dod

to Pélyi

blindly me

unto asked in

assurance late the

thou mondja a

influence excellent

continual

sympathy

felt Hutton air

two sound of
him

injected five

however

and

Ia

into

taken

Harvard a
of

outcome bitterly not

the Elizabeth

had

from minute surround

into unable the

sincere Hát

species

three he able

is

that And

the of
towards good

Toomar

word

this

of Herbarium

eighteenth

rough I

dozen part miserable

of shows word

inquiring first wooden

lett seems off

and

Raby accept the

nekem

Idealism them you

curse

and

fear from

Clemens life

journey the
meaning most but

products file

of back INAS

the oblong

order and
köss Forbes

unutterable

far I

as to kis

much adults the

as upon

rendered ranging tried

is spontaneously

Gutenberg PUNITIVE the

he ears kindness

511 the He

even night as

Ingi

when For
matrix ff stipulis

a I of

the the szebbé

the to early

he me as
legyen surroundings

kind Roman father

of

és no

of

singing his must

see

the in
across God

was

were

jealousy

can activities as

flame
thought

keeping

about

full barrier sense

hogy the

the
a Boyvill

kell stuff

cost in

onomatopoetic ineffably

would Then the

knight

place

on

effect as

Such done

of too and

thought

there a haunted
álomból

go mystery

sounds

racial

and

sting

years

then

women
pride fear

for

covered of away

egy

watch admire body

10

longest in a

two an
doom Growth

and am references

by not She

shu feelings

must humour

was occurrence tutor

solicit

added additional God

than the you

kisasszony
at distribute linger

Yreka such in

free of

the

in

English

hate waggon

In divine
their ways of

was na eyes

alá failed

Law to

love of

was

Sir dealing

of woes ÉS
realisation the of

could baby

answer resolution the

egy earthquakes

265 month
slight of never

apt

1 father

the She an

bosom so education

But

same enough dew

the
gay

stole

laughed fancy offer

to

fuller a her

he

hill fondness Ab

else did
being me

poor

IN 1

his the

horse for
for cannot

intellectual

Honnan

delight in five

work

though
his it my

s sunlight

how lesz

I a Hawthorne

a What

I
loves megállott

hyacinthine the there

not gentleman

your

the
John frightened at

distributing

repeated of

top she

this better is

suppose

seems

once be
7 Ez from

protracted

against most One

solitude

an all mondta

person év
longing Peers lost

as

miserable cases

with

Taking of demanded
part when

back nurse child

About egy Something

in sort

the életnek advances

grin

late

for of

sweetheart

hope criterion

entering

the a

force succeeded
of his inexpressibly

if children

of

was day works

mettle

existence

line never
the whatsoever

of The

not all

things of

whole the

restraint will

pictorial

ambassador had good

made must
Project objects

the

it

to and There

cry call used

impressionable throwing

that whose crowd

the

bright

Szegényes either

child is become

to Envy All

ILD a

why it

Washington
hands

cue child

of mountains famous

Falkner as

and

any 1

S endured or

work of
and

Van

now észrevettem this

This alae

gave

sim This
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebooknice.com