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BP Process Safety Series

Hazards of Steam
A collection of booklets
describing hazards and
how to manage them
This booklet is intended as a safety supplement to operator training courses, operating
manuals, and operating procedures. It is provided to help the reader better understand
the ‘why’ of safe operating practices and procedures in our plants. Important engineering
design features are included. However, technical advances and other changes made
after its publication, while generally not affecting principles, could affect some
suggestions made herein. The reader is encouraged to examine such advances and
changes when selecting and implementing practices and procedures at his/her facility.

While the information in this booklet is intended to increase the store-house of knowledge
in safe operations, it is important for the reader to recognize that this material is generic in
nature, that it is not unit specific, and, accordingly, that its contents may not be subject to
literal application. Instead, as noted above, it is supplemental information for use in
already established training programmes; and it should not be treated as a substitute for
otherwise applicable operator training courses, operating manuals or operating
procedures. The advice in this booklet is a matter of opinion only and should not be
construed as a representation or statement of any kind as to the effect of following such
advice and no responsibility for the use of it can be assumed by BP.

This disclaimer shall have effect only to the extent permitted by any applicable law.

Queries and suggestions regarding the technical content of this booklet should be
addressed to Frédéric Gil, BP HSSE, Chertsey Road, Sunbury on Thames, TW16 7LN,
UK. E-mail: [email protected]

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Published by
Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE)
Davis Building
165–189 Railway Terrace
Rugby, CV21 3HQ, UK

IChemE is a Registered Charity

Offices in Rugby (UK), London (UK) and Melbourne (Australia)

© 2004 BP International Limited

ISBN 0 85295 468 9

First edition 1963; Second edition 1984; Third edition 2003;

Fourth edition 2004

Typeset by Techset Composition Limited, Salisbury, UK

Printed by Henry Ling, Dorchester, UK
 Foreword

Steam is used in nearly all parts of the Chemical or Oil Industries. Despite the
extensive experience accumulated in handling it, we still see incidents occurring
with operators being burned by steam, equipment being damaged by
condensing steam and incidents resulting from water hammer etc.
I strongly recommend you take the time to read this book carefully. The
usefulness of this booklet is not limited to operating people; there are many
useful applications for the maintenance, design and construction of facilities.
Please feel free to share this with others since this is one of the most effective
means of communicating lessons learned and avoiding safety incidents in the
future.

Greg Coleman, Group Vice President, HSSE

iii
 Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Properties of steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3 Purging with steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4 Blanketing with steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

5 Hazards from condensing steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

6 Water from steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

7 Thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

8 Stresses in equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

9 Static charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

10 Water in steam lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

11 Steam burns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

12 Miscellaneous hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

13 Some points to remember . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Test yourself! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

v
 HAZARDS OF STEAM

1
Introduction

Steam is the ‘most seen’ utility used in a modern refinery. White clouds of
escaping steam, large and small, are seen over every refinery, even from a
considerable distance. Steam is used extensively because it can do many
things:

• it furnishes power for pumps and turbines;

• it heats reboilers, kettles, tanks and buildings;
• it purges air or hydrocarbons from equipment in preparation for start-up or
shutdown;
• it directly enters into process operations;
• it snuffs fires in furnaces and other equipment; and
• it even warms the operator’s pot of coffee.
Because steam has so many uses, including some which increase safety, how
can we think of it as a hazard? Like many other things, steam is not a hazard if
it is used correctly. It can and will be a hazard if we use it with insufficient
knowledge of its limitations and dangers.
We are going to take a close look at the problems which can arise involving the
use of steam. By understanding and applying the principles discussed, you will
contribute to the safety of your job.

1
HAZARDS OF STEAM

2
Properties of steam

Before we consider the uses of steam and the hazards which may arise, we
should review very briefly the properties which cause steam to be so widely used.
Technically, steam is water in vapour form, and it is both odourless and invisible.
If you were to put a window in an insulated steam line and look in, you would
think the line was empty. What we normally see and call ‘steam’ are clouds of
tiny drops of water which have condensed from the steam and are carried
along by the invisible vapour. People who work in power houses know that a
high-pressure steam leak often can be heard but not seen.
When water is heated at atmospheric pressure at sea level, it will boil when
the temperature reaches 212°F (100°C). As long as water is present in
the vessel at this pressure and is heated, it will continue to boil at 212°F
(100°C), and the steam generated will also be 212°F (100°C). If the escape
of steam is restricted, as in a boiler, a pressure higher than atmospheric will
be developed. As the pressure is increased, the boiling temperature of the
water and the temperature of the steam increase; and the temperature
always corresponds to the pressure as long as water or condensing steam is
present.

2
 HAZARDS OF STEAM

The steam is at its ‘saturation’ temperature, and we can predict the temperature
if we know the pressure. However, steam removed from the presence of water
can be heated further, becoming ‘superheated’ steam.
At any given pressure, steam may have a temperature higher than the
‘saturation’ temperature only if it is removed from the presence of boiling water
and is superheated. Table 1 shows the temperature of ‘saturated’ steam
corresponding to various pressures.

Table 1 Pressure and temperature of saturated steam at sea level

Table 1 is in terms of gauge pressure, the pressure you normally read on a

gauge (see Figure 1).

Figure 1 This compound

gauge dial scale is calibrated
in pounds per square inch or
bars for pressures above atmo-
spheric and in inches or
millimeters of mercury for pres-
sures below atmospheric.

3
HAZARDS OF STEAM

Pressure can be expressed with respect to either of two reference points—a

perfect vacuum or atmospheric pressure. When a pressure is referenced to that
of a perfect vacuum as zero pressure, then it is called absolute pressure. When
a pressure is referenced to that of the atmosphere as zero pressure, it is called
gauge pressure. The relation between absolute and gauge pressure is illustrated
in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Relation between gauge and absolute pressure.

4
 HAZARDS OF STEAM

Figure 2 (Contd.)

Any pressure less than zero gauge is called a vacuum. The greatest vacuum
possible, called a perfect vacuum, is zero absolute pressure, or ⫺14.7 psig
(⫺1 barg).
Vacuums are generally expressed in inches or millimeters of mercury. Thus,
the expression ‘10 inches vacuum’ means a pressure that is below the atmo-
spheric pressure by the amount equivalent to a 10 inch (25.4 cm) head or column
of mercury (0.67 bar). Since one inch (2.5 cm) of mercury ⫽ 0.49 pounds per
square inch (abbreviated psi ) (33.7 mbar), such a vacuum is 10 ⫻ 0.49 or
4.9 psi (0.34 bars) below atmospheric pressure. A 10 inch vacuum, then, is
equivalent to an absolute pressure of 14.7 (atmospheric pressure) minus 4.9,
or 9.8 pounds per square inch absolute (abbreviated psia) (0.67 bara). A 30 inch
(76.2 cm) vacuum is equal to 14.7 ⫺ 30 ⫻ 4.9, or 0 psia (0 bara), a perfect
vacuum.
Since the atmospheric pressure is lower than 14.7 psia (1 bara) at higher
altitudes, the steam temperature, which depends on the absolute pressure,
would be lower at higher altitudes at a given gauge pressure.
For example, the atmospheric pressure, 0 gauge pressure, at 5,000 feet
(1,520 m) above sea level is 12.2 psia (0.84 bara). Therefore, the temperature of
saturated steam at 0 gauge pressure at 5,000 feet (1,520 m) is 203°F (95°C).
The temperature of saturated steam at 100 pounds (6.9 bars) gauge pressure
at 5,000 feet (1,520 m) is 336°F (169°C) versus 338°F (170°C) at sea level.

5
HAZARDS OF STEAM

Heat is required to increase the temperature of water to its boiling point. (A Btu,
British thermal unit, is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
one pound of water 1°F). (A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gram of water 1°C. One calorie equals 4.168 Joules).

Additional heat must be supplied to vaporize water after it reaches its boiling
point. To condense steam to water, this same amount of heat must be removed.
The heat which must be supplied to vaporize water, or removed to condense
steam to water, is known as its latent heat. This latent heat amounts to nearly
1,000 Btu (252 kcalories; 1,055 kjoule) per pound (450 g) of water or steam.
The reason steam is an excellent heating medium is that the heat required to
vaporize or condense a pound of water is much greater than the amount of
heat required to raise it to its boiling point. For example, one pound (450 g) of
steam condensing at 100 psig (7 barg) pressure will furnish enough heat to raise

6
 HAZARDS OF STEAM

the temperature of more than 6 pounds (2.7 kg) of water from room temperature
to its normal boiling point.
Steam is not combustible, nor will it support combustion. For this reason, it is
used as an ‘inert’ gas. Since steam is always hot, it warms equipment at the
same time as it is purging air at start-up and will also melt ice which may have
formed in vessels and lines in winter weather. At shutdown, steam condensing
on the surfaces helps to clean vessels and lines as well as displacing gaseous
and liquid hydrocarbons before the equipment is opened. Steam will strip the
light ends from petroleum mixtures. It is readily available in refineries and is
usually cheaper than other inert gases.
It is easy to see why steam is a most desirable material for many uses.

ACCIDENT Designers should consider how all equipment is operated,

including during non-routine phases such as start-up and shutdown. The
example below shows a typical outcome of ‘getting the design wrong’. A
refinery propane vessel in Propane Deasphalting unit was to be fitted with
Passive Fire Protection (PFP). During a turnaround, the old insulation was
taken off, the vessel inspected and the coat of primer paint applied. The rest
of the PFP was to be put on after start-up. For start-up, the operator steam-
purged the vessel to take the air off. As this vessel was supposed to work at
ambient temperature, the paint specification didn’t include any heat
resistance... look at the picture...

Similarly, operators should know the design limits for each piece of
equipment they work with (this is also called the operating envelope).

7
HAZARDS OF STEAM

3
Purging with steam

Steam is very commonly and very successfully used for removing air from
vessels and lines prior to start-up because of the many advantages already
discussed.
However, a greater volume of steam may have to be used to make sure that the
purge is complete than if inert gas or nitrogen were used. When steam enters
a cold vessel or line, all or part of the steam condenses. Only after the
equipment is thoroughly heated does the steam remain as an inert vapour to
push the air out of the vessel. With an inert gas or nitrogen, each volume
introduced into the equipment forces out an equal volume of a mixture of the
inert gas and air or vapours from the open vent.
Because of condensation, however, steam introduced into a vessel may initially
displace very little of the air or gas. The total amount of steam necessary for
effective purging depends upon the rate at which the steam is introduced, the
temperature and weight of the vessel being purged, the outside temperature,
and other factors. Therefore, greatly varying volumes of steam may be required
to purge the same piece of equipment at different times.
A visible plume of steam at the vent is not a reliable sign that a vessel has
been thoroughly purged. Figure 3 shows a jet composed of 36 percent by
volume of air and 64 percent by volume of steam. The jet which is about one
third air is almost identical in appearance to the jet in Figure 4, which is

Figure 3 The gas coming out of the pipe Figure 4 The gas coming out of the pipe
nipple contains 64 percent steam and 36 nipple is pure steam. The dial thermometer
percent air. The dial thermometer measur- indicates that the steam is at 212°F
ing the mixture temperature reads 190°F (100°C). The temperature outside was
(88°C). The temperature outside was 60°F 60°F (15.5°C) when the picture was taken.
(15.5°C) when the picture was taken.

8
 HAZARDS OF STEAM

100 percent steam. Both jets would have appeared denser and been harder to
tell apart if the pictures had been taken in cold weather instead of at 60°F
(15.5°C) as they were.
The temperature of a saturated steam-air mixture at any pressure is an
indication of its air content. Table 2 indicates the temperature and corresponding
volume percent air or other noncondensables in various mixtures at atmospheric
pressure.

Table 2 Gas-steam mixtures

Temperature is a better indication of purging completion than the appearance of

the plume, but temperature measurements are neither simple nor completely
reliable. The difficulty in using temperature is in locating the thermometer inside the
vessel. Temperatures outside the vessel are not a reliable measure of conditions
inside.
The time required to purge a vessel is partially determined by the size and
weight of the vessel. For any particular vessel, changes in either the inlet steam
pressure, the amount of water in the inlet steam, outside air temperature or
wind can greatly change the time required for safe purging.
Therefore, operating procedures which call for steam purging for a definite time
should specify the time required for safe purging under the least favourable
conditions: for example, high wind, cold weather, low-pressure wet steam, etc.
Purging for the minimum time required under the worst conditions will, under
normal conditions, mean continuing the purge after the air content in the vessel
has reached a safe level. The additional time and accompanying steam
consumed are a price worth paying for safety in timed purges.

9
HAZARDS OF STEAM

The value of the time and steam consumed to ensure safety of a timed purge
is much greater than the cost of an instrument which can ensure safety without
long purging. This instrument, the air-in-steam analyser (Figure 5a), was
available commercially from Mine Safety Appliances Company (MSA) for a
number of years, although it is not presently in production. A number of these
analysers are currently in use in the Amoco heritage refineries and the
drawings are available from these sites. The instrument measures the amount
of air in steam and, therefore, ensures safety with the minimum use of steam
and loss of time.

Figure 5a MSA air-in-steam analyser. A simple,

rugged instrument for measuring the quantity
of noncondensables in steam was developed
by the American Oil Company MSA. It works
on the principle that the pressure of a steam-
noncondensable mixture at a certain tem-
perature indicates the percentage of non-
condensables present.

Specific precautions must be taken before and during the purging of some
units. For example, taps leading to instruments which would be damaged by
steam must be closed (Figure 5b).

Figure 5b Instruments which would be damaged by steam must be shut off during a
steam purge.

10
 HAZARDS OF STEAM

If synthetic rubber such as neoprene or buna-N is used in pump seals, the

steam must be bypassed around the pumps to prevent damage to the seal
material. Purging of lines with check valves and systems with parallel flow
paths must be planned to ensure complete purging. Pressures must be
checked to be certain that hydrocarbons or fluids under higher pressure do not
back up into steam lines as the steam valves are opened. If steam is used in
one side of heat exchangers, the other side should not be blocked in, as
excessive pressures may develop (See Section 7, ‘Thermal expansion’ on page
22). Lines connected to a vessel being purged must be vented at the end away
from the tower, otherwise there is no assurance that the steam will enter and
purge the line. Alternatively, the lines may be blinded off and purged separately.
It is essential that a condensate drain be provided at the low point of each
vessel being purged. A combined steam inlet condensate drain should be
avoided since it can cause accumulation of large quantities of water in the
vessel being purged.

11
HAZARDS OF STEAM

4
Blanketing with steam

It was once common practice to protect vessels containing flammable liquids by

filling the space above the liquid with steam. This practice is much less common
now and is not recommended because of the difficulties encountered in actually
safeguarding the vessel. An additional disadvantage of steam blanketing is that
it adds water to the liquid in the vessel being safeguarded.
Blanketing is still used occasionally as an emergency measure. There is a
possibility that the difficulties of steam blanketing will be forgotten, and the
practice will be suggested in the future as a simple means of increasing safety.
Therefore, the following discussion of blanketing is included despite the rarity of
the practice at the present time.
Steam is an ‘inert gas’ so far as combustion is concerned. Therefore, it is useful
for blanketing the vapour space above the liquid when a vessel must be opened
and when it is not practical to pump out and gas-free the vessel.
Blanketing with steam is done to prevent air backing in and forming flammable
hydrocarbon-air mixtures.
However, a substantial amount of steam must be used to prevent this.
Hydrocarbon vapours require 30 to 50 volume-percent steam in the mixture to
be nonflammable. Hydrogen requires even more—about 60 percent. This
means at least 50 percent steam is necessary to make a safe vapour space in
most refinery equipment. A steam-air mixture with at least 50-percent steam
would have a temperature of at least 180°F (82°C) at atmospheric pressure
(see Figures 6 and 7).

Figure 6 A safe vessel. Figure 7 An unsafe one.

12
 HAZARDS OF STEAM

Any air-steam atmosphere with a temperature below 180°F (82°C) should not
be considered safe. A common error is to add only enough steam to provide a
good show of steam at the vent. As we have seen before in connection with
steam purging, this show of steam can be misleading. The sequence of
photographs in Figure 8 demonstrates this fact. The series of pictures printed
from a motion-picture film show a drum supplied with a flammable hydrocarbon-
air mixture and with steam. As can be seen, enough steam was added to
produce a visible vapour cloud at the vent. In spite of this, an explosion was set
off within the vessel by a spark plug.

Figure 8a A mixture of
steam and air is being
fed into the drum. There
is a show of steam at
the vent. The thermome-
ter in the vessel reads
140°F (60°C), indicating
the vessel contains only
20 percent by volume
steam.

Figure 8b A spark plug in

the vessel was energized
in the interval between
this and the previous pic-
ture. Note the ruptured
disc on the top of the
vessel failing due to the
internal explosion.

13
HAZARDS OF STEAM

Figure 8c The remains of

the ruptured disc at the
top of the vessel leave no
doubt that there was an
explosion inside the
vessel.

It must be remembered that a good show of steam at a vent is no guarantee that

safe conditions exist within the vessel. As in the case of steam purging, safety
can be assured only by making an analysis of the vent gases to determine if
adequate steam is being supplied. At least, as a bare minimum safety
requirement, a temperature measurement should be made within the vapour
space to determine if sufficient blanketing steam is being supplied.
Insufficient blanketing steam may actually increase the hazard. In the case of
heavier stocks which have flash points above the processing or storage
temperature, adding insufficient steam may only heat the stocks above their
flash points without inerting the vapour space. This was the cause of an agitator
fire several years ago.
There is rarely enough steam capacity in a tank field to safely blanket a
storage tank. Therefore, attempts to blanket a storage tank usually result in
increasing the hazard by heating the liquid in the tank above its flash point
without adding enough steam to the air space to prevent combustion.
The hazard may also be increased if blanketing steam is used and then is
allowed to decrease to the point that the steam condensing in the vessel
becomes greater than the quantity being added.
The pressure in the vessel will decrease, and air may be drawn in at the vent.
Steam is very useful as an ‘inert gas’ for blanketing and in extinguishing small
fires such as at flange or exchangerhead leaks. In this use, many of the
hazards of blanketing vessels are not present.
Care must be taken to bleed all the condensate out of a steam-hose lance
before turning it onto a hot line or flange. Also be careful not to have the lance
pointed at your feet or at another person in the rush to get the steam turned on.
Aim the lance at the base of the flames, and operate it much the same as you
would a carbon dioxide (CO2) or dry powder extinguisher. Do not use steam on
electrical equipment, as the moisture may cause short circuits and internal
damage to the equipment.

14
 HAZARDS OF STEAM

5
Hazards from
condensing steam
Steam will condense. This is a fact known to everyone, but it must be kept in
mind in order to prevent damage to equipment or creation of hazards. When air
in vessels and lines that operate at atmospheric pressure or above is being
purged with steam prior to start-up, fuel gas or other suitable gas must be
backed into the vessel when purging is completed in order to displace the
steam as it condenses and to prevent formation of a vacuum. If the vessel is
left full of steam with valves closed, condensation can produce a vacuum great
enough to collapse the vessel (Figures 9a and 9b).

Figure 9a Too much vacuum damaged this catalyst

storage drum.

Figure 9b Result of condensation. This can was filled with steam and then closed. The
steam condensed, and the resulting vacuum caused the damage shown.

15
HAZARDS OF STEAM

ACCIDENT Before a shutdown,

steam was introduced in the blowdown
system of a combined Crude-Vacuum
distillation unit to gas free it. After
several hours of steaming, the blow-
down vessel was isolated with hot
steam inside, by closing valves. When
the steam condensed, the vessel
collapsed dramatically.

ACCIDENT A rail tank car was

being steamed for cleaning and gas
freeing before inspection. Again,
valves were closed while hot steam
was still inside the cistern.

Since valves frequently do not close tightly, the vacuum may draw in air, thereby
creating a hazard if hydrocarbons are subsequently introduced into the
equipment.
Fuel gas or other gas lines must not be opened into the vessel for backfilling
until the steam pressure in the vessel is lower than the gas-line pressure. On
the other hand, to ensure against a vacuum, the steam pressure must not be
allowed to fall to a pressure lower than 5 or 10 psig (0.35 or 0.7 barg) before the
backfilling is started.
Pressure gauges should be checked to be sure they register correctly at this
low range on the scale.
Steam may be used to prevent a vacuum in a vessel as water or other liquid is
drained. Since the steam can condense, it must be supplied at a rate greater
than the rate of condensation plus the rate of liquid withdrawal to be of any
benefit for vacuum breaking.
The drum shown in Figure 10 failed as a result of an internal explosion. The
drum had been washed and left filled with water. A one-inch steam hose was
connected with a 1/2-inch (13 mm) pipe and fittings to the top of the vessel.
Steam was supplied from a nearby 100 psi (6.7 bars) main before water was
drained. Shortly after draining was started, sufficient vacuum developed in the
vessel to cause air to be drawn in through the open bottom drain, thereby
forming a flammable mixture with the residual hydrocarbon. The mixture
exploded and fractured the shell.
Subsequent calculations indicated that steam was condensing as fast as it
entered the vessel because of the large condensing area and the limited flow
through the 1/2-inch connections.

16
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