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Game Engine
Gems 2
Game Engine
Gems 2
Edited by Eric Lengyel

A K Peters, Ltd.
Natick, Massachusetts
Editorial, Sales, and Customer Service Office

A K Peters, Ltd.
5 Commonwealth Rd, Suite 2C
Natick, MA 01760
www.akpeters.com

Copyright © 2011 by A K Peters, Ltd.

All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced
or utilized in any form, electronic or mechnical, including photocopying, recording, or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.

Library of Congress Control No. 2010003949

Cover image: Splint/Second screenshot © 2010 Disney.

Printed in India
15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Contents

Preface xv

Part I Graphics and Rendering 1

Chapter 1 Fast Computation of Tight-Fitting Oriented Bounding Boxes 3

Thomas Larsson Linus Källberg
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Algorithm 4
1.3 Evaluation 10
1.4 Optimization Using SIMD Instructions 16
1.5 Discussion and Future Work 17

Chapter 2 Modeling, Lighting, and Rendering Techniques for

Volumetric Clouds 21
Frank Kane
2.1 Modeling Cloud Formation 22
2.2 Cloud Lighting Techniques 27
2.3 Cloud Rendering Techniques 30

Chapter 3 Simulation of Night-Vision and Infrared Sensors 45

Frank Kane
3.1 The Physics of the Infrared 45
3.2 Simulating Infrared Sensor Effects 49
3.3 Night-Vision Goggle Simulation 51

v
vi Contents

Chapter 4 Screen-Space Classification for Efficient Deferred Shading 55

Balor Knight Matthew Ritchie George Parrish
4.1 Introduction 55
4.2 Overview of Method 56
4.3 Depth-Related Classification 58
4.4 Pixel Classification 60
4.5 Combining Classification Results 61
4.6 Index Buffer Generation 62
4.7 Tile Rendering 64
4.8 Shader Management 64
4.9 Platform Specifics 66
4.10 Optimizations 69
4.11 Performance Comparison 72

Chapter 5 Delaying OpenGL Calls 75

Patrick Cozzi
5.1 Introduction 75
5.2 Motivation 75
5.3 Possible Implementations 77
5.4 Delayed Calls Implementation 78
5.5 Implementation Notes 83
5.6 Improved Flexibility 83
5.7 Concluding Remarks 84

Chapter 6 A Framework for GLSL Engine Uniforms 87

Patrick Cozzi
6.1 Introduction 87
6.2 Motivation 87
6.3 Implementation 89
6.4 Beyond GLSL Built-in Uniforms 95
6.5 Implementation Tips 95
6.6 Concluding Remarks 96
Contents vii

Chapter 7 A Spatial and Temporal Coherence Framework for

Real-Time Graphics 97
Michał Drobot
7.1 Introduction 98
7.2 The Spatiotemporal Framework 100
7.3 Applications 109
7.4 Future Work 115

Chapter 8 Implementing a Fast DDOF Solver 119

Holger Grün
8.1 Introduction 119
8.2 Modifying the Basic CR Solver 123
8.3 Results 131

Chapter 9 Automatic Dynamic Stereoscopic 3D 135

Jason Hughes
9.1 General Problems in S3D 135
9.2 Problems in S3D Unique to Games 138
9.3 Dynamic Controls 140
9.4 A Simple Dynamic S3D Camera 141
9.5 Content-Adaptive Feedback 143

Chapter 10 Practical Stereo Rendering 151

Matthew Johnson
10.1 Introduction to Stereo 3D 151
10.2 Overview of Stereo Displays 152
10.3 Introduction to Rendering Stereo 153
10.4 The Mathematics of Stereo Views and Projection 154
10.5 Using Geometry Shader to Render Stereo Pairs 159

Chapter 11 Making 3D Stereoscopic Games 163

Sébastien Schertenleib
11.1 Introduction 163
11.2 How Stereoscopic 3D Works 163
11.3 How to Set Up the Virtual 3D Cameras 164
11.4 Safe Area 166
11.5 Technical Considerations 169
11.6 Same Scene, Both Eyes, and How to Optimize 169
11.7 Scene Traversal 172
viii Contents

11.8 Supporting Both Monoscopic and Stereoscopic Versions 173

11.9 Visual Quality 173
11.10 Going One Step Further 177
11.11 Conclusion 177

Chapter 12 A Generic Multiview Rendering Engine Architecture 179

M. Adil Yalçın Tolga Çapın
12.1 Introduction 179
12.2 Analyzing Multiview Displays 180
12.3 The Architecture 182
12.4 The Multiview Camera 185
12.5 The Multiview Buffer 189
12.6 The Multiview Compositor 190
12.7 Rendering Management 191
12.8 Rendering Optimizations 193
12.9 Discussion 195

Chapter 13 3D in a Web Browser 199

Rémi Arnaud
13.1 A Brief History 199
13.2 Fast Forward 204
13.3 3D with Flash 207
13.4 3D with Java 212
13.5 3D with a Game Engine Plug-In 215
13.6 Google Native Client 218
13.7 3D with HTML5 220
13.8 Conclusion 224

Chapter 14 2D Magic 229

Daniel Higgins
14.1 Tools of the Trade 229
14.2 Position 230
14.3 Color and Opacity 232
14.4 Texture (UV) Coordinates 234
14.5 What a Mesh! 236
14.6 Mesh Architecture 237
14.7 Mesh Examples 239
14.8 Conclusion 248
Contents ix

Part II Game Engine Design 249

Chapter 15 High-Performance Programming with Data-Oriented Design 251

Noel Llopis
15.1 Modern Hardware 251
15.2 Principles of Data-Oriented Design 253
15.3 Data-Oriented Design Benefits 254
15.4 How to Apply Data-Oriented Design 255
15.5 Real-World Situations 256
15.6 Parallelization 259
15.7 Conclusion 261

Chapter 16 Game Tuning Infrastructure 263

Wessam Bahnassi
16.1 Introduction 263
16.2 The Need for Tweak 263
16.3 Design Considerations 264
16.4 The Tuning Tool 265
16.5 Data Exchange 269
16.6 Schema and Exposure 270
16.7 Data Storage 271
16.8 Case Studies 273
16.9 Final Words 276

Chapter 17 Placeholders beyond Static Art Replacement 279

Olivier Vaillancourt Richard Egli
17.1 Placeholder Assets in a Game 279
17.2 Preaching by Example: The Articulated Placeholder Model 285
17.3 Integration in a Production Environment 301
17.4 In the End, Is It Really Needed? 303
17.5 Implementation 304

Chapter 18 Believable Dead Reckoning for Networked Games 307

Curtiss Murphy
18.1 Introduction 307
18.2 Fundamentals 307
18.3 Pick an Algorithm, Any Algorithm 310
18.4 Time for T 313
x Contents

18.5 Publish or Perish 315

18.6 Ground Clamping 320
18.7 Orientation 322
18.8 Advanced Topics 324
18.9 Conclusion 326

Chapter 19 An Egocentric Motion Management System 329

Michael Ramsey
19.1 Fundamental Components of the ECMMS 331
19.2 Collision Sensors 331
19.3 Query Space 332
19.4 Modeling the Environment 334
19.5 The ECMMS Architecture 335
19.6 Modeling an ECMMS-Enabled Agent 335
19.7 Generating a Behavior Model with the ECMMS 336
19.8 Animation Validation 339
19.9 A Single Agent Behavioral Response Algorithm and Example 339

Chapter 20 Pointer Patching Assets 343

Jason Hughes
20.1 Introduction 343
20.2 Overview of the Technique 346
20.3 A Brief Example 348

Chapter 21 Data-Driven Sound Pack Loading and Organization 355

Simon Franco
21.1 Introduction 355
21.2 Constructing a Sound Map 356
21.3 Constructing Sound Packs by Analyzing the Event Table 358
21.4 Constructing and Using Sound Loading Triggers 361
21.5 Conclusion 363

Chapter 22 GPGPU Cloth Simulation Using GLSL, OpenCL, and CUDA 365
Marco Fratarcangeli
22.1 Introduction 365
22.2 Numerical Algorithm 366
22.3 Collision Handling 368
22.4 CPU Implementation 369
22.5 GPU Implementations 371
Contents xi

22.6 GLSL Implementation 372

22.7 CUDA Implementation 373
22.8 OpenCL Implementation 374
22.9 Results 375
22.10 Future Work 377
22.11 Demo 378

Chapter 23 A Jitter-Tolerant Rigid Body Sleep Condition 379

Eric Lengyel
23.1 Introduction 379
23.2 The Sleep Condition 380

Part III Systems Programming 383

Chapter 24 Bit Hacks for Games 385

Eric Lengyel
24.1 Integer Sign Manipulation 385
24.2 Predicates 388
24.3 Miscellaneous Tricks 392
24.4 Logic Formulas 395

Chapter 25 Introspection for C++ Game Engines 397

Jon Watte
25.1 Introduction 397
25.2 The Demo 400
25.3 The Gem 401
25.4 Lifting the Veil 404
25.5 To and From a Network 405
25.6 In Closing 407

Chapter 26 A Highly Optimized Portable Memory Manager 409

Jason Hughes
26.1 Introduction 409
26.2 Overview 411
26.3 Small Block Allocator 415
26.4 Medium Block Allocator 418
26.5 Large Block Allocator 422
xii Contents

26.6 Page Management in the Memory Manager 422

26.7 OSAPI Ideas 425

Chapter 27 Simple Remote Heaps 427

Jason Hughes
27.1 Introduction 427
27.2 Bitwise Remote Heap 428
27.3 Blockwise Remote Heap 430
27.4 Testing Results 435

Chapter 28 A Cache-Aware Hybrid Sorter 437

Manny Ko
28.1 Stream Splitting 438
28.2 Substream Sorting 440
28.3 Stream Merging and Loser Tree 442
28.4 Multicore Implementation 445
28.5 Conclusion 446
Appendix 447

Chapter 29 Thread Communication Techniques 449

Julien Hamaide
29.1 Latency and Threading 449
29.2 Single Writer, Single Reader 450
29.3 The Aggregator 453
29.4 The Dispatcher 455
29.5 The Gateway 455
29.6 Debugging 456

Chapter 30 A Cross-Platform Multithreading Framework 457

Martin Fleisz
30.1 Threading 457
30.2 Synchronization Objects 459
30.3 Limitations 471
30.4 Future Extensions 473

Chapter 31 Producer-Consumer Queues 475

Matthew Johnson
31.1 Introduction 475
31.2 Multithreading Overview 477
Contents xiii

31.3 A First Approach: Using Win32 Semaphores and Critical Sections 477
31.4 A Second Approach: Lock-Free Algorithms 482
31.5 Processor Architecture Overview and Memory Models 483
31.6 Lock-Free Algorithm Design 486
31.7 Lock-Free Implementation of a Free List 487
31.8 Lock-Free Implementation of a Queue 491
31.9 Interprocess Communication 496

Contributor Biographies 499

Index 509
Preface

The word gem has been coined in the fields of computer graphics and game
development as a term for describing a short article that focuses on a particular
technique, a clever trick, or practical advice that a person working in these fields
would find interesting and useful. Several book series containing the word
“Gems” in their titles have appeared since the early 1990s, and we continued the
tradition by establishing the Game Engine Gems series in 2010.
This book is the second volume of the Game Engine Gems series, and it
comprises a collection of new game engine development techniques. A group of
29 experienced professionals, several of whom also contributed to the first
volume, have written down portions of their knowledge and wisdom in the form
of the 31 chapters that follow.
The topics covered in these pages vary widely within the subject of game
engine development and have been divided into the three broad categories of
graphics and rendering, game engine design, and systems programming. The first
part of the book presents a variety of rendering techniques and dedicates four
entire chapters to the increasingly popular topic of stereoscopic rendering. The
second part contains several chapters that discuss topics relating to the design of
large components of a game engine. The final part of the book presents several
gems concerning topics of a “low-level” nature for those who like to work with
the nitty-gritty of engine internals.

Audience
The intended audience for this book includes professional game developers,
students of computer science programs, and practically anyone possessing an
interest in how the pros tackle specific problems that arise during game engine

xv
xvi Preface

development. Many of the chapters assume a basic knowledge of computer

architecture as well as some knowledge of the high-level design of current-
generation game consoles, such as the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. The level of
mathematics used in the book rarely exceeds that of basic trigonometry and
calculus.

The Website
The official website for the Game Engine Gems series can be found at the
following address:

http://www.gameenginegems.net/

Supplementary materials for many of the gems in this book are posted on this
website, and they include demos, source code, examples, specifications, and
larger versions of some figures. For chapters that include project files, the source
code can be compiled using Microsoft Visual Studio.
Any corrections to the text that may arise will be posted on the website. This
is also the location at which proposals will be accepted for the next volume in the
Game Engine Gems series.

Acknowledgements
Many thanks are due to A K Peters for quickly assuming ownership of the Game
Engine Gems series after it had lost its home well into the period during which
contributing authors had been writing their chapters. Of course, thanks also go to
these contributors, who took the transition in stride and produced a great set of
gems for this volume. They all worked hard during the editing process so that we
would be able to stay on the original schedule.
Part I

Graphics and Rendering

1
 1
Fast Computation of Tight‐Fitting
Oriented Bounding Boxes
Thomas Larsson
Linus Källberg
Mälardalen University, Sweden

1.1 Introduction
Bounding shapes, or containers, are frequently used to speed up algorithms in
games, computer graphics, and visualization [Ericson 2005]. In particular, the
oriented bounding box (OBB) is an excellent convex enclosing shape since it
provides good approximations of a wide range of geometric objects [Gottschalk
2000]. Furthermore, the OBB has reasonable transformation and storage costs,
and several efficient operations have been presented such as OBB-OBB
[Gottschalk et al. 1996], sphere-OBB [Larsson et al. 2007], ellipsoid-OBB [Lars-
son 2008], and ray-OBB [Ericson 2005] intersection tests. Therefore, OBBs can
potentially speed up operations such as collision detection, path planning, frus-
tum culling, occlusion culling, ray tracing, radiosity, photon mapping, and other
spatial queries.
To leverage the full power of OBBs, however, fast construction methods are
needed. Unfortunately, the exact minimum volume OBB computation algorithm
given by O’Rourke [1985] has O  n 3  running time. Therefore, more practical
methods have been presented, for example techniques for computing a 1  ε -
approximation of the minimum volume box [Barequet and Har-Peled 1999]. An-
other widely adopted technique is to compute OBBs by using principal compo-
nent analysis (PCA) [Gottschalk 2000]. The PCA algorithm runs in linear time,
but unfortunately may produce quite loose-fitting boxes [Dimitrov et al. 2009].
By initially computing the convex hull, better results are expected since this

3
4 1. Fast Computation of Tight‐Fitting Oriented Bounding Boxes

keeps internal features of the model from affecting the resulting OBB orientation.
However, this makes the method superlinear.
The goal of this chapter is to present an alternative algorithm with a simple
implementation that runs in linear time and produces OBBs of high quality. It is
immediately applicable to point clouds, polygon meshes, or polygon soups, with-
out any need for an initial convex hull generation. This makes the algorithm fast
and generally applicable for many types of models used in computer graphics
applications.

1.2 Algorithm
The algorithm is based on processing a small constant number of extremal verti-
ces selected from the input models. The selected points are then used to construct
a representative simple shape, which we refer to as the ditetrahedron, from which
a suitable orientation of the box can be derived efficiently. Hence, our heuristic is
called the ditetrahedron OBB algorithm, or DiTO for short. Since the chosen
number of selected extremal vertices affects the running time of the algorithm as
well as the resulting OBB quality, different instances of the algorithm are called
DiTO-k, where k is the number of selected vertices.
The ditetrahedron consists of two irregular tetrahedra connected along a
shared interior side called the base triangle. Thus, it is a polyhedron having six
faces, five vertices, and nine edges. In total, counting also the interior base trian-
gle, there are seven triangles. Note that this shape is not to be confused with the
triangular dipyramid (or bipyramid), which can be regarded as two pyramids with
equal heights and a shared base.
For most input meshes, it is expected that at least one of the seven triangles
of the ditetrahedron will be characteristic of the orientation of a tight-fitting
OBB. Let us consider two simple example meshes—a randomly rotated cube
with 8 vertices and 12 triangles and a randomly rotated star shape with 10 verti-
ces and 16 triangles. For these two shapes, the DiTO algorithm finds the mini-
mum volume OBBs. Ironically, the PCA algorithm computes an excessively
large OBB for the canonical cube example, with a volume approximately two to
four times larger than the minimum volume, depending on the orientation of the
cube mesh. Similarly, it also computes a loose-fitting OBB for the star shape,
with a volume approximately 1.1 to 2.2 times larger than the optimum, depend-
ing on the given orientation of the mesh. In Figure 1.1, these two models are
shown together with their axis-aligned bounding box (AABB), OBB computed
using PCA, and OBB computed using DiTO for a random orientation of the
models.
1.2 Algorithm 5

Figure 1.1. Computed boxes for a simple cube mesh (12 triangles) and star mesh (16
triangles). The first column shows the AABB, the second column shows the OBB com-
puted by PCA, and the last column shows the OBB computed by DiTO. The meshes were
randomly rotated before the computation.

The OBB is represented here by three orthonormal vectors u, v, and w defin-

ing the orientation of the box’s axes, the half-extents hu , hv, and hw defining the
size of the box, and a midpoint m defining the center of the box. In the following,
we explain how the algorithm works, and we present our experimental evalua-
tion.

Selecting the Extremal Points

Call the set containing the n vertices of the input model P. The algorithm starts
off by selecting a subset S with k representative extremal points from the vertices
P, where k is an even number. This is done by finding the vertices with minimum
and maximum projection values along s  k 2 predefined directions or normal
vectors. The points in S are stored systematically so that any extremal point pair
 a j , b j  along a direction n j can be retrieved, where a j and b j are the points with
minimum and maximum projection values, respectively. Note that all the points
in S are guaranteed to be located on the convex hull of the input mesh. Hopefully,
this makes them important for the later determination of the OBB axes. Ideally,
the used normal vectors should be uniformly distributed in direction space. How-
ever, to be able to optimize the projection calculations that are calculated by sim-
6 1. Fast Computation of Tight‐Fitting Oriented Bounding Boxes

ple dot products, normals with many 0s and 1s may be preferable, given that they
sample the direction space in a reasonable manner.
Clearly, the DiTO-k algorithm relies on the choice of an appropriate normal
set N s, and simply by choosing a different normal set a new instance of DiTO-k
is created. In the experiments described later, five normal sets are used, yielding
five algorithm instances. The normal sets are listed in Table 1.1. The normals in
N 6, used in DiTO-12, are obtained from the vertices of a regular icosahedron
with the mirror vertices removed. Similarly, the normals in N10, used in DiTO-20,
are taken from the vertices of a regular dodecahedron. The normal set
N16  N 6  N10 is used in DiTO-32. The normals in N 7 and N13, used in DiTO-14
and DiTO-26, are not uniformly distributed, but they are still usually regarded as
good choices for computing k-DOPs [Ericson 2005]. Therefore, they are also ex-
pected to work well in this case.

N6 N 10 N7 N 13
 0,1, a   0, a,1  a  1, 0, 0  1, 0, 0 
 0,1, a   0, a, 1  a   0,1, 0   0,1, 0 
1, a, 0  a,1  a, 0   0, 0,1  0, 0,1
1, a,0   a, 1  a, 0 1,1,1 1,1,1
 a, 0,1 1  a, 0, a  1,1, 1 1,1, 1
 a, 0, 1 1  a, 0, a  1, 1,1 1, 1,1
1,1,1 1, 1, 1 1, 1, 1
1,1, 1 1,1, 0 
1, 1,1 1, 1, 0 
1, 1, 1 1, 0,1
1, 0, 1
 0,1,1
 0,1, 1
Table 1.1. Efficient normal sets N 6 , N10, N 7 , and N13 used for DiTO-12, DiTO-20, Di-
TO-14, and DiTO-26, respectively, with the value a   5  1 2  0.61803399. The
normals in N 6 and N10 are uniformly distributed.
1.2 Algorithm 7

Finding the Axes of the OBB

To determine the orientation of the OBB, candidate axes are generated, and the
best axes found are kept. To measure the quality of an orientation, an OBB cov-
ering the subset S is computed. In this way, the quality of an orientation is deter-
mined in O  k  time, where k  n for complex models. For very simple models,
however, when n  k , the candidate OBBs are of course computed using the en-
tire point set P. To measure the quality, the surface areas of the boxes are used,
rather than their volumes. This effectively avoids the case of comparing boxes
with zero volumes covering completely flat geometry. Furthermore, it makes
sense to reduce the surface area as much as possible for applications such as ray
casting. Of course, if preferred, a quality criterion based on the volume can be
used in the algorithm instead.
The best axes found are initialized to the standard axis-aligned base, and the
best surface area is initialized to the surface area of the AABB covering P. Then
the algorithm proceeds by calculating what we call the large base triangle. The
first edge of this triangle is given by the point pair with the furthest distance
among the s point pairs in S, that is, the point pair that satisfies

max a j  b j .

Call these points p 0 and p 1 . Then a third point p 2 is selected from S that lies fur-
thest away from the infinite line through p 0 and p 1 . An example of a constructed
large base triangle is shown on the left in Figure 1.2.
The base triangle is then used to generate three different candidate orienta-
tions, one for each edge of the triangle. Let n be the normal of the triangle, and
e 0  p1  p 0 be the first edge. The axes are then chosen as
u0  e0 e0 ,
u1  n n,
u2  u 0  u1.

The axes are chosen similarly for the other two edges of the triangle. For each
computed set of axes, an approximation of the size of the resulting OBB is com-
puted by projecting the points in S on the axes, and the best axes found are kept.
In Figure 1.3, an example of the three considered OBBs for the base triangle is
shown.
Next, the algorithm proceeds by constructing the ditetrahedron, which con-
sists of two connected tetrahedra sharing the large base triangle. For this, two
additional points q 0 and q 1 are computed by searching S for the points furthest
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