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Equality

Multidisciplinary Perspectives

Edited by
François Levrau · Noel Clycq
Equality
 François Levrau · Noel Clycq
Editors

Equality
Multidisciplinary Perspectives
Editors
François Levrau Noel Clycq
University of Antwerp University of Antwerp
Antwerp, Belgium Antwerp, Belgium

ISBN 978-3-030-54309-9 ISBN 978-3-030-54310-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54310-5

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting,
reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical
way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,
or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
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 Preface

At least since the Enlightenment the idea of ‘equality’ has served as one
of the main political and normative discursive ideals in European and
North-American societies. Notwithstanding the consensus on the impor-
tance of this idea(l), explaining what it exactly entails has turned out to
be quite difficult. After all, if we agree that people are to be respected as
each other’s moral equals, what then are the political, social, economic
and normative consequences? Different visions have been proposed and
so it is not entirely surprising that in current societies still a lot of
turmoil exists around equality related issues. Indeed, enduring and even
increasing patterns of socioeconomic inequality have led to fierce polit-
ical, philosophical and public discussions. However, contestations about
how (un)equal societies are today, should not be mixed up with contes-
tations about what kind of equality should be aimed at. These issues
should be carefully disentangled as it should be explained that the answer
to the latter has implications for the answer to the former. For example,
those who defend ‘equality of opportunity’ would not argue ‘inequali-
ties of outcome’ necessarily to be a problem. Discussions however are
also lingering on the extent to which ‘equality’ provides an impetus for

v
vi Preface

policies to recognise and accommodate sociocultural and religious differ-

ences. Indeed, it is not only the gap between the rich and the poor (or
less rich) that is much debated, as one can also witness strong emotions
stirred by the inflow of many (Muslim) migrants and refugees. In the
Western world Muslims and refugees are often portrayed and/or expe-
rienced as a Fremdkörper, the ‘other’ undermining ‘mainstream society’
of which they do not seem part—a discourse that might bear some
resemblances to episodes from Europe’s darkest past.
In this volume we illustrate that several of the challenges that modern
societies face, raise important and interesting issues about equality’s
nature, value, relevance, scope and its relation to other values. Some
of these challenges are rather new and point at innovative insights and
solutions, while often the tensions also have an enduring character and
therefore confront us with the question why they are so persistent. What
exactly is the mechanism that explains their longevity? This is just one of
the many puzzling questions that this book will address. Indeed, when it
comes to equality, the questions are manifold. What articulated norma-
tive ideal of equality should we aim at? What does it exactly mean when
saying that people are morally equal and how should people be treated as
equals? For example, does moral equality imply resource equality or is it
about equal opportunities? How does equality relate to other values such
as liberty and what type of solidarity comes with equality? What are the
conditions that impact on equality? What type of enduring and new chal-
lenges are modern societies facing with regard to equality? Are all kinds of
inequalities bad? What type of socioeconomic and/or sociocultural poli-
cies is to be implemented if some sort of equality is treated as a polar star?
Do people actually believe in the ideal of equality and if so, what exactly
do they believe? How do people react to inequality? Which model of
socioeconomic redistribution do Europeans prefer? How is (in)equality
perceived and depicted in media and cultural products? Does it make
sense to believe that equality of some sort can be realised, or should
we, instead, recognise its utopian character, thereby also considering that
the human selfishness and the innate distrust towards ‘the other’ are too
intractable to transform societies into more egalitarian ones?
As these are all complex questions, we believe the best way to deal
with them is a multi- and interdisciplinary approach. However, while
 Preface vii

the concept of equality has been studied in much detail in several disci-
plines, at date books that bring together the disciplinary insights are
rather scarce (notable exceptions are from Baker et al. 2009; Li and Tracer
2017; Lamont and Pierson 2019). While these excellent collections seem
to focus rather on specific issues (e.g. housing market, education, city life,
class, gender, ideology, health care, democracy) or case studies in order
to shed light on equality’s characterisation and importance, the present
collection takes academic disciplines as the entry points to the discus-
sion. Hence, the many issue and examples that will be dealt with serve as
clarifications for how a discipline defines (the importance of ) equality.
This book, thus, could help to fill a gap, as it contains nine disci-
plinary ‘state-of-the-art’ chapters from expert scholars across Europe. We
opted for this approach because from the very moment one starts a
reflection about equality, it is almost impossible not to invoke ideas and
insights coming from a plethora of disciplines. This need for multidisci-
plinary research is nicely captured by Lamont and Pierson (2019, p. 6) in
their recent paper: “At a moment when societies struggle to deal successfully
with inequalities, identifying and exploring connections between economic,
social, psychological, political, and cultural dimensions of inequality holds
great promise. It can clarify why many forms of social inequalities appear
so intractable, often deepening or broadening over time. It also can provide
insights into the kinds of interventions that might attenuate, ameliorate, or
counteract deepening inequalities.” Books that bring together the view-
points of several disciplines are even more important in a time where
scholars and politicians tend to be experts in only one field of exper-
tise. Some ninety years ago, José Ortega y Gasset (1932) already worried
about what he called the Barbarism of specialisation. As such the current
volume also feeds into the current trend towards more interdisciplinary
approaches to pressing social, political and economic issues. We therefore
express our hope that this book will invite the reader to look beyond the
boundaries of his/her own expertise or field of interest and get inspired
by the many insights that are provided by other disciplines.

Antwerp, Belgium François Levrau

Noel Clycq
viii Preface

References
Baker, J., Lynch, K., Cantillon, S., & Walsh, J. (2009). Equality: From theory
to action. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Lamont, M., & Pierson, P. (Eds.). (2019). Inequality as a multidimensional
process. Dædalus, Journal of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, 148(3),
1–190.
Li, M., & Tracer, D. (2017). Interdisciplinary perspectives on fairness, equity, and
justice. Cham: Springer International Press.
Ortega Y Gasset, J. (1932). The revolt of the masses. New York, London: Norton
& Company.
 Contents

Part I Introduction

1 Introduction: Equality as a Multifaceted Concept 3

François Levrau and Noel Clycq

Part II Theories & Histories

2 Egalitarianism: A Tour d’horizon 43

François Levrau

3 Equality, Rights and Community: A Long Term

Perspective 103
Bert De Munck

4 Multiculturalism Today: Difference, Equality

and Interculturalism 135
Tariq Modood and Tamar de Waal

ix
x Contents

Part III Institutions & Policies

5 Religion and Equality in the Workplace:

A Legal-Philosophical Analysis 167
François Levrau and Leni Franken

6 Economic Equality and the Welfare State 199

Wim Van Lancker and Aaron Van den Heede

7 Gender, Anti-discrimination and Diversity: The EU’s

Role in Promoting Equality 231
Ruby Gropas

Part IV Experiences & Impressions

8 How Do People React to (In)Equality and (In)Justice?

A Psychological Approach 267
Johanna Pretsch

9 What Welfare Principles Do Europeans Prefer?

An Analysis of Their Attitudes Towards Old Age
Pensions and Unemployment Benefits 295
Tim Reeskens and Wim van Oorschot

10 A Transdisciplinary Cultural Studies’ Approach

to Inequality: What Can We Learn from Precarity
Studies and Why Does Art Matter? 321
Sieglinde Lemke

Index 347
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 Notes on Contributors

Noel Clycq is Research Professor in training and education sciences at

the research group Edubron at the University of Antwerp. He focuses on
issues of diversity, globalisation and the governance of learning. In the
past he held the chair ‘European values: Discourses and prospects’ at the
History department and was senior researcher at the Centre for Migra-
tion and Intercultural studies (University of Antwerp). He publishes in
national as well as international journals on issues related to ethnicity,
gender, migration, multiculturalism, education and the family. He (co-
)coordinated large-scale interuniversity projects at the national as well as
the European level, and supervises several Ph.D.-projects on early school
leaving, collective identity formation, emotion and school belonging, the
(un)making of Muslim identities and community education.
Bert De Munck is Full Professor at the History Department at the
University of Antwerp, teaching ‘Early Modern History’, ‘Theory of
Historical Knowledge’ and ‘History of Science and Society’. He is a
member of the Centre for Urban History, Antwerp, and the Director
of the interdisciplinary Urban Studies Institute and the International
Scientific Research Community (WOG) ‘Urban Agency: The Historical

xi
xii Notes on Contributors

Fabrication of the City as an Object of Study’. His research concentrates

on early modern cities, in particular craft guilds, civil society, poor relief
and the ‘repertoires of evaluation’ regarding skills and products. Relevant
publications are Guilds, Labour and the Urban Body Politic: Fabricating
Community in the Southern Netherlands, 1300 –1800 (Routledge, 2018);
‘Disassembling the City: A Historical and an Epistemological View on
the Agency of Cities’, Journal of Urban History (2017), 43, 5, 811–829;
and ‘Artisans, Products and Gifts: Rethinking the History of Material
Culture in Early Modern Europe’, Past & Present (August 2014), 224,
39–74.
Tamar de Waal is Assistant Professor in legal and political theory at the
Amsterdam Law School of the University of Amsterdam. Her disser-
tation Conditional Belonging: A Legal-Philosophical Inquiry into Inte-
gration Requirements for Immigrants in Europe (2017) won the VWR-
prize for best dissertation in legal philosophy in The Netherlands and
Belgium. She has published articles in, among others, Journal of Intercul-
tural Studies, Comparative Migration Studies and Buffalo Human Rights
Law Review. In 2021, her first monograph will be published by Hart
Publishing.
Leni Franken studied philosophy (University of Antwerp/KULeuven)
and religious sciences (KULeuven). She obtained her Ph.D. in polit-
ical philosophy at the University of Antwerp, where she currently works
as a teaching assistant and senior researcher. Her research focuses on
autonomy-based liberalism; church–state relations; financing religions;
neutrality; faith-based schools; and religious and citizenship education.
On these topics, she published two monographs and numerous national
and international journal articles and book chapters.
Ruby Gropas is Adviser on Social Affairs at the European Commission
and Visiting Professor at the College of Europe, Bruges. She holds a
Lectureship in International Relations at the Law Faculty of the Univer-
sity of Thrace and has worked at the Hellenic Foundation for Euro-
pean and Foreign Policy (ELIAMEP) and McKinsey & Co. She was
Southeast Europe Policy Scholar at the Woodrow Wilson International
Centre for Scholars in Washington, DC, Visiting Fellow with the Centre
 Notes on Contributors xiii

for Democracy Development and the Rule of Law at Stanford Univer-

sity, and Research Fellow at the European University Institute, Florence.
Her research and publications have focused on migration, European
integration and human rights. She holds a Ph.D. from Cambridge
University.
Sieglinde Lemke is Professor of American Studies in the University of
Freiburg, and a permanent fellow at the Hutchins Centre at Harvard
University. She is also the director of the Black Forest Writing Seminar.
She is the author of three monographs and 35 articles and has given
guest lectures at numerous universities in the United States, Australia,
India and Europe. Her research was funded by the German Research
Fund, the Rockefeller Foundation, the Freiburger Institute for Advanced
Studies, and the US Studies Centre at the University of Sydney. Her
book Inequality, Poverty, and Precarity in Contemporary American Culture
(2017) offers the most comprehensive analysis of the cultural discourse
on socioeconomic inequity.
François Levrau holds a M.A. in Clinical Psychology and a M.A. in
Moral Philosophy and a Ph.D. in Social Sciences. Currently he is
senior researcher and teaching assistant at the University of Antwerp.
He published about issues related to, multiculturalism, social cohe-
sion, recognition and higher education. Articles appeared among others
in Comparative Migration Studies, Cosmos and History, Ethical Perspec-
tives, Ethnicities, Political Quarterly, Research in Higher Education, Res
Philosophica, Res Publica, The Pluralist.
Tariq Modood is the founding Director of the Bristol University
Research Centre for the Study of Ethnicity and Citizenship. He has
held over 40 grants and consultancies (UK, European and the United
States), has over 25 (co-)authored and (co-)edited books and reports
and over 250 articles or chapters in political philosophy, sociology
and public philosophy. He is the co-founding editor of the interna-
tional journal Ethnicities. His publications include Multicultural Poli-
tics: Racism, Ethnicity and Muslims in Britain (2005), Still Not Easy
Being British: Struggles for Multicultural Citizenship (2010) and Essays on
Secularism and Multiculturalism (2019).
xiv Notes on Contributors

Johanna Pretsch is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of

Koblenz-Landau in the Department of Differential Psychology and
Psychological Assessment and a family therapist and systemic counsellor.
While she is dedicated to the transfer of knowledge between theory and
practice, her main research interests are justice experiences of children
and adolescents, individual differences in education, justice in education
as well as the development of civic attitudes and behaviour in children
and adolescents.
Tim Reeskens is Associate Professor at the Department of Sociology at
Tilburg University, Netherlands. His research interest lies in the compar-
ative study of political and social attitudes, with a focus on social capital,
welfare attitudes and national identity. Tim is the national programme
director of the European Values Study Netherlands. His work appeared
in several sociological journals, including European Sociological Review,
International Journal of Comparative Sociology and Journal of European
Social Policy.
Aaron Van den Heede worked as a researcher at the Herman Deleeck
Centre of Social Policy at the University of Antwerp from 2008 to 2012.
From 2012 to 2017 he joined the research department of the Belgian
National Union of Socialist Mutual Health Funds. In 2018 he joined the
Centre for Sociological Research (CESO) at the University of Leuven.
His main research topics have been social and health care inequality
and poverty in general. Since 2019, he returned to the Belgian National
Union of Socialist Mutual Health Funds in the role of team leader of an
administrative unit. Aaron holds a master’s degree in Sociology (Ghent
University).
Wim Van Lancker is an Assistant Professor of social work and social
policy at the Centre for Sociological Research, University of Leuven. He
is the governor and treasurer of the Foundation for International Studies
on Social Security (FISS). He published widely in high-ranking journals
and edited volumes on the redistributive outcomes of the welfare state in
comparative perspective, in particular on the design and effectiveness of
social policy measures in relation to poverty and inequality in the early
years. He is co-editor of the Palgrave Handbook of Family Policy.
 Notes on Contributors xv

Wim van Oorschot is Professor of Social Policy at KU Leuven,

Belgium. His expertise is in the field of the EU-comparative analysis of
the relationships between culture and welfare state. He is initiator and
coordinator of the Welfare Attitudes repeat modules of the European
Social Surveys 2008 and 2016, and co-editor of The Social Legitimacy of
Targeted Welfare: Attitudes to Welfare Deservingness, Edward Elgar, 2017.
He is Honorary President of ESPAnet, the Network for European Social
Policy Analysis.
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Abstract 1: Practical applications and examples

Learning Objective 1: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
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- Example: Practical application scenario
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 6: Practical applications and examples
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Review 2: Key terms and definitions
Practice Problem 10: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Ethical considerations and implications
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 13: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Best practices and recommendations
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
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- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
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- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 18: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 18: Historical development and evolution
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Review 3: Research findings and conclusions
Practice Problem 20: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Study tips and learning strategies
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 23: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 24: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 27: Study tips and learning strategies
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Review 4: Research findings and conclusions
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 37: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 38: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Background 5: Interdisciplinary approaches
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 42: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Unit 6: Current trends and future directions
Example 50: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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