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TEAM COHESION: ADVANCES IN
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY,
METHODS AND PRACTICE
RESEARCH ON MANAGING
GROUPS AND TEAMS
Series Editor: Eduardo Salas
Recent Volumes:
Volume 3: Technology, edited by Terri L. Griffith
Volume 4: Toward Phenomenology of Groups and Group Membership,
edited by Harris Sondak
Volume 5: Identity Issues in Groups, edited by Jeffrey T. Polzer
Volume 6: Time in Groups, edited by Sally Blount
Volume 7: Status and Groups, edited by Melissa C. Thomas-Hunt
Volume 8: Groups and Ethics, edited by Ann Tenbrunsel
Volume 9: National Culture and Groups, edited by Ya-Ru Chen
Volume 10: Affect and Groups, edited by Elizabeth A. Mannix, Margaret
A. Neale and Cameron P. Anderson
Volume 11: Diversity in Groups, edited by Katherine W. Phillips
Volume 12: Creativity in Groups, edited by Elizabeth A. Mannix,
Margaret A. Neale and Jack Goncalo
Volume 13: Fairness and Groups, edited by Elizabeth A. Mannix,
Margaret A. Neale and Elizabeth Mullen
Volume 14: Negotiation and Groups, edited by Elizabeth A. Mannix,
Margaret A. Neale and Jennifer R. Overbeck
Volume 15: Looking Back, Moving Forward: A Review of Group and
Team-Based Research, edited by Margaret A. Neale and
Elizabeth A. Mannix
Volume 16: Pushing the Boundaries: Multiteam Systems in Research and
Practice, edited by Marissa L. Shuffler, Ramón Rico and
Eduardo Salas
 RESEARCH ON MANAGING GROUPS AND TEAMS
VOLUME 17

TEAM COHESION:
ADVANCES IN
PSYCHOLOGICAL
THEORY, METHODS AND
PRACTICE
EDITED BY

EDUARDO SALAS
Department of Psychology, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA

WILLIAM B. VESSEY
NASA Behavioral Health and Performance Research Element,
Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX, USA

ARMANDO X. ESTRADA
US Army Research Institute, Aberdeen, MD USA

United Kingdom North America Japan

India Malaysia China
Emerald Group Publishing Limited
Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK

First edition 2015

Copyright r 2015 Emerald Group Publishing Limited

Reprints and permissions service

Contact: [email protected]

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in

any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence
permitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency
and in the USA by The Copyright Clearance Center. Any opinions expressed in the
chapters are those of the authors. Whilst Emerald makes every effort to ensure the
quality and accuracy of its content, Emerald makes no representation implied or
otherwise, as to the chapters’ suitability and application and disclaims any warranties,
express or implied, to their use.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-78560-283-2
ISSN: 1534-0856 (Series)

ISOQAR certified
Management System,
awarded to Emerald
for adherence to
Environmental
standard
ISO 14001:2004.

Certificate Number 1985

ISO 14001
CONTENTS

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS vii

PART I
CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS OF TEAM COHESION

ON THE FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE OF GROUP

COHESION
Jamie B. Severt and Armando X. Estrada 3

COHESION WITH LARGE COLLECTIVES: A

MULTITEAM SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE
Gia A. DiRosa, Armando X. Estrada and Arwen H. 25
DeCostanza

TEAM COHESION AND INDIVIDUAL WELL-BEING: A

CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS AND RELATIONAL
FRAMEWORK
Adam J. Vanhove and Mitchel N. Herian 53

TEAM COHESION: A THEORETICAL

CONSIDERATION OF ITS RECIPROCAL
RELATIONSHIPS WITHIN THE TEAM ADAPTATION
NOMOLOGICAL NETWORK
M. Travis Maynard, Deanna M. Kennedy, 83
S. Amy Sommer and Ana Margarida Passos

v
vi CONTENTS

PART II
THE MEASUREMENT OF TEAM COHESION

MEASURING AND MONITORING THE DYNAMICS

OF TEAM COHESION: METHODS, EMERGING
TOOLS, AND ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES
Jessica M. Santoro, Aurora J. Dixon, Chu-Hsiang Chang 115
and Steve W. J. Kozlowski

WHAT MATTERS FOR TEAM COHESION

MEASUREMENT? A SYNTHESIS
Rebecca Grossman, Zachary Rosch, David Mazer and 147
Eduardo Salas

SELECTING AND COMPOSING COHESIVE TEAMS

Suzanne T. Bell and Shanique G. Brown 181

PART III
THE DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINMENT OF TEAM
COHESION

LEADERSHIP MODELS FOR TEAM DYNAMICS AND

COHESION: THE MARS MISSION
Francis J. Yammarino, Michael D. Mumford, 213
M. Shane Connelly, Eric Anthony Day, Carter Gibson,
Tristan McIntosh and Tyler Mulhearn

MITIGATING STRESS EFFECTS ON TEAM COHESION

Tripp Driskell, James E. Driskell and Eduardo Salas 247

CONFLICT, TRUST, AND COHESION: EXAMINING

AFFECTIVE AND ATTITUDINAL FACTORS IN
SCIENCE TEAMS
Stephen M. Fiore, Dorothy R. Carter and Raquel Asencio 271
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Raquel Asencio School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of

Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
Suzanne T. Bell Department of Psychology, College of
Science and Health, DePaul University,
Chicago, IL, USA
Shanique G. Brown Department of Psychology, College of
Science and Health, DePaul University,
Chicago, IL, USA
Dorothy R. Carter Department of Psychology, University of
Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
Chu-Hsiang Chang Department of Psychology, Michigan State
University, Michigan, USA
M. Shane Connelly Department of Psychology, University of
Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
Eric Anthony Day Department of Psychology, University of
Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
Arwen H. DeCostanza Army Research Laboratory, Human
Research and Engineering Directorate,
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, USA
Gia A. DiRosa PricewaterhouseCoopers, McLean, VA,
USA
Aurora J. Dixon Department of Psychology, Michigan State
University, Michigan, USA
James E. Driskell Florida Maxima Corporation, Orlando,
FL, USA
Tripp Driskell Florida Maxima Corporation, Orlando,
FL, USA

vii
viii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Armando X. Estrada Foundational Science Research Unit,

US Army Research Institute, Aberdeen,
MD USA
Stephen M. Fiore Department of Philosophy and Institute for
Simulation & Training, University of
Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
Carter Gibson Department of Psychology, University of
Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
Rebecca Grossman Psychology Department, Hofstra
University, Hempstead, NY, USA
Mitchel N. Herian University of Nebraska Public Policy
Center, Lincoln, NE, USA
Deanna M. Kennedy School of Business, University of
Washington Bothell, Bothell, WA, USA
Steve W. J. Kozlowski Department of Psychology, Michigan State
University, Michigan, USA
M. Travis Maynard Department of Management, Colorado
State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
David Mazer Psychology Department, Hofstra
University, Hempstead, NY, USA
Tristan McIntosh Department of Psychology, University of
Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
Tyler Mulhearn Department of Psychology, University of
Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
Michael D. Mumford Department of Psychology, University of
Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
Ana Margarida Passos Department of Human Resources and
Organizational Behavior, ISCTE-IUL,
Lisboa, Portugal
Zachary Rosch Psychology Department, Hofstra
University, Hempstead, NY, USA
List of Contributors ix

Eduardo Salas Department of Psychology, Rice

University, Houston, TX
Jessica M. Santoro Department of Psychology, Michigan State
University, Michigan, USA
Jamie B. Severt Department of Organizational Sciences and
Communication, The George Washington
University, Washington, DC, USA
S. Amy Sommer Management and Human Resources
Department, HEC Paris, Jouy-en-Josas,
France
Adam J. Vanhove School of Strategic Leadership, James
Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA,
USA
Francis J. Yammarino School of Management, Binghamton,
Binghamton University (SUNY),
Binghamton, New York, USA
This page intentionally left blank
 PART I
CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS OF
TEAM COHESION
This page intentionally left blank
ON THE FUNCTION AND
STRUCTURE OF GROUP
COHESION

Jamie B. Severt and Armando X. Estrada

ABSTRACT

Group cohesion is among the most researched constructs linked to team

effectiveness, and performance (Rosh, Offermann, & Van Diest, 2012).
While meta-analytic evidence has established strong linkages between
cohesion and performance (e.g., Beal, Cohen, Burke, & McLendon,
2003), the functions and structure of cohesion have received limited
attention within this literature. In this chapter, we begin to address this
gap in the literature by reviewing extant knowledge regarding the struc-
tural and functional properties of cohesion to introduce an integrative
framework of the function and structure of cohesion. Our framework is
designed to address two key questions: (1) Why are groups cohesive
that is, what function(s) does cohesion serve for an individual and/or
groups? and (2) What are the elemental forms of cohesion within
groups that is, what is the structure of cohesion within teams? Our
integrative framework posits that cohesion serves two main functions
within groups: an affective and an instrumental function. These func-
tions serve to characterize the structure of cohesion into four

Team Cohesion: Advances in Psychological Theory, Methods and Practice

Research on Managing Groups and Teams, Volume 17, 3 24
Copyright r 2015 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISSN: 1534-0856/doi:10.1108/S1534-085620150000017002
3
4 JAMIE B. SEVERT AND ARMANDO X. ESTRADA

conceptually related but distinct facets that include interpersonal and

group belongingness; and social and task elements of cohesion.
Furthermore, we specify that these elemental facets occur both horizon-
tally (among individuals with similar standing within groups) and verti-
cally (among individuals with different standing within the groups). We
discuss advantages and disadvantages of our framework and conclude
with implications for research and practice.
Keywords: Cohesion; structure; function; affective; instrumental

Contemporary research and theory on the study of groups and group

dynamics have long ago noted that cohesion is among the most important
characteristics of high-functioning groups (Beal, Cohen, Burke, &
McLendon, 2003; Evans & Dion, 2012; Rosh, Offermann, & Van Diest,
2012). A large body of evidence has shown that cohesion accrues many
benefits for individual group members, the group itself, and the larger orga-
nizational entity to which the individuals and group belongs (Wendt,
Euwema, & Hetty van Emmerik, 2009). Cohesion has been linked to
enhanced team motivation and effort (Greene, 1989), increased job and
team satisfaction (Ahronson & Cameron, 2009; Dobbins & Zaccaro, 1986;
Walsh, Matthews, Tuller, Parks, & McDonald, 2010), enhanced team
learning (Mullen & Copper, 1994), increased individual well-being
(Bliese & Halverson, 1996), and improved group performance (Beal et al.,
2003; Evans & Dion, 2012) to name but a few examples from this rich
literature.
The benefits of cohesion on individual and group functioning are so
ubiquitous that successful performance has often been attributed to the
cohesive bonds shared among individual group members. When
Congressional Medal of Honor recipient Audie Murphy was asked why
he took on an entire company of German soldiers, he replied “because
they were killing my friends.” O’Brien (1990) described the essence of
these dynamics among soldiers in Vietnam noting that in combat “you
become close friends … become part of tribe.” Junger (2010) similarly
noted that dedication men have to the group that is, loyalty to the
group often drove soldiers to perform incredible feats during combat
in Afghanistan. Chambliss and Takacs (2014) noted that personal bonds
Function and Structure of Cohesion 5

formed with fellow students, and faculty, have a profound and memor-
able impact on student’s college experiences, experiences fundamental for
learning to occur. McDonald (2012) has described similar dynamics
among professional baseball players. When Kevin Millar was asked how
the Boston Red Sox were able to overcome the “Curse of the Bambino”
(Shaughnessy, 1990) and win the World Series in 2004, he stated that “it
was a unit that literally hung out together and ate together and liked
each other … we loved each other … we cared because they were good
guys” (McDonald, 2012). As these examples illustrate, individuals and
groups from diverse contexts as soldiers in combat, students in college
and university settings, and professional athletes recognize the impor-
tance of developing psychological bonds with individuals whom they
interact with and groups to which they belong. Groups with members
who like each other, trust in each other’s competence, and take value in
being part of the group will stick together both in good and in bad
times.
Findings and examples notwithstanding, theory and research have yet to
uncover why and how cohesion play such a pivotal role in the behavior of
individuals and groups. Though past research has documented the many
correlates of cohesion to include antecedents, outcomes and covariates of
cohesion (Beal et al., 2003), there is no integrative framework delineating
why groups need to be cohesive nor how they can be cohesive. That is, we
do not know what purpose cohesion serves for individuals and/or groups;
and we do not know the specific forms or structures that underlie the mani-
festation of cohesion among individuals and/or groups. In this chapter, we
begin to address this gap in theory by advancing an integrative framework
that seeks to describe the psychological functions of cohesion that is,
functional properties of cohesion; and the underlying forms that cohesion
manifests that is, structural properties of cohesion. We have organized
our chapter into three sections. The first section provides a brief review of
existing frameworks of cohesion, with specific focus on identifying key
dimensions or facets of cohesion. We pay particular attention to how
dimensional characterizations of cohesion have evolved and expanded the
cohesion construct from a unidimensional to a multidimensional space.
The second section builds on the existing frameworks and proposes an inte-
grative heuristic framework that conceptualizes the cohesion construct
space into two functional areas, with distinct structural facets that manifest
across different levels. Advantages and limitations of the proposed frame-
work, along with a discussion of how this framework fits in with the cur-
rent streams of cohesion research, are included in this section. In the final
6 JAMIE B. SEVERT AND ARMANDO X. ESTRADA

section, we provide conclusions and recommendations for both researchers

and practitioners.

CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF COHESION

A cursory glance at the literature on cohesion makes it clear that diverse

disciplines within the social and behavioral sciences (e.g., anthropology,
political science, psychology) can rightfully lay claims to advancing our
understanding of this construct. Indeed, researchers from fields as diverse
as organizational sciences (e.g., Mach, Dolan, & Tzafrir, 2010), public
health (e.g., Zelner et al., 2012), sociology (e.g., Portes & Vickstrom, 2011),
clinical psychology (e.g., Lerner, McLeod, & Mikami, 2013), and sports
psychology (e.g., Callow, Smith, Hardy, Arthur, & Hardy, 2009) have
attempted to operationalize cohesion and relate the construct to important
outcomes within their specific fields. While a comprehensive review of this
literature is beyond the scope of this chapter, in this section we aim to illus-
trate major shifts within the literature to help identify key dimensions or
structural characteristics that have evolved over the years.
The historical origins of cohesion within the psychological literature can
be traced back to the influential writings of Lewin (1935, 1936). Lewin
(1935) was concerned with understanding how psychological factors within
the life space influenced relations among individuals and their environ-
ments, and explained how such influences enabled “adhesion of any sort of
object or collection of objects or processes” to unfold (p. 43). Lewin’s
emphasis on psychic processes shaped efforts to uncover unitary factors
that enabled individuals and collectives to “stick together.” Attraction and
repulsion were the fundamental attributes that allowed individuals and col-
lectives to “stick together” (Dion, 2000). Examples of this line of research
can be gleaned from Seashore (1954), as well as Van Bergen and
Koekebakker (1959).
A number of ensuing empirical and theoretical developments in the field
led to a corresponding shift in theorizing on cohesion as a multidimen-
sional construct. Festinger (1950) proposed that cohesiveness of a group
was the “result of all forces acting on members to remain in the group.
These forces depended on the attractiveness or unattractiveness of either
the prestige of the group, members in the group, or the activities in
which the group engages” (p. 254). Though not explicitly identifying the
underlying dimension of cohesiveness within groups, Festinger’s
Function and Structure of Cohesion 7

conceptualization and subsequent experimental results provided empirical

support for the underlying forces that acted on members to remain in the
group. Namely, prestige of the group, prestige of members of the group, or
activities of the group. Subsequent developments in both research and the-
ory have identified other facets of cohesion.
Mikalachki (1969) was among the first researchers to explicitly identify
and label the social and task elements of cohesion. Social cohesion referred
to the interpersonal bonds that exist between members (e.g., liking, attrac-
tion, and trust). Task cohesion referred to the members’ shared commit-
ment to the team task. A significant body of work has lent empirical
support to these facets, and some research has shown these dimensions
may not be mutually exclusive, with correlations ranging from .3 to .4
(Carron, 1982; Carron, Widmeyer, & Brawley, 1985; Tziner, 1982), while
other research demonstrated differential outcomes for each of the dimen-
sions (e.g., Carron et al., 1985; Griffith, 1988; Mullen & Copper, 1994;
Siebold & Kelly, 1988; Zaccaro & McCoy, 1988). For instance, task cohe-
sion is more strongly related to a reduction in absenteeism than social
cohesion (Zaccaro, 1991), while social cohesion is more strongly related to
member liking than task cohesion (Zaccaro & Lowe, 1988).
While the social and task elements of group cohesion have received a
considerable amount of theoretical and empirical attention, a third compo-
nent has also been recognized as “group pride.” Group pride refers to, “the
extent to which group members exhibit liking for the status or the ideolo-
gies that the group supports or represents, or the shared importance of
being a member of the group” (Beal et al., 2003, p. 995), that is, the values,
assumptions, and history of the group itself are salient to current and
potential future members. The “shared importance of being a member of
the group,” component of Beal et al.’s (2003) definition of group pride rein-
forces the construct as a team level construct and is most relevant to a the-
ory of group pride. When conceptualized at the group level, which is where
the construct of cohesion more accurately resides, group pride occurs when
team members realize that the team is more important than the sum of its
parts and a shared desire to keep the team intact permeates throughout the
team (Mullen & Copper, 1994). Group pride, in theory, is completely dis-
tinct from the social and task bonds that form between team members.
Group pride allows teams to endure as distinct, identifiable team despite
member turnover.
Other research has also described the importance of examining cohesion
across hierarchical levels, noting that groups and/or teams may reside
within a collection of a larger collective. Griffith (1988) factor analyzed
8 JAMIE B. SEVERT AND ARMANDO X. ESTRADA

responses from cohesion questionnaires administered to U.S. Army units

and identified four cohesion elements that stemmed from two underlying
dimensions. The first dimension was labeled “directions of cohesion” and
consisted of two factors: (1) horizontal and (2) vertical cohesion.
Horizontal cohesion referred to the relations among team members of the
same authority level, while vertical cohesion referred to the relations among
a supervisor and a subordinate within the team context. Within the second
dimension, which Griffith labeled the “functions of cohesion,” two more
factors were identified: (1) affective and (2) instrumental cohesion.
Affective cohesion referred to interpersonal and affective support that
group members attained and provided to one another, while instrumental
cohesion referred to the ability for team members to work with one another
in a positive manner for effective task performance. Griffith’s (1988) contri-
butions had two important implications. First, the inclusion of a dimension
of the directions of cohesion highlights that cohesion can exist among dif-
ferent levels within a hierarchy. Hence, cohesion is not only relevant to
individuals and small groups but also equally relevant across groups within
a larger collective. Thus, cohesion can be conceptualized as a multilevel
construct. Second, the distinction between affective and instrumental ele-
ments of cohesion highlights the importance of understanding the motiva-
tional basis of cohesion. That is why cohesion is important for individuals
and for groups.
To summarize, in the preceding section, we have provided a brief and
selective overview of conceptualizations of cohesion to identify key ele-
ments or structural characteristics of cohesion derived from both theory
and contemporary empirical research. Our brief review of this body of
research identified eight elements of cohesion to include interpersonal
attraction to the group, prestige, social elements of cohesion, task elements
of cohesion, affective elements of cohesion, instrumental elements of cohe-
sion, and horizontal and vertical elements of cohesion.

Toward an Integrative Framework of the Functions and

Structures of Cohesion

Table 1 presents an integrative framework that incorporates functional and

structural properties of cohesion drawn from research reviewed in the pre-
vious section. As can be seen in Table 1, we posit that cohesion serves two
main functions, an affective function and an instrumental function. In
Function and Structure of Cohesion 9

Table 1. An Integrated Model of the Functions and Structure of

Cohesion.
Functional Properties Structural Properties Relationship that Cohesion Manifested by

Facet Level

Affective Interpersonal Horizontal Group Member Group Member

Vertical Boundary Spanner Group
Boundary Spanner Boundary Spanner
Group Pride Horizontal Group Member Group Member
Vertical Boundary Spanner Group
Boundary Spanner Boundary Spanner
Instrumental Social Horizontal Group Member Group Member
Vertical Boundary Spanner Group
Boundary Spanner Boundary Spanner
Task Horizontal Group Member Group Member
Vertical Boundary Spanner Group
Boundary Spanner Boundary Spanner

addition, each cohesion function is comprised of two separate but interre-

lated facets. The affective function of cohesion includes the interpersonal
and group pride facets of cohesion, while the instrumental function of
cohesion includes the social and task facets of cohesion.

Affective Functions of Cohesion

The affective function of cohesion refers to those aspects of cohesion that
highlight the emotional impact on group members and as a result, the
group as a whole. The emotional benefits derived from group cohesion
satisfy one of the most basic human motivations: the need to belong.
Baumeister & Leary (1995) theorized that individuals engage in goal-
directed activity among teammates in order to satisfy the need to belong.
Thus, while groups are formed for a variety of task-specific reasons (i.e., to
complete a work task, to start a social movement, to improve efficiency,
etc.), the human fundamental need to belong plays a large role in tying
groups together (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). As a result, groups not only
provide a platform for individuals to be more productive and accomplish
tasks that they would not be able to complete alone, but they also provide
important emotional benefits to members of the group.
Lott and Lott (1965) theorized that one of the central components of
cohesion is the aggregation of interpersonal attraction, liking, or positive
attitudes among team members. Hence, the interpersonal facet within the
affective function describes the friendship bonds that develop among group
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