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OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/10/17, SPi
M i lto n ’ s C o m p l e x Wo r d s
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/10/17, SPi
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/10/17, SPi
Milton’s Complex
Words
Essays on the Conceptual Structure
of Paradise Lost
Pau l H a mm o n d
1
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/10/17, SPi
3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6dp,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Paul Hammond 2017
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2017
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017939640
ISBN 978–0–19–881011–7
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/10/17, SPi
To David and Sandra Hopkins
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/10/17, SPi
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/10/17, SPi
Preface
Men’s Names, of very compound Ideas, such as for the most part are moral
Words, have seldom, in two different Men, the same precise signification;
since one Man’s complex Idea seldom agrees with anothers, and often differs
from his own, from that which he had yesterday, or will have to morrow.1
Every major poet or philosopher develops his own distinctive semantic field around
those terms which matter most to him, or which contribute most profoundly
to the imagined world of a particular work: examples might be ‘Nature’ in
Wordsworth, or ‘Dasein’ in Heidegger.2 Such specially deployed terms may be
drawn from the common linguistic stock, but are subtly, sometimes drastically,
redefined, and no longer quite coincide with what seem to be the same words as
used by contemporaries. So Milton’s ‘reason’ is not Hobbes’ ‘reason’, nor his ‘free-
dom’ Winstanley’s ‘freedom’, nor do his ideas of ‘chance’, ‘fate’, and ‘providence’
coincide with Dryden’s understanding of those terms. As for Milton’s ‘God’, that
idea seems entirely idiosyncratic, an eclectically constructed concept which none
of those other three writers would share—any more than they would agree about
the meaning of ‘God’ amongst themselves. The aim of this book is to explore the
specific meanings which Milton develops around key words in Paradise Lost. Some
of these are theological or philosophical terms (‘evil’, ‘grace’, ‘reason’); others are
words which define the imagined world of the poem (‘dark’, ‘fall’, ‘within’); yet
others are small words or even prefixes which subtly move the argument in new
directions (‘if ’, ‘not’, ‘re-’). Milton seems to expect his readers to be alert to the
special semantic field which he creates around such words, often by infusing them
with biblical and literary connotations, and activating their etymological roots.3
Not all these words are complex in the same way: some, such as ‘free’ or ‘evil’, are
concepts with a rich and varied conceptual structure and a contested history;
others including ‘if ’ or ‘perhaps’ add complexity to the narrative when they open
out alternative possibilities which are also alternative ways of responding to God.
Some words are made complex through repetition, and through their diverse use
(and often their blatant misuse) by different characters: ‘wise’ in the mouth of
Satan means something quite other than ‘wise’ in the mouth of Raphael, and it is
important to notice when Eve begins to use ‘wise’ in a Satanic rather than a celestial
1 John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, edited by Peter H. Nidditch (Oxford,
1975), p. 478.
2 I appended short essays on some of Shakespeare’s complex words to my edition of Shakespeare’s
Sonnets: An Original-Spelling Text (Oxford, 2012).
3 See John K. Hale, Milton’s Languages: The Impact of Multilingualism on Style (Cambridge, 1997).
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/10/17, SPi
viii Preface
sense. To understand the migrations and malleability of key words is part of the
education of Milton’s reader.4
This book is neither a dictionary nor an encyclopaedia, but, in effect, a series of
extended annotations to words whose meaning often seems to appear too obvious
to merit glosses in editions of the poem. But if it seems obvious what ‘love’ means,
its mutations are far from simple; nor is ‘I’ just a pronoun in a poem in which the
metaphysical and experiential grounding of the self takes such different forms. The
list of words chosen for discussion had perforce to be limited if the book were not
to swell into a Key to all Mythologies, but I hope that readers may be prompted to
select further terms for their own explorations. Some important passages are dis-
cussed more than once within different contexts, and I trust that readers will find
the repetition of such examples instructive rather than irritating. While this book
is focused on the language of Paradise Lost I have occasionally ventured into
Milton’s other writings where this seemed likely to be fruitful.
I should also say that in attempting to explicate theological concepts I have drawn
eclectically on the Christian tradition, often citing works which Milton would
not have known—nor approved of if he had known them—if they seemed to me to
provide illuminating reflections on the questions which the poem raises. This
approach should not be interpreted as an attempt to draw Paradise Lost into a com-
fortable conformity with traditional theology (which is, of course, in itself very
diverse); the poem fashions its own world, imaginatively and conceptually, and it
is this distinctive conceptual structure which the book seeks to define by means
of close attention to its key words. Milton’s ‘evil’ or ‘hope’ or ‘God’ are his own
characteristic ideas, though our approach to understanding them may sometimes
lie through terrain which he would have shunned.
The work for this book was begun whilst I was Visiting Fellow Commoner of
Trinity College, Cambridge, for the Michaelmas term 2007, and Leverhulme
Senior Research Fellow for the academic year 2007–8. I am grateful to the College
and to the Trust for their generosity in supporting my work. I am also grateful to
the then Librarian of Trinity, Professor David McKitterick FBA, for allowing me
free access to the treasures of the Wren Library, including the manuscript of
Milton’s shorter poems. The School of English and the Faculty of Arts at the
University of Leeds have granted me study leave to work on this book, and the
University’s Brotherton Library has been an essential resource for my research over
many years.
4 In this respect two works to which the present book bears an obvious debt are Stanley Eugene
Fish, Surprised by Sin: The Reader in ‘Paradise Lost’ (Berkeley, Calif., 1967), and Christopher Ricks,
Milton’s Grand Style (Oxford, 1963). My title, of course, is indebted to William Empson’s The Structure
of Complex Words (London, 1951), though I would not enrol myself amongst the admirers of his work
on Milton. Isabel Gamble MacCaffrey also discusses Milton’s complex words in her book ‘Paradise
Lost’ as ‘Myth’ (Cambridge, Mass., 1959), esp. pp. 81ff and ch. 4. One structuring method in the
poem is, she says, ‘the accumulation of meaning in words that shoot invisible virtue through the poem’
(p. 54).
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/10/17, SPi
Preface ix
Papers derived from this work were read at seminars at the universities of
Birmingham, Edinburgh, Leeds, and Oxford, and I thank the audiences in
these various venues for their stimulating questions and their kind encouragement.
I am also particularly indebted to the perceptive comments of Professor Gordon
Campbell FBA, who generously read the entire book in draft.
I have confined my citations of scholarly and critical work on Milton to those
books and articles which I have found particularly insightful and helpful; and
although I have attempted to record locally my particular debts to the work of
previous students of Milton, I should acknowledge here my general and profound
obligation to generations of scholars, notably to the editors of the Columbia, Yale,
and Oxford editions of Milton’s works (and especially the invaluable index volumes to
the Columbia edition); to Alastair Fowler’s edition of Paradise Lost in the Longman
Annotated English Poets series; to Matthew Stallard’s biblically annotated edition
of the poem; to Earl Miner’s variorum commentary; and to William Ingram and
Kathleen Swaim’s concordance.
Above all, this book is due, once again, to Nick.
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OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/10/17, SPi
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/10/17, SPi
Contents
A Note on Texts and Abbreviations xiii
Abbreviations and Short Titles for Milton’s Works xv
Other Abbreviations xvii
1. Alone 1
2. Art 8
3. Chance, Fate, and Providence 17
4. Change 26
5. Choice 38
6. Dark and Light 47
7. Desire 63
8. Ease 74
9. Envy 87
10. Equal 93
11. Evil 106
12. Fall 126
13. Fancy and Reason 149
14. Free 166
15. God 203
16. Grace 235
17. Hope 246
18. I 255
19. Idol and Image 271
20. If and Perhaps 285
21. Knowledge and Wisdom 303
22. Love 326
23. Naked 342
24. New and Old 350
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/10/17, SPi
xii Contents
25. Not 362
26. Re- 386
27. See and Seem 397
28. Self- 417
29. Within 421
30. ? 437
Afterword: Word 460
Bibliography 463
Index 475
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/10/17, SPi
A Note on Texts and Abbreviations
Unless otherwise stated, all quotations from Milton’s poetry and prose are from the
Columbia edition of The Works of John Milton, edited by Frank Allen Patterson et al.,
18 vols (New York, 1931–8); this is abbreviated as Works. In some cases I have silently
altered the Columbia translation of Milton’s Latin writings where the translation is
inaccurate or antiquated, and for De Doctrina Christiana I have preferred the text
and translation in the new Oxford edition of The Complete Works of John Milton:
Volume VIII: De Doctrina Christiana, edited by John Hale et al. (Oxford, 2012).
The Bible is normally quoted from the Authorized or King James Version (1611)
in the quatercentenary reprint of the original edition (Oxford, [2011]). The Geneva
Bible is quoted from The Geneva Bible: A Facsimile of the 1560 Edition (Peabody,
Mass., 2007). The Book of Common Prayer is quoted from The Book of Common Prayer:
The Texts of 1549, 1559, and 1662, edited by Brian Cummings (Oxford, 2011).
Classical texts and their translations are cited from the editions in the Loeb
Library unless otherwise stated. St Augustine’s Confessiones and De Civitate Dei
are quoted from the Loeb Library editions, his other works mostly from the
Patrologia Latina. The Summa Theologiae of St Thomas Aquinas is quoted from
the bilingual Latin and English edition edited by John Mortensen and Enrique
Alarcón and translated by Fr. Laurence Shapcote O. P., which constitutes volumes
13–20 of the ongoing Works of St Thomas Aquinas published by the Aquinas
Institute for the Study of Sacred Doctrine in Lander, Wyoming. Other texts by
Aquinas are usually quoted from the Corpus Thomisticum available on the website
<http://www.corpusthomisticum.org>.
Shakespeare is quoted from The Complete Works of William Shakespeare, edited
by Herbert Farjeon, the Nonesuch Edition, 4 vols (London, 1953), with act, scene,
and line numbers added from the most recent Arden Shakespeare edition. Dryden
is quoted from The Poems of John Dryden, edited by Paul Hammond and David
Hopkins, 5 vols (London, 1995–2005).
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/10/17, SPi
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Example 62: Literature review and discussion
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Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
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Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
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- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
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Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
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Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
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- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 76: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 78: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Appendix 9: Research findings and conclusions
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 82: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 83: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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