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Performance
Psychology
in Action
 Performance
Psychology
in Action
A Casebook for Working With Athletes,
Performing Artists, Business Leaders, and
Professionals in High-Risk Occupations

EDITED BY

Kate F. Hays

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

WASHINGTON, DC
Copyright © 2009 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved. Except as
permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, including, but not limited to, the process
of scanning and digitization, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.

Published by
American Psychological Association
750 First Street, NE
Washington, DC 20002
www.apa.org

To order
APA Order Department
P.O. Box 92984
Washington, DC 20090-2984
Tel: (800) 374-2721; Direct: (202) 336-5510
Fax: (202) 336-5502; TDD/TTY: (202) 336-6123
Online: www.apa.org/books/
E-mail: [email protected]

In the U.K., Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, copies may be ordered from
American Psychological Association
3 Henrietta Street
Govern Garden, London
WC2E 8LU England

Typeset in Meridien by Stephen McDougal, Mechanicsville, MD

Printer: McNaughton & Gunn, Inc., Ann Arbor, MI

Cover Designer: Berg Design, Albany, NY
Technical/Production Editor: Kathryn Funk

The opinions and statements published are the responsibility of the authors, and such opinions
and statements do not necessarily represent the policies of the American Psychological
Association.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication D a t a

Performance psychology in action : a casebook for working with athletes, performing artists,
business leaders, and professionals in high-risk occupations / edited by Kate F. Hays. — 1st ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-4338-0443-4
ISBN-10: 1-4338-0443-3
1. Attitude (Psychology) 2. Performance. I. Hays, Kate F.

BF327.P46 2009
158.7—dc22 2008044284

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication D a t a

A CIP record is available from the British Library.

Printed in the United States of America

First Edition
Contents

C O N T R I B U T O R S Vil

F O R E W O R D iX

Raymond D. Fowler
P R E F A C E Xl

I N T R O D U C T I O N 3

I
MENTAL ATTRIBUTES FOR PEAK PERFORMANCE
1 The "Canon" of Psychological Skills Training for
Enhancing Performance 11
Mark B. Andersen
2 Emotional Intelligence 35
Sean M. McCann
3 Confidence 57
Daniel R. Gould
4 Mental Preparation, Memorization, and
Improvisation 77
Sandra Foster, Paul J. Lloyd, and Sara Kamin
vi CONTENTS

II
PERFORMANCE CHALLENGES
5 Performance Anxiety 101
Kate F. Hays
6 Audition Anxiety 121
David J. Grand
7 Working With Perfection 139
Lynda M. Mainwaring
8 Competition 161
Gloria Balague

III
PERFORMANCE-RELATED CONSEQUENCES
9 Eating Disorders 183
Karen D. Cogan
10 Isolation 203
Shane Murphy
11 Overtraining, Burnout, Injury, and Retirement 225
Kirsten M. Peterson

IV
THE CONSULTANT AND THE SYSTEM
12 Adolescent Performers and the Family System 247
Douglas M. Hankes
13 Team Leadership 269
Robert S. Weinberg
14 Hierarchical Public Safety Organizations 289
Mario J. Scalora

V
CONCLUSION
15 The Consultant as a Performer 309
Charles H. Brown
INDEX 329

ABOUT THE EDITOR 337

Contributors

Mark B. Andersen, PhD, School of Sport and Exercise Science and the
Centre for Ageing, Rehabilitation, Exercise, and Sport, Victoria Univer-
sity, Melbourne, Australia

Gloria Balague, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Illinois

at Chicago

Charles H. Brown, PhD, FPS Performance, Charlotte, NC

Karen D. Cogan, PhD, Counseling Center, University of North Texas

and independent practice, Denton

Sandra Foster, PhD, Korn/Ferry International, London, England

Raymond D. Fowler, PhD, La Jolla, CA

Daniel R. Gould, PhD, Institute for the Study of Youth Sports, Depart-
ment of Kinesiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing

David J. Grand, PhD, Brainspotting Training Institute, Bellmore, NY

Douglas M. Hankes, PhD, Student Counseling Services, Auburn Uni-

versity, Auburn, AL

vn
VIII C O N T R I B U T O R S

Kate F. Hays, PhD, The Performing Edge, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Sara Kamin, MSc, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Paul J. Lloyd, PhD, President, Lloyd & Associates, Cape Girardeau, MO

Lynda M. Mainwaring, PhD, CPsych, Faculty of Physical Education

and Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Sean M. McCann, PhD, Performance Services Division, U.S. Olympic

Committee, Colorado Springs, CO

Shane Murphy, PhD, Department of Psychology, Western Connecticut

State College, Danbury

Kirsten M. Peterson, PhD, Senior Sport Psychologist, U.S. Olympic

Committee, Colorado Springs, CO

Mario J. Scalora, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of

Nebraska, Lincoln

Robert S. Weinberg, PhD, Department of Kinesiology and Health,

Miami University, Oxford, OH
Foreword
Raymond D. Fowler

e all have performance issues. From early childhood, we face an endless

sequence of auditions. Evaluation, in the form of test scores and grades,
starts as early as preschool. Public speaking, at least to one's classmates, is
not far behind. Throughout the school years, there are a series of audi-
tions: Will I make the team? Will I win the prize? Will I get into the right
college? Those challenges continue through adult life: Will I get the job?
Will I get the promotion? Can I keep up with the competition?
Those who choose a public life, whether in sports, the performing
arts, or business, are continually auditioning. In the age of television and
24/7 cable news, politicians are performers as well, but for those reach-
ing for the top, the performance demands are especially intense. This
Foreword is written in 2008, a year filled with politics at all levels. Each
day in the life of those currently seeking the position of president is filled
with auditions with historic implications. A single misstatement or ill-
chosen word can be broadcast to the world with disastrous results.
In today's age, when every performance can be critical, it is helpful to
keep in mind the time-honored mental techniques that have helped leg-
endary performers to optimize their performances. For example, Win-
ston Churchill, considered by many to be the greatest statesman-orator
of the 20th century, intuitively understood the power of mental prepara-
tion. To reach his goals as a politician and to overcome his anxiety about
speaking, Churchill had to become his own performance psychologist.
He never gave an important speech without being totally prepared. First,
he wrote the entire speech; then he practiced it in front of a mirror ex-
actly as he would give it until he could present it without notes and with
an ease that suggested that the thoughts had just come to him. To deal

IX
FOREWORD

with his stage fright, he developed a technique that became his trade-
mark. After he was introduced and came to the podium, he paused and
carefully scanned the faces of the audience before beginning his speech.
When asked why he did that, he allegedly explained that he looked at
each member of the audience to see if there was anyone there who was
smarter than he was. When he concluded that there was not, he began
his speech.
I am a lifelong admirer of Winston Churchill, and as I read the chap-
ters in this excellent book, I could not help speculating how performance
psychologists like the chapter authors might have further enhanced
Churchill's mental preparation. For example, one could imagine Kate
Hays helping the young Churchill learn diaphragmatic breathing. Lynda
Mainwaring would have encouraged his pursuit of perfection as a speaker,
and Sandra Foster, Paul Lloyd, and Sara Kamin would have supported
his self-taught mental preparation, including memorization.
Kate Hays is a leader in the rapidly developing area of performance
psychology, and her books, including this one, have promoted the re-
search and practice that have made that growth possible. Kate has been
my friend and colleague for many years. Thirty years ago, I brought to-
gether a little band of psychologists interested in running to form Run-
ning Psychologists and to sponsor the annual race at the American Psy-
chological Association's (APA's) convention; that race still continues. Kate
was an early member of Running Psychologists and soon became one of
the leaders of the group. What remained an avocation for me became a
central part of Kate's practice as a psychologist. She played a major role in
turning Running Psychologists into the APA Division of Exercise and Sport
Psychology and went on to become a leader in that organization as well.
This book. Performance Psychology in Action: A Casebook for Working With
Athletes, Performing Artists, Business Leaders, and Professionals in High-Risk
Occupations, makes two major contributions to the growing field. First, it
brings together a group of psychologists who represent the diversity of
applications of performance psychology. The approaches vary, but there
is a common thread: overcoming the blocks that prevent optimal perfor-
mance.
Second, this book brings together the research and practice issues
and promotes, within each chapter, a science-practice dialogue. The au-
thors come from a variety of backgrounds and orientations, and the de-
sign of the book permits them to explain how their theoretical approaches
inform their practice.
Established performance psychologists as well as aspiring ones will
find much to admire in this volume. The authors have demonstrated,
with well-chosen case examples, their skill and caring in dealing with
their clients. Role models are not always easy to come by, but this book
includes some excellent candidates.
Preface

hen I was an undergraduate student, only one of my friends knew ex-

actly what he was going to do professionally for the rest of his life. Tony
had known since he was 10 that he would become a commercial airline
pilot. And he knew the best route to that career: After college, he en-
tered the Air Force, developed expertise, and was discharged . . . only to
find that the airlines did not need any new pilots. Tony drove a taxi for a
few years; ultimately, he became a successful craftsman of custom pic-
ture frames.
Obviously, this was not where he thought his life was going, but his
experience is probably similar to what happens to many of us in our
careers: We develop a sense of our direction, and over time, we shift and
change. We tack into the wind, altering our course from time to time as
we sail through our lives. Kierkegaard commented that life must be lived
forward yet can only be understood in retrospect.
How does one become a performance psychologist? My own train-
ing followed the classical path of clinical psychology in the late 1960s
and early 1970s. What I did then bears only tangential reference to who
I am now. Over the years, my various "tacks" have included—in a chro-
nological sequence that only makes sense now—individual psychotherapy
with children, family and systems work, program evaluation, indepen-
dent practice development, eating disorders, posttraumatic stress disor-
der, sport psychology, and today, performance psychology.
Yet there is method to this madness. In particular, as an amateur
musician, I have relished discovering how the vast array of mental skills

XI
Xii P R E F A C E

in sport psychology can inform my work with performing artists. The

similarities and differences are endlessly intriguing.
Over these years, I have been fortunate to develop friendships with
like-minded colleagues. In this book, I feel surrounded and supported by
them and am grateful for their willingness and interest in exploring the
horizons of this developing field.
This book's authors enthusiastically greeted the concept of Performance
Psychology in Action: A Casebook for Working With Athletes, Performing Artists,
Business Leaders, and Professionals in High-Risk Occupations. I especially want
to single out the newest author, along with two good friends, the "book-
end" authors. Sara Kamin represents the next generation in the field,
someone trained in sport psychology because she has a passion for the
performing arts. And she can write, too! Mark Andersen, who here lays
out the essential mental skills of performance psychology, developed the
structure of presenting case material in a dialogic and self-reflective for-
mat in two of his books. The style is both engaging and informative. To
my mind, it fits perfectly as a method for assisting others interested in
learning more about the field and opening a window into what expert
performance psychologists actually do when they work with performers.
Mark has also engaged fully with the development of this book, offering
sage advice and wonderful wordsmithing along the way. Charlie Brown
(the other "Charlie Brown") has been a creative and companionate vi-
sionary—a big picture thinker who can also attend to the smallest de-
tail—fun, energetic, and able to create the kind of self-reflection that
provides the just-right end note to wrap up a book of this complexity.
Honoring the verve and pioneering work of my mother, Lora Hays, I
dedicate this book to my grandson Mason W. Lothrop and the future that
beckons us all.
Performance
Psychology
in Action
This page intentionally left blank
 ntroduction
Kate F. Hays

idelined with injuries to her knee, Chris, a 27-year-old principal dancer,

has missed part of the current season. When she returns for her first re-
hearsal, she is seized with a sense of doom, worrying that her legs will no
longer sustain her. Suddenly, she flees the stage. Later, she comes to you
for assistance, telling you that her entire career is on the line.
Situations like this one confront performance consultants on a regu-
lar basis. Whether the client is a ballerina, track star, police chief, or CEO,
he or she must perform at optimal levels under high pressure. Prepara-
tion is critical. Many performers retain trainers or coaches to prepare them-
selves physically; your job is to help them prepare mentally.
In this book, my colleagues and I dissect performance. We look at the
mental skills, challenges, possible negative consequences, and systemic
factors associated with high-pressure performance. We offer practical ways
that consultants can help these performers achieve their best. In essence,
as Douglas Hankes explains to a 15-year-old athlete (see chap. 12, this
volume), we show you how to help performers "get their head out of the
way of their body, so their body can do what it's trained to do."
Each chapter begins with a literature review for a particular perfor-
mance-related mental skill, challenge, consequence, or systemic factor.
After considering the relevant theoretical and research information con-
cerning this issue, the author presents a case study that exemplifies the
topic under consideration. These case studies form the bulk of this book.
They include extensive transcripts and commentary because we want you
KATE F. HAYS

to have a more complete understanding of what it's like to work with

performers in action. For more information about the theoretical frame-
work, historical background, and professional concerns related to perfor-
mance consulting, including information from performers and performance
consultants, see You're On! Consulting for Peak Performance, which I coau-
thored with Charles H. Brown Jr. (Hays & Brown, 2004). In many ways,
the current book is an illustrated companion to the earlier volume.

Types of Performers
Addressed in Performance
Psychology in Action

Everyone performs, that is, takes action in their daily lives; high stan-
dards of performance, in high-pressure contexts, are inherent to certain
professions. These situations are stressful; high stakes ride on each perfor-
mance. An audition could make or break a career. An athletic perfor-
mance could win or lose a game. An emergency response could save or
cost a life. In short, the performers we discuss in this book must perform
in front of an actual or implied audience, bring their talents and skills into
proficient action, and display a public face that may be different from
their ordinary self. They must meet certain performance standards, re-
spond to high external demands, demonstrate appropriate coping skills
under pressure, handle judgments regarding their proficiency or excel-
lence, and face performance consequences.
In this volume, we explore four key performance areas, or domains,
that place tremendous pressure on those who participate: sports, perform-
ing arts, business, and high-risk (i.e., life-or-death) occupations. The broad
range of athletes who seek services includes amateurs as well as profes-
sionals, developing as well as elite athletes, and individuals as well as
teams. Among performing artists, musicians and dancers have embraced
performance psychology most actively, whereas actors have incorporated
many aspects of performance psychology into their training. Profession-
als in business occupations—whether in law, sales, or finance—have en-
gaged in performance psychology at both an organizational level (e.g.,
companies, production teams) and a personal level. Professionals who
work in high-risk occupations—situations in which people's lives are af-
fected by their decisions and actions—include public safety workers such
as police, firefighters, and the military as well as certain physicians (e.g.,
surgeons, emergency room physicians).
 Introduction

Roots of Performance
Psychology

The research background that informs this type of consultation derives

from three broad, overlapping areas: sport psychology; psychotherapy;
and the fields of consulting, coaching, and executive coaching (Hays &
Brown, 2004).
Sport psychology brings to this field an extensive research and prac-
tice history, dating back over 100 years—though often unknown to tradi-
tionally trained psychologists and other mental health practitioners. The
fortuitous energies of the latter half of the 20th century—applied sport
psychology, the development of cognitive-behavioral techniques, and the
recognition of the mind-body connection—all crystallized in a solid field
that is now recognized as a proficiency within the American Psychologi-
cal Association.
The past 30 years has also seen the emergence of a variety of thera-
peutic modalities that move beyond the intrapsychic reflections of the
individual. A number of types of psychotherapy focus on families and
systemic concerns, the process of change, cognitive-behavioral treatment,
the constructivist therapies, and/or elements of well-being. Although some
address broad, systemic issues and the process of change, others are geared
toward current behaviors and future intentions. All engage the syner-
getic interplay between understanding and action.
New and emerging methods of interacting with clients, such as coach-
ing in its various forms, underscore a more egalitarian relationship be-
tween the person seeking assistance and the one offering help. Especially
among those competent in their profession, this segmented and focused
activity provides important assistance in a variety of settings.

Theoretical Orientations

The authors of these chapters vary in their background and in their par-
ticular philosophical and theoretical focus. Some authors' professional
background was in clinical, counseling, or consulting psychology; others'
primary training was in sport sciences. Many have been involved in sport
psychology consultation for a number of years—in fact, the production of
this book coincides with several authors' work in Beijing, China, coach-
ing athlete-competitors during the 2008 Olympic Games. Authors have
developed further expertise, building on initial knowledge and skills, to
KATE F. HAYS

work in business, with athletes and performing artists, or those in high-

risk professions. Depending on the individual and the context in which
assistance has been sought, the authors label their activities, variously, as
coaching, consulting, psychotherapy, or executive coaching.
Although eclectic gets a bad rap, these chapters capture the reality that
excellent practitioners have many arrows in their quiver. The range of
treatments and schools of thought includes not only the currently ubiqui-
tous cognitive and cognitive-behavioral techniques and therapies but also
emotion-focused, psychodynamic, Rogerian, solution-focused, and posi-
tive psychology therapies as well as eye-movement desensitization and
reprocessing (EMDR) and its variants.

Confidentiality

All of the case studies in this volume are masked to ensure confidential-
ity: Particular identifying client details have been altered to protect the
privacy of the individuals described. In some chapters, what appears on
the printed page as one particular person may be an amalgam of a few
clients. Although the clients' identities are disguised, the authors' respect
for these clients is real—respect for the knowledge these performers have
of their particular profession and their ability to perform superbly, as well
as respect for their sense of humor, their pain, and their specific way of
viewing the world.

Organization ofthe Book

Performance Psychology in Action: A Casebook for Working With Athletes, Per-

forming Artists, Business Leaders, and Professionals in High-Risk Occupations is
divided into four parts that cover the range of issues and activities in-
volved in the practice of performance psychology. Part I, "Mental Attributes
for Peak Performance," addresses the central or core competencies neces-
sary for superb performance in all fields. These include basic mental skills,
the management of emotion, confidence for performance, and thorough
preparation. Especially in sport psychology, a particular set of techniques
has become so widely recognized and codified that it can be considered a
canon of mental or psychological skills. Mark Andersen (see chap. 1, this
volume) describes these techniques, derived from cognitive-behavior
theory, and illustrates them with the case of a ballet dancer. Sean McCann
(see chap. 2, this volume) pinpoints the critical role of the management
 Introduction

of emotion in optimal performance, offering a case history of a business-

man. A sense of confidence is another critical element for optimal perfor-
mance, and Daniel Gould (see chap. 3, this volume) details his year-long
work with a National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR)
crew. In examining the issue of thorough mental preparation, Sandra
Foster, Paul Lloyd, and Sara Kamin (see chap. 4, this volume) explicate
the challenge faced by a business executive as she deals with an interper-
sonal dilemma.
Optimal performance is also built on the management of stresses and
challenges. Part II, "Performance Challenges," considers the stressful ele-
ments of performance. Performance anxiety is a common response to these
stresses, and I (see chap. 5, this volume) describe the case of a musician
with performance anxiety. A more specific subset of performance anxiety
relates to auditions—moments that determine whether one is in or out.
David Grand (see chap. 6, this volume) discusses audition anxiety using
the case study of an actor. The narrow line between striving for excel-
lence and perfectionism is provided by Lynda Mainwaring (see chap. 7,
this volume) in her work with a dancer. Competition is endemic to all
areas of performance; Gloria Balague (see chap. 8, this volume) works
with a stock trader on the productive management of competition.
Part III, "Performance-Related Consequences," focuses on some of
the potential negative effects that may result from, or be exacerbated by,
performance. Eating disorders are prevalent in certain areas of perfor-
mance, and Karen Cogan (see chap. 11, this volume) discusses methods
of working with an athlete with an eating disorder. A nearly ubiquitous
consequence of reaching toward the pinnacle of one's profession is a sense
of isolation. Managing the challenge of isolation for a businessman be-
comes the case focus of Shane Murphy's chapter (see chap. 10, this vol-
ume). Career pauses and endings—overtraining, burnout, injury, and re-
tirement—are more inevitable in some professions than others. Kirsten
Peterson (see chap. 9, this volume) discusses an athlete in the process of
retiring from her beloved sport.
Clients do not come to consultants in a vacuum. Part IV, "The Con-
sultant and the System," concerns the broader systemic issues that affect
performers. Douglas Hankes (see chap. 12, this volume) discusses the fam-
ily systems of adolescent performers, presenting his work with an adoles-
cent softball player as an example. Teams and effective leadership are
described by Robert Weinberg (see chap. 13, this volume) using the case
study of a business team leader. Organizations that are hierarchical in
nature entail particular challenges for consultants, and Mario Scalora (see
chap. 14, this volume) describes his work with public safety officers.
Finally, in a conclusion, Charles Brown examines the consultant as a
performer. Offering detailed observation of his own performance in the
8 K AT E F. H AY S

role of consultant. Brown demonstrates the ways in which consultants

can use the same mental attributes that they teach others.
Like elements of a mosaic, each chapter can stand alone, but collec-
tively they create a vibrant whole, with motifs echoed, reinforced, recon-
sidered, or reframed, as multiple voices tackle the exciting complexities in
consultants' work with performers. The first part of each chapter, the lit-
erature review, deals with a particular theme from one of the four major
parts—that is, a particular mental skill, challenge, negative consequence,
or systemic factor. However, each case study includes themes from all
four major parts of the book. The chapters thus "speak to" each other in a
way that we hope will "speak to" you.
If this book succeeds, it will be because of dialogue: between science
and practice, between client and consultant, between distinctive perfor-
mance domains, between different chapters of the book, and between
each chapter and you. In your "conversation" with each chapter, may
you learn, agree, argue, and be strengthened in your ability to under-
stand how best to serve your clients.

Reference

Hays, K. R, & Brown, C. H., Jr. (2004). You're on! Consulting for peak perfor-
mance. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
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