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 The Ethics of Tourism

There are increasingly strident calls from many sectors of society for the tourism industry,
the world’s largest industry, to adopt a more ethical approach to the way it does business.
In particular there has been an emphasis placed on the need for a more ethical approach to
the way the tourism industry interacts with consumers, the environment, with indigenous
peoples, those in poverty, and those in destinations suffering human rights abuses.
This book introduces students to the important topic of tourism ethics and illustrates
how ethical principles and theory can be applied to address contemporary tourism industry
issues. A critical role of the book is to highlight the ethical challenges in the tourism indus-
try and to situate tourism ethics within wider contemporary discussions of ethics in gen-
eral. Integrating theory and practice the book analyses a broad range of topical and
relevant tourism ethical issues from the urgent ‘big-picture’ problems facing the industry
as a whole (e.g. air travel and global warming) to more micro-scale everyday issues that
may face individual tourism operators or, indeed, individual tourists. The book applies
relevant ethical frameworks to each issue, addressing a range of ethical approaches to
provide the reader with a firm grounding of applied ethics, from first principles.
International case studies with reflective questions at the end are integrated throughout to
provide readers with valuable insight into real world ethical dilemmas, encouraging criti-
cal analysis of tourism ethical issues as well as ethically determined decisions. Discussion
questions and annotated further reading are included to aid students’ understanding.
The Ethics of Tourism: Critical and Applied Perspectives is essential reading for all
Tourism students globally.
Brent Lovelock is an Associate Professor in the Department of Tourism at the University
of Otago, New Zealand.
Kirsten M. Lovelock is a Senior Research Fellow in the Department of Preventive and
Social Medicine, University of Otago, New Zealand.
This page intentionally left blank
The Ethics of Tourism
Critical and applied perspectives

Brent Lovelock and

Kirsten M. Lovelock

Routledge
Taylor & Francis G roup

L O N D O N A N D N EW YO RK
First published 2013
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2013 Brent Lovelock and Kirsten M. Lovelock
The right of Brent Lovelock and Kirsten M. Lovelock to be identified as authors of
this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book

ISBN: 978-0-415-57557-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-415-57558-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-203-85453-2 (ebk)
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Cenveo Publisher Services
This book is dedicated to our children Millie, Oscar and Levi
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

List of figures ix
List of tables xi
List of case studies xii
List of contributors xiii
Acknowledgements xv

1 Introduction 1

2 Tourism: ethical concepts and principles 17

3 Mobility, borders and security 39

4 Human rights 63

5 Medical tourism 95

6 Sex tourism 121

7 Tourism and indigenous peoples 144

8 Tourism and disability 169

9 Nature-based tourism 198

10 Animals and tourism 225

11 Climate change 253

12 Hospitality and marketing ethics 278

viii CONTENTS

13 Labour 306

14 Codes of ethics 329

15 Conclusion: ethical futures? 353

Index 365
 Figures

1.1 Ethical tourism model 6

1.2 Photo: Tourists looking at rubble of a building in Christchurch,
New Zealand, from the February 2011 earthquake in which 185 people
died. Is ‘disaster tourism’ ethical? 10
2.1 Cartoon: Ethics within reason 18
2.2 Continuum of Justice Tourism 31
3.1 Photo: UK Border 43
3.2 Photo: Sign at UK border 44
3.3 Photo: US–Mexico border 46
3.4 Photo: LAX customer satisfaction survey device 50
4.1 Photo: Water is a human rights issue 71
4.2 Travel agents’ stakeholders and ethical relationships 73
4.3 Photo: Can tourism contribute to political change and the toppling
of totalitarian regimes? 77
4.4 Modelling ethical travel patterns: ‘extreme’ scenario 81
4.5 A conceptual framework for the interrelationship of peace, conflict
and tourism 83
5.1 Cartoon: Medical tourism 98
5.2 Photo: Kidney trade – men bearing their scars 111
5.3 Decision-making process of medical tourist 112
5.4 Photo: Dentist, border town, Mexico 113
6.1 Photo: Billboard advocating awareness of sexually transmitted
diseases in Africa 123
6.2 Photo: Sex menu in a hotel in Myanmar catering to cross-border Chinese
sex tourists 127
7.1 Framework for indigenous tourism 146
7.2 Photo: Mesa Verde, Colorado 147
7.3 Photo: Indigenous peoples’ band, entertaining tourists in China 152
7.4 Photo: Sami tent, Norway 154
7.5 Photo: ‘Nice Indians’ sign in Arizona 156
7.6 Cartoon: Slum tourism 163
x FIGURES

8.1 Photo: Do airlines have a moral requirement to meet the needs of PWD? 178
8.2 Social and scientific formulations of disability 182
8.3 A continuum of impacts of disability on holidaymaking 182
8.4 Photo: New developments in access now allow wheelchair users to
experience heritage sites, such as the Colosseum, Rome 187
8.5 Photo: Large-scale motorised access to wilderness 190
9.1 Photo: Often the negative impacts of tourism on nature are unintentional 203
9.2 Spheres of moral considerability 208
9.3 Photo: Bailong Elevator, Wulingyuan World Heritage Area, China 212
10.1 Photo: Animals, both wild and in captivity, are a popular visitor attraction 226
10.2 Wildlife-based tourism 227
10.3 Human priorities and actions in recreational interactions with fish 228
10.4 Impacts of tourism on wildlife 229
10.5 Photo: Inuit man preparing skin from a polar bear shot by a tourist 236
10.6 Photo: Tourists riding elephants, Nepal 242
10.7 Photo: Bear in a zoo, Norway – education or entertainment? 245
11.1 Photo: Air travel brings benefits to developing world destinations 257
11.2 Photo: Is this a view we should feel guilty about? 263
11.3 Photo: Are there more ethical modes of travel, such as this
TGV in Switzerland? 266
12.1 Photo: A beautiful beach … but where is it? 285
12.2 Ethical position matrix 287
12.3 Antecedents, impacts and outcomes of unethical practices 290
12.4 General theory of marketing ethics 292
12.5 The ISCT decision process 296
13.1 Photo: Disneyland 310
13.2 Photo: Cruise ship – tourists and casualised workers on board 315
13.3 Photo: Invisible workers. Service provision in tourism:
paid reproductive labourers 319
13.4 Core and periphery in the tourism labour market 320
14.1 Photo: Tourists feeding dolphins at Tin Can Bay, Queensland, Australia 339
14.2 Photo: Tourist codes of conduct may help prevent unwanted intrusions
within cultural tourism settings such as this village in Myanmar 342
15.1 Carroll’s pyramid conception of corporate social responsibility 361
 Tables

2.1 Schumann’s Moral Principles Framework 33

4.1 Calls for travel boycotts 75
4.2 Residents displaced by Olympic Games 86
7.1 Pro-poor tourism principles 160
10.1 Ethical issues and benefits of tourist–animal interactions 230
12.1 Categories of unethical practice in the Chinese inbound market 289
 Case studies

Tourism, visas and the geopolitics of mobility: ‘We are all terror
suspects now’ – C. Michael Hall 53
Fiji ‘Before’ and ‘After’ the coup 73
Tourism Boycotts: The Case of Myanmar – Joan C. Henderson 77
Medical tourist flows and uneven regional healthcare capacity – John Connell 103
An Act of Omission, Resourcing and Will: Tourism, Disability
and Access within the Public Policy Sphere – Simon Darcy 172
Hospitality and access 188
Issues of environmental ethics and tourism’s use of wilderness
and nature – Andrew Holden 204
Inuit Perspectives on the Ethics of Polar Bear Conservation Hunting in
Nunavut Territory, Canada – Martha Dowsley 236
Climate change and tourism development – Stefan Gössling 258
Culture and ethics in the supply chain 288
Queenstown and transient workers: A match made in heaven? – Tara Duncan 321
Codes of tourist conduct – Ngadha, Indonesia 342
Fair Trade Tourism – Karla Boluk 359
 Contributors

Karla Boluk is a Lecturer in the Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management at

the University of Ulster, Northern Ireland. Karla’s current research interests include tour-
ism as a potential vehicle to eradicate poverty, Fair Trade Tourism, rural development,
community development/empowerment and social entrepreneurship.
John Connell is Professor of Geography at the University of Sydney. He works mainly
on migration and development in the Pacific and has published various books on the
migration of health workers.
Simon Darcy is an Associate Professor at the UTS Business School and Director of the
Cosmopolitan Civil Societies Research Centre at the University of Technology, Sydney.
He is an interdisciplinary researcher with expertise in developing inclusive organisational
approaches to diversity groups. Since incurring a spinal injury in 1983 Simon is a power
wheelchair user and passionately believes in the rights of all people to fully participate in
all aspects of community life.
Martha Dowsley is an Associate Professor at Lakehead University in Thunder Bay,
Ontario, Canada. She is cross-appointed in the departments of Anthropology and
Geography. Her research focuses on cultural understandings of natural resources.
Tara Duncan is a Lecturer in the Department of Tourism at the University of Otago,
New Zealand. Her background in social and cultural geography informs her current
research interests in lifestyle mobilities, young budget travel (backpacking, gap years and
the Overseas Experience (OE)) and everyday spaces and practices of tourism, hospitality
and leisure.
Stefan Gössling is a Professor at the Department of Service Management, Lund University,
and the School of Business and Economics at Linnaeus University, Kalmar, both Sweden.
He is also the research co-ordinator at the Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism,
Sogndal, Norway.
C. Michael Hall is a Professor in the Department of Management, University of
Canterbury, New Zealand; Docent, Department of Geography, University of Oulu,
Finland, and a Visiting Professor at the University of Eastern Finland, Savonlinna, and
Linneaus University, Kalmar, Sweden.
xiv CONTRIBUTORS

Joan C. Henderson is an Associate Professor at Nanyang Business School in Singapore.

Prior to this, she lectured in tourism in the United Kingdom after periods of employment
in the public and private tourism sectors.
Andrew Holden is Professor of Environment and Tourism and also the Director for the
Centre for Research into the Environment and Sustainable Tourism Development
(CREST) at the University of Bedfordshire, England. His research focuses on the interac-
tion between human behaviour and the natural environment within the context of tourism.
Specific areas of research interest include environmental ethics, poverty and sustainable
development.
 Acknowledgements

A number of friends, colleagues and family members have provided support and have
contributed to this book. We would like to thank all of our case study contributors for their
case studies and enthusiastic support throughout the preparation of the manuscript. Thank
you to: C. Michael Hall, Joan Henderson, John Connell, Simon Darcy, Andrew Holden,
Martha Dowsley, Stefan Gössling, Tara Duncan and Karla Boluk. A big thanks to the
commissioning editor Emma Travis for her patience and forbearance and to Carol Barber
for her understanding and support throughout the process. Thank you also to Adam
Doering for stirling assistance with the literature early on in the project, and to Diana Evans
for dealing with our formatting woes and working so quickly to rectify them. Thank you
also to Jo O’Brien for help in the initial set-up stages. Helen Dunn for final checks, and
Trudie Walters for indexing. Brent would also like to thank his students for wittingly and
at times unwittingly directing him toward this pathway. Thanks also to the various pub-
lishers who have allowed us to reproduce tables and figures and to draw on pivotal work
in this field. Figure 8.2 reprinted with permission of the Publisher from Critical Disability
Theory, by Dianne Pothier and Richard Devlin ©University of British Columbia Press
2005. All rights reserved by the Publisher. Figure 12.5 reprinted with permission from
Journal of Marketing, published by the American Marketing Association, Thomas
W. Dunfee, N. Craig Smith and William T. Ross, Jr., Social Contracts and Marketing
Ethics Vol. 63, No. 3 (Jul., 1999), pp. 14–32. For photographs we would like to thank: Pin
Ng, Martha Dowsley, Simon Darcy, C. Michael Hall, Andrea Farminer, Asim Tanveer and
permissions from various unknown photographers. Thank you to David Fennell,
C. Michael Hall, Alan Lew, Mick Smith and Rosaleen Duffy, Stroma Cole and Nigel
Morgan, and Andrew Holden for inspiration and the wide range of scholars who have
provided the invaluable research which informs and makes a book like this possible.
Thanks also to colleagues at the University of Otago – in the Department of Tourism,
David McBride in the Department of Preventive and Social Medicine, and the librarians
at the Central Library. For musical inspiration: Astro Children, Lucinda Williams, David
Kilgour, The Clean, Gillian Welch, Gomez and The Civil Wars. A number of friends and
family have provided encouragement and fun evenings that allowed us to forget the book:
thank you to Tina McKay, Bronwen McNoe, Hazel Tucker, Anna and Andy Thompson,
xvi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Romola McKay, Shaun Scott and Rae Hickey, Teresa La Rooy and TEU colleagues,
Nicky Page and Tex Houston, Diana Saxton and James Ballard (for Naseby retreats),
James Windle, Joel and Trudy Tyndall, Kathy Ferguson, Jo Preston and Marj Wright
for sustenance. Finally, thanks to our children Millie, Oscar and Levi. And also, to
our extended family: Fergie, Binky (for computer company), Oaky, Pecky, Betty and
Hetty.
 1 Introduction

‘On the whole human beings want to be good, but not too good, and not quite all the time.’
George Orwella

‘A man without ethics is a wild beast loosed upon this world.’

Albert Camusb

‘To educate a person in mind and not in morals is to educate a menace in society.’
Theodore Rooseveltc

‘Ethics is a skill.’
Marianne Jenningsd

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter you will be able to:

• Understand the rationale for an ‘ethics’ focus on tourism.
• Define the term ‘ethical tourism’.
• Understand the relationship between ethical tourism and sustainable
tourism.
• Discuss the role of ethical consumption in ethical tourism.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
As recently as five years ago, one would seldom have heard the words ‘ethics’ and ‘tour-
ism’ used together in a sentence. As recently as 10 years ago, one would seldom have
heard the words ‘business’ and ‘ethics’ together – at least outside of the specific world of
moral philosophy and the field of business ethics research. The Enron, WorldCom and
other corporate scandals of the first decade of the twenty-first century have changed all
this. The issues raised and lessons learned from these and numerous other business out-
rages have permeated into many aspects of our lives – to influence not only our financial
concerns but also our leisure activities.
2 INTRODUCTION

Now, some researchers and industry practitioners are starting to think, talk and write
about the ethics of tourism, or, rather, about the ‘ethical deficit’ (Moufakkir 2012)
or ‘immense void’ in ethics in the tourism field (Fennell 2006). Why this recent interest
in ethics? What has changed about tourism? Well, of course tourism as an industry
has grown, but this growth has been steady, to the point now where total global arrivals
are estimated to be in the vicinity of 5 billion, with about 1 billion of these being interna-
tional arrivals.1 We acknowledge that tourism is a large industry and perhaps even the
world’s largest, but it is not on these grounds alone that there is a need for a text on tourism
ethics. Billions of people participate in comparable leisure activities: they go to the
movies, play sport, go shopping – yet there is no equivalent call for these to be placed
under the same ‘ethics-scope’. So what is it about tourism that would demand such con-
sideration?

Tourism is a social practice or phenomenon that reaches into many people’s lives, into com-
munities, economies, and takes place across an incredibly diverse range of settings. It is
almost ubiquitous. Despite early and optimistic hopes that tourism would be the ‘smoke-
less’ industry that could benefit communities around the world, contributing to social and
economic wellbeing, it is clearly acknowledged now that tourism is linked to a range of
social, economic and environmental impacts or ‘tourism-related changes’ as Hall and Lew
(2009) describe them. These have been clearly debated and discussed in the tourism lit-
erature and by the industry for four or more decades (for a detailed coverage of tourism
impacts we recommend Hall and Lew (2009) Understanding and Managing Tourism
Impacts). Indeed, managing the impacts of tourism continues to remain a strong focus
for researchers, planners and practitioners in the field today. Broadly, tourism impacts may
be categorised as social–cultural, economic or environmental; however, there may be
considerable overlap between these categories.

Economic impacts encompass the monetary benefits and costs that result from the development
and use of tourism facilities and services. Environmental impacts include alterations to the natural
environment, including air, water, soils, vegetation and wildlife, as well as changes to the built
environment.
(Wall and Wright 1977 in Wall and Mathieson 2006: 38)

Social and cultural impacts of tourism include the way that tourism may ‘effect changes
in collective and individual value systems, behaviour patterns, community structures, life-
style and the quality of life’ (Hall and Lew 2009: 57). As Higgins-Desbiolles (2006) notes,
tourism is ‘more than an industry’, it is a social force.

There are a number of defining characteristics of tourism as a social and physical phenom-
enon that, together with the sheer scale and scope of the tourism industry, require us to
consider alternative approaches to ‘the tourism question’:

• Tourism involves (often complex) social, cultural, economic and ecological interactions.
• These interactions take place en route to and in a ‘destination’ which is also someone’s
‘place’ (house, village, town, city, nation, mountain, jungle, beach, backyard).
• The visitor (and industry providers) may value this ‘place’ and their ‘host’ less than
they do their own place and community.
 INTRODUCTION 3

• These interactions often involve power differentials – often with the visitor and tourism
industry expressing power in a number of ways over the host.
• These interactions may result in harms or benefits – to the host (and possibly the visitor
too), to their communities, their economies and their ecologies.
• Tourists (and other stakeholders in the tourism ‘exchange’) are inherently selfish – each
seeking to maximise their personal (or group or corporate) value.

Increasingly since the 1970s, the degree of concern about the scope and scale of tourism
impacts has led to the development and promotion of approaches through which we
can minimise tourism’s negative impacts while still allowing the benefits of tourism
to flow to communities. At the forefront of such approaches has been sustainable tourism
development. But can sustainable approaches address ethical concerns and ensure ethical
practice? Modelled on sustainable development, which emerged from the work of
the World Commission for the Environment and Development (1987) (the ‘Brundtland
Report’ (see United Nations 2012)), sustainable tourism development involves taking
‘full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts,
addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities’
(UNWTO 2012a). Sustainable tourism has been the guiding principle of the tourism indus-
try since the late 1980s. However, critics point to the ongoing impacts of tourism, and
argue that sustainable tourism is simply rhetoric, adopted by destination planners and
industry practitioners to appease the travelling public, host communities and environmen-
talists. Referred to variously as a ‘significant policy problem’, a ‘policy failure’ (Hall
2011) and a ‘myth’ (Sharpley 2010), sustainable tourism is decried as being both meaning-
less and meaning everything – to the extent that its operationalisation is near impossible
(see Chapter 9 for a full discussion of sustainable tourism development in relation to
nature).
On a more profound level, sustainable tourism emerged from a neoliberal discourse on
meeting pressing global problems.2 Subsequently, sustainable development (at least in
its current forms) is largely predicated upon economic growth, and thus faces challenges
not only in credibility, but in creating truly (in a holistic sense) sustainable outcomes
(e.g. Duffy 2008; Higgins-Desbiolles 2008; Fletcher 2011). Sustainable tourism, then,
could be seen as a neoliberal sop to the real problems faced by tourism. Within the existing
political frameworks and ideologies of many destinations, it is difficult to see ‘true’ sus-
tainability becoming the dominant paradigm. In summary, a broader, ethics approach to
tourism would go beyond the ‘three pillars’ (environmental, economic, social–cultural) of
sustainability (Weeden 2002).
As the full range of externalities and opportunities from tourism has become more appar-
ent over recent years, a number of other approaches to tourism have emerged – arguably
most (if not all) emerging from the ‘mother-ship’ of sustainable tourism. Notably ecotour-
ism, a form of tourism that encompasses respect for nature, learning and the positive
involvement of local communities, has become widely established. Initially ecotourism
was seen predominantly as a niche form of tourism, characterised by small-scale, environ-
mentally sensitive tourism activities. Detractors, however, raise concern about the
co-option of the concept by mass tourism, corporate interests, resulting in the dilution and
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