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RELATIONAL
MANAGEMENT and
DISPLAY of SITE
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA
RELATIONAL
MANAGEMENT and
DISPLAY of SITE
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA
David W. Rich, Ph.D.

LEWIS PUBLISHERS
A CRC Press Company
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Rich, David William, 1952-

Relational management and display of site environmental data / David W. Rich.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-56670-591-6 (alk. paper)
1. Pollution—Measurement—Data processing. 2. Environmental monitoring—Data
processing. 3. Database management. I. Title.

TD193 .R53 2002

628.5′028′ 7—dc21 2002019441

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with
permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials
or for the consequences of their use.

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior
permission in writing from the publisher.

The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works,
or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying.

Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

Lewis Publishers is an imprint of CRC Press LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number 1-56670-591-6
Library of Congress Card Number 2002019441
Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Printed on acid-free paper
PREFACE

The environmental industry is changing, along with the way it manages data. Many projects
are making a transition from investigation through remediation to ongoing monitoring. Data
management is evolving from individual custom systems for each project to standardized,
centralized databases, and many organizations are starting to realize the cost savings of this
approach. The objective of Relational Management and Display of Site Environmental Data is to
bring together in one place the information necessary to manage the data well, so everyone, from
students to project managers, can learn how to benefit from better data management.
This book has come from many sources. It started out as a set of course notes to help transfer
knowledge about earth science computing and especially environmental data management to our
clients as part of our software and consulting practice. While it is still used for that purpose, it has
evolved into a synthesis of theory and a relation of experience in working with site environmental
data. It is not intended to be the last word on the way things are or should be done, but rather to
help people learn from the experience of others, and avoid mistakes whenever possible.
The book has six main sections plus appendices. Part One provides an overview of the subject
and some general concepts, including a discussion of system data content. Part Two covers system
design and implementation, including database elements, user interface issues, and implementation
and operation of the system. Part Three addresses gathering the data, starting with an overview of
site investigation and remediation, progressing through gathering samples in the field, and ending
with laboratory analysis. Part Four covers the data management process, including importing,
editing, maintaining data quality, and managing multiple projects. Part Five is about using the data
once it is in the database. It starts with selecting data, and then covers various aspects of data
output and analysis including reporting and display; graphs; cross sections and similar displays; a
large chapter on mapping and GIS; statistical analysis; and integration with other programs.
Section Six discusses problems, benefits, and successes with implementing a site environmental
data management system, along with an attempt to look into the future of data management and
environmental projects. Appendices include examples of a needs assessment, a data model, a data
transfer standard, typical constituent parameters, some exercises, a glossary, and a bibliography.
A number of people have contributed directly and indirectly to this book, including my
parents, Dr. Robert and Audrey Rich; Dr. William Fairley, my uncle and professor of geology at
the University of Notre Dame; and Dr. Albert Carozzi, my advisor and friend at the University of
Illinois. Numerous coworkers and friends at Texaco, Inc., Shell Oil Company, Sabine Corporation,
Grant Environmental, and Geotech Computer Systems, Inc. helped bring me to the point
professionally where I could write this book. These include Larry Ratliff, Jim Thomson, Dr. James
L. Grant, Neil Geitner, Steve Wampler, Jim Quin, Cathryn Stewart, Bill Thoen, Judy Mitchell, Dr.
Mike Wiley, and other Geotech staff members who helped with the book in various ways. Friends
in other organizations have also helped me greatly in this process, including Jim Reed of
RockWare, Tom Bresnahan of Golden Software, and other early members of the Computer
Oriented Geological Society. Thanks also go to Dr. William Ganus, Roy Widmann, Sherron
Hendricks, and Frank Schultz of Kerr-McGee for their guidance.
I would also like to specifically thank those who reviewed all or part of the book, including
Cathryn Stewart (AquAeTer), Bill Thoen (GISNet), Mike Keester (Oklahoma State University),
Bill Ganus and Roy Widmann (Kerr-McGee), Mike Wiley (The Consulting Operation), and Sue
Stefanosky and Steve Clough (Roy. F. Weston). The improvements are theirs. The errors are still
mine.
Finally, my wife, business partner, and best friend, Toni Rich, has supported me throughout
my career, hanging in there through the good times and bad, and has always done what she could to
make our enterprise successful. She’s also a great proofreader.
Throughout this book a number of trademarks and registered trademarks are used. The
registered trademarks are registered in the United States, and may be registered in other countries.
Any omissions are unintentional and will be remedied in later editions. Enviro Data and Spase are
registered trademarks of Geotech Computer Systems, Incorporated. Microsoft, Office, Windows,
NT, Access, SQL Server, Visual Basic, Excel, and FoxPro are trademarks or registered trademarks
of Microsoft Corporation. Oracle is a registered trademark of Oracle Corporation. Paradox and
dBase are registered trademarks of Borland International, Incorporated. IBM and DB2 are
registered trademarks of International Business Machines Corporation. AutoCAD and AutoCAD
Map are registered trademarks of Autodesk, Incorporated. ArcView is a registered trademark of
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Incorporated. Norton Ghost is a trademark of Symantec
Corporation. Apple and Macintosh are registered trademarks of Apple Computer, Incorporated.
Sun is a registered trademark and Sparcstation is a trademark of Sun Microsystems. Capability
Maturity Model and CMM are registered trademarks of The Software Engineering Institute of
Carnegie Mellon University. Adobe and Acrobat are registered trademarks of Adobe Systems.
Grapher is a trademark and Surfer is a registered trademark of Golden Software, Inc. RockWare is
a registered trademark and RockWorks and Gridzo are trademarks of RockWare, Inc. Intergraph
and GeoMedia are trademarks of Intergraph Corporation. Corel is a trademark and Corel Draw is a
registered trademark of Corel Corporation. UNIX is a registered trademark of The Open Group.
Linux is a trademark of Linus Torvalds. Use of these products is for illustration only, and does not
signify endorsement by the author.
A Web site has been established for updates, exercises, and other information related to this
book. It is located at www.geotech.com/relman.
I welcome your comments and questions. I can be reached by email at [email protected].

David W. Rich
AUTHOR

David W. Rich is founder and president of Geotech Computer Systems, Inc. in Englewood,
CO. Geotech provides off-the-shelf and custom software and consulting services for environmental
data management, GIS, and other technical computing projects. Dr. Rich received his B.S. in
Geology from the University of Notre Dame in 1974, and his M.S. and Ph.D. in Geology from the
University of Illinois in 1977 and 1979, with his dissertation on “Porosity in Oolitic Limestones.”
He worked for Texaco, Inc. in Tulsa, OK and Shell Oil Company in Houston, TX, exploring for oil
and gas in Illinois and Oklahoma. He then moved to Sabine Corporation in Denver, CO as part of a
team that successfully explored for oil in the Minnelusa Formation in the Powder River Basin of
Wyoming. He directed the data management and graphics groups at Grant Environmental in
Englewood, CO where he worked on several projects involving soil and groundwater contaminated
with metals, organics, and radiologic constituents. His team created automated systems for
mapping and cross section generation directly from a database. In 1986 he founded Geotech
Computer Systems, Inc., where he has developed and supervised the development of custom and
commercial software for data management, GIS, statistics, and Web data access.
Environmental projects with which Dr. Rich has been directly involved include two Superfund
wood treating sites, three radioactive material processing facilities, two hazardous waste disposal
facilities, many municipal solid waste landfills, two petroleum refineries, and several mining and
petroleum production and transportation projects. He has been the lead developer on three public
health projects involving blood lead and related data, including detailed residential environmental
measurements. In addition he has been involved in many projects outside of the environmental
field, including a real-time Web-based weather mapping system, an agricultural GIS analysis tool,
and database systems for petroleum exploration and production data, paleontological data, land
ownership, health care tracking, parts inventory and invoice printing, and GPS data capture.
Dr. Rich has been using computers since 1970, and has been applying them to earth science
problems since 1975. He was a co-founder and president of the Computer Oriented Geological
Society in the early 1980s, and has authored or co-authored more than a dozen technical papers,
book chapters, and journal articles on environmental and petroleum data management, geology,
and computer applications. He has taught many short courses on geological and environmental
computing in several countries, and has given dozens of talks at various industry conventions and
other events.
When he is not working, Dr. Rich enjoys spending time with his family and riding his
motorcycle in the mountains, and often both at the same time.
CONTENTS

PART ONE - OVERVIEW AND CONCEPTS ............................................................................1

CHAPTER 1 - OVERVIEW OF ENVIRONMENTAL DATA MANAGEMENT.............3
Concern for the environment...........................................................................................3
The computer revolution ..................................................................................................5
Convergence - Environmental data management ..........................................................7
Concept of data vs. information.......................................................................................8
EMS vs. EMIS vs. EDMS .................................................................................................8
CHAPTER 2 - SITE DATA MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS .............................................11
Purpose of data management .........................................................................................11
Types of data storage......................................................................................................12
Responsibility for data management .............................................................................18
Understanding the data ..................................................................................................19
CHAPTER 3 - RELATIONAL DATA MANAGEMENT THEORY................................21
What is relational data management?...........................................................................21
History of relational data management.........................................................................21
Data normalization .........................................................................................................22
Structured Query Language ..........................................................................................26
Benefits of normalization................................................................................................30
Automated normalization...............................................................................................31
CHAPTER 4 - DATA CONTENT ........................................................................................35
Data content overview ....................................................................................................35
Project technical data .....................................................................................................36
Project administrative data............................................................................................39
Project document data....................................................................................................41
Reference data.................................................................................................................42
Document management ..................................................................................................43
PART TWO - SYSTEM DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION ...............................................47
CHAPTER 5 - GENERAL DESIGN ISSUES......................................................................49
Database management software ....................................................................................49
 Database location options...............................................................................................50
Distributed vs. centralized databases ............................................................................56
The data model................................................................................................................59
Data access requirements ...............................................................................................61
Government EDMS systems...........................................................................................63
Other issues .....................................................................................................................64
CHAPTER 6 - DATABASE ELEMENTS ...........................................................................69
Hardware and software components.............................................................................69
Units of data storage .......................................................................................................75
Databases and files..........................................................................................................76
Tables (“databases”).......................................................................................................76
Fields (columns)...............................................................................................................78
Records (rows).................................................................................................................79
Queries (views) ................................................................................................................79
Other database objects ...................................................................................................80
CHAPTER 7 - THE USER INTERFACE............................................................................85
General user interface issues..........................................................................................85
Conceptual guidelines .....................................................................................................86
Guidelines for specific elements .....................................................................................90
Documentation ................................................................................................................91
CHAPTER 8 - IMPLEMENTING THE DATABASE SYSTEM ......................................93
Designing the system.......................................................................................................93
Buy or build?...................................................................................................................97
Implementing the system ................................................................................................99
Managing the system ....................................................................................................103
CHAPTER 9 - ONGOING DATA MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES...............................107
Managing the workflow................................................................................................107
Managing the data ........................................................................................................109
Administering the system .............................................................................................110
PART THREE - GATHERING ENVIRONMENTAL DATA................................................115
CHAPTER 10 - SITE INVESTIGATION AND REMEDIATION..................................117
Overview of environmental regulations ......................................................................117
The investigation and remediation process.................................................................119
Environmental Assessments and Environmental Impact Statements.......................121
CHAPTER 11 - GATHERING SAMPLES AND DATA IN THE FIELD ......................123
General sampling issues................................................................................................123
Soil..................................................................................................................................126
Sediment.........................................................................................................................127
Groundwater .................................................................................................................127
Surface water ................................................................................................................130
Decontamination of equipment ....................................................................................131
Shipping of samples ......................................................................................................131
Air...................................................................................................................................131
 Other media...................................................................................................................132
Overview of parameters ...............................................................................................133
CHAPTER 12 - ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORY ANALYSIS .............................139
Laboratory workflow ...................................................................................................139
Sample preparation.......................................................................................................140
Analytical methods........................................................................................................141
Other analysis issues .....................................................................................................145
PART FOUR - MAINTAINING THE DATA ..........................................................................149
CHAPTER 13 - IMPORTING DATA................................................................................151
Manual entry .................................................................................................................151
Electronic import ..........................................................................................................153
Tracking imports...........................................................................................................163
Undoing an import ........................................................................................................164
Tracking quality............................................................................................................165
CHAPTER 14 - EDITING DATA ......................................................................................167
Manual editing ..............................................................................................................167
Automated editing.........................................................................................................168
CHAPTER 15 - MAINTAINING AND TRACKING DATA QUALITY........................173
QA vs. QC......................................................................................................................173
The QAPP ......................................................................................................................173
QC samples and analyses..............................................................................................175
Data quality procedures ...............................................................................................181
Database support for data quality and usability ........................................................186
Precision vs. accuracy...................................................................................................187
Protection from loss ......................................................................................................188
CHAPTER 16 - DATA VERIFICATION AND VALIDATION......................................191
Types of data review .....................................................................................................191
Meaning of verification ................................................................................................191
Meaning of validation...................................................................................................193
The verification and validation process ......................................................................193
Verification and validation checks ..............................................................................194
Software assistance with verification and validation.................................................195
CHAPTER 17 - MANAGING MULTIPLE PROJECTS AND DATABASES...............199
One file or many?..........................................................................................................199
Sharing data elements...................................................................................................201
Moving between databases...........................................................................................201
Limiting site access........................................................................................................202
PART FIVE - USING THE DATA ............................................................................................203
CHAPTER 18 - DATA SELECTION.................................................................................205
Text-based queries ........................................................................................................205
Graphical selection........................................................................................................207
Query-by-form ..............................................................................................................210
CHAPTER 19 - REPORTING AND DISPLAY................................................................213
 Text output ....................................................................................................................213
Formatted reports.........................................................................................................214
Formatting the result ....................................................................................................216
Interactive output .........................................................................................................223
Electronic distribution of data .....................................................................................224
CHAPTER 20 - GRAPHS ...................................................................................................225
Graph overview.............................................................................................................225
General concepts ...........................................................................................................226
Types of graphs .............................................................................................................227
Graph examples.............................................................................................................228
Curve fitting ..................................................................................................................232
Graph theory .................................................................................................................233
CHAPTER 21 - CROSS SECTIONS, FENCE DIAGRAMS, AND 3-D DISPLAYS.....235
Lithologic and wireline logs .........................................................................................235
Cross sections ................................................................................................................237
Profiles ...........................................................................................................................238
Fence diagrams and stick displays...............................................................................239
Block Diagrams and 3-D displays ................................................................................240
CHAPTER 22 - MAPPING AND GIS ...............................................................................243
Mapping concepts .........................................................................................................243
Mapping software .........................................................................................................251
Displaying data..............................................................................................................254
Contouring and modeling.............................................................................................256
Specialized displays.......................................................................................................262
CHAPTER 23 - STATISTICS AND ENVIRONMENTAL DATA..................................269
Statistical concepts ........................................................................................................269
Types of statistical analyses..........................................................................................273
Outliers and comparison with limits ...........................................................................275
Toxicology and risk assessment ...................................................................................277
CHAPTER 24 - INTEGRATION WITH OTHER PROGRAMS....................................279
Export-import ...............................................................................................................279
Digital output.................................................................................................................282
Export-import advantages and disadvantages ...........................................................282
Direct connection ..........................................................................................................283
Data warehousing and data mining.............................................................................285
Data integration ............................................................................................................286
PART SIX - PROBLEMS, BENEFITS, AND SUCCESSES...................................................287
CHAPTER 25 - AVOIDING PROBLEMS........................................................................289
Manage expectations.....................................................................................................289
Use the right tool ...........................................................................................................290
Prepare for problems with the data ............................................................................291
Plan project administration .........................................................................................292
Increasing the chance of a positive outcome...............................................................292
 CHAPTER 26 - SUCCESS STORIES................................................................................293
Financial benefits ..........................................................................................................293
Technical benefits..........................................................................................................295
Subjective benefits ........................................................................................................296
CHAPTER 27 - THE FUTURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL DATA MANAGEMENT ...299
PART SEVEN - APPENDICES .................................................................................................301
APPENDIX A - NEEDS ASSESSMENT EXAMPLE.......................................................303
APPENDIX B - DATA MODEL EXAMPLE ....................................................................307
Introduction...................................................................................................................307
Conventions ...................................................................................................................307
Primary tables ...............................................................................................................308
Lookup tables ................................................................................................................312
Reference tables ............................................................................................................321
Utility tables...................................................................................................................324
APPENDIX C - DATA TRANSFER STANDARD ...........................................................327
Purpose ..........................................................................................................................327
Database background information ..............................................................................327
Data content ..................................................................................................................328
Acceptable file formats .................................................................................................332
Submittal requirements ................................................................................................334
Non-conforming data....................................................................................................335
APPENDIX D - THE PARAMETERS...............................................................................337
Overview........................................................................................................................337
Inorganic parameters ...................................................................................................338
Organic parameters ......................................................................................................340
Other parameters..........................................................................................................347
Method reference ..........................................................................................................348
APPENDIX E - EXERCISES..............................................................................................357
Database redesign exercise...........................................................................................357
Data normalization exercise .........................................................................................359
Group discussion - data management and your organization...................................360
Database redesign exercise solution ............................................................................360
Data normalization exercise solution...........................................................................361
Database software exercises .........................................................................................361
APPENDIX F - GLOSSARY ..............................................................................................363
APPENDIX G - BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................407
INDEX..........................................................................................................................................419
PART ONE - OVERVIEW AND
CONCEPTS
CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF ENVIRONMENTAL
DATA MANAGEMENT

Concern for our environment has been on the rise for many years, and rightly so. At many
industrial facilities and other locations toxic or potentially toxic materials have been released into
the environment in large amounts. While the health impact of these releases has been quite variable
and, in some cases, controversial, it clearly is important to understand the impact or potential
impact of these releases on the public, as well as on the natural environment. This has led to
increased study of the facilities and the areas around them, which has generated a large amount of
data. More and more, people are looking to sophisticated database management technology,
together with related technologies such as geographic information systems and statistical analysis
packages, to make sense of this data. This chapter discusses this increasing concern for the
environment, the growth of computer technology to support environmental data management, and
then some general thoughts on environmental data management in an organization.

CONCERN FOR THE ENVIRONMENT

The United States federal government has been regulating human impact on the environment
for over a century. Section 13 of the River and Harbor Act of 1899 made it unlawful (with some
exceptions) to put any refuse matter into navigable waters (Mackenthun, 1998, p. 20). Since then
hundreds of additional laws have been enacted to protect the environment. This regulation occurs
at all levels of government from international treaties, through federal and state governments, to
individual municipalities. Often this situation of multiple regulatory oversight results in a maze of
regulations that makes even legitimate efforts to improve the situation difficult, but it has definitely
increased the effort to clean up the environment and keep it clean.
Through the 1950s the general public had very little awareness or concern about
environmental issues. In the 1960s concern for the environment began to grow, helped at least
some by the book Silent Spring by Rachel Carson (Carson, 1962). The ongoing significance of this
book is highlighted by the fact that a 1994 edition of the book has a foreword by then Vice
President Al Gore. In this book Ms. Carson brought attention to the widespread and sometimes
indiscriminate use of DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons, organic phosphates, arsenic, and
other materials, and the impact of this use on ground and surface water, soil, plants, and animals.
She cites examples of workers overcome by exposure to large doses of chemicals, and changes in
animal populations after use of these chemicals, to build the case that widespread use of these
materials is harmful. She also discusses the link between these chemicals and cancer.
4 Relational Management and Display of Site Environmental Data

Rachel Carson’s message about concern for the environment came at a time, the 1960s, when
America was ready for a “back-to-the-earth” message. With the youth of America and others
organizing to oppose the war in Vietnam, the two causes fit well together and encouraged each
other’s growth. This was reflected in the music of the time, with many songs in the sixties and
seventies discussing environmental issues, often combined with sentiments against the war and
nuclear power. The war in Vietnam ended, but the environmental movement lives on.
There are many examples of rock songs of the sixties and seventies discussing environmental
issues. In 1968 the rock musical Hair warned about the health effects of sulfur dioxide and carbon
monoxide. Zager and Evans in their 1969 song In The Year 2525 talked about taking from the earth
and not giving back, and in 1970 the Temptations discussed air pollution and many other social
issues in Ball of Confusion. Three Dog Night also warned about air pollution in their 1970 songs
Cowboy and Out in the Country. Perhaps the best example of a song about the environment is
Marvin Gaye’s 1971 song Mercy Mercy Me (The Ecology), in which he talked about oil polluting
the ocean, mercury in fish, and radiation in the air and underground. In 1975 Joni Mitchell told
farmers not to use DDT in her song Big Yellow Taxi, and the incomparable songwriter Bob Dylan
got into the act with his 1976 song A Hard Rain’s A-gonna Fall, warning about poison in water
and global hunger. It’s not a coincidence that this time frame overlaps all of the significant early
environmental regulations.
A good example of an organized environmental effort that started in those days and continues
today is Earth Day. Organized by Senator Gaylord Nelson and patterned after teach-ins against the
war in Vietnam, the first Earth Day was held on April 22, 1970, and an estimated 20 million people
around the country attended, according to television anchor Walter Cronkite. In the 10 years after
the first Earth Day, 28 significant pieces of federal environmental legislation were passed, along
with the establishment of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in December of 1970.
The first major environmental act, the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA)
predated Earth Day, and had the stated purposes (Yost, 1997) of establishing harmony between
man and the environment; preventing or eliminating damage to the environment; stimulating the
health and welfare of man; enriching the understanding of ecological systems; and establishment of
the Council on Environmental Quality. Since that act, many laws protecting the environment have
been passed at the national, state, and local levels.
Evidence that public interest in environmental issues is still high can be found in the public
reaction to the book A Civil Action (Harr, 1995). This book describes the experience of people in
the town of Woburn, Massachusetts. A number of people in the town became ill and some died due
to contamination of groundwater with TCE, an industrial solvent. This book made the New York
Times bestseller list, and was later made into a movie starring John Travolta. More recently, the
movie Erin Brockovich starring Julia Roberts covered a similar issue in California with Pacific Gas
and Electric and problems with hexavalent chrome in groundwater causing serious health issues.
Public interest in the environment is exemplified by the various watchdog organizations that
track environmental issues in great detail. A good example of this is Scorecard.org, (Environmental
Defense, 2001) a Web site that provides a very large amount of information on environmental
current events, releases of toxic substances, environmental justice, and similar topics. For example,
on this site you can find the largest releasers of pollutants near your residence. Sites like this
definitely raise public awareness of environmental issues.
It’s also important to point out that the environmental industry is big business. According to
reports by the U.S. Department of Commerce and Environmental Business International (as quoted
in Diener, Terkla, and Cooke, 2000), the environmental industry in the U.S. in 1998 had $188.7
billion in sales, up 1.6% from the previous year. It employed 1,354,100 people in 115,850
companies. The worldwide market for environmental goods and services for the same period was
estimated to be $484 billion.
 Overview of Environmental Data Management 5

Figure 1 - The author (front row center) examining state-of-the-art punch card technology in 1959

THE COMPUTER REVOLUTION

In parallel with growing public concern for the environment has been growth of technology to
support a better understanding of environmental conditions. While people have been using
computing devices of some sort for over a thousand years and mainframe computers since the
1950s (see Environmental Computing History Timeline sidebar), the advent of personal computers
in the 1980s made it possible to use them effectively on environmental projects. For more
information on the history of computers, see Augarten (1984) and Evans (1981). Discussions of the
history of geological use of computers are contained in Merriam (1983,1985).
With the advent of Windows-based, consumer-oriented database management programs in the
1990s, the tools were in place to create an environmental data management system (EDMS) to
store data for one or more facilities and use it to improve project management.
Computers have assumed an increasingly important role in our lives, both at work and at
home. The average American home contains more computers than bathtubs. From electronic
watches to microwave ovens, we are using computers of one type or another a significant
percentage of our waking hours. In the workplace, computers have changed from big number
crunchers cloistered somewhere in a climate-controlled environment to something that sits on our
desk (or our lap). No longer are computers used only for massive computing jobs which could not
be done by hand, but they are now replacing the manual way of doing our daily work. This is as
true in the earth science disciplines as anywhere else. Consequently, industry sages have suggested
that those who do not have computer skills will be left behind in the next wave of automation of the
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