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SURVEYING FOR
CONSTRUCTION
William irvine and finlay macie
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2022 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation

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Surveying for
Construction
Fifth Edition

William Irvine and

Finlay Maclennan

The McGraw-Hill companies

London « Burr Ridge IL * New York * St Louis * San Francisco * Auckland
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Surveying for Construction
William Irvine and Finlay Maclennan
ISBN-13 978-0-07-711114-4
ISBN-10 0-O7-711114-1

raw Education

Published by McGraw-Hill Education

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Maidenhead
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Website: www.mcgraw-hill.co.uk

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Fourth Edition published in 1995 by McGraw-Hill Education

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This book cannot be re-exported from the country to which it is sold by McGraw-Hill.

The McGraw Hill Companies ‘Ss

Brief Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Surveying fundamentals

Chapter 2 Understanding maps and plans
Chapter 3 Linear surveying
Chapter 4 Levelling
Chapter 5 Contouring
Chapter 6 Vertical Sections
Chapter 7 Theodolites and total stations 112
Chapter 8 Traverse surveys 140
Chapter 9 Global Positioning System (GPS) 177
Chapter 10 Detail survey 189
Chapter 11 Curve ranging on
Chapter 12 Setting out construction works 246
Chapter 13 Mensuration—areas 279
Chapter 14 Mensuration—volumes 295
Chapter 15 Surveys of existing buildings 314
Detailed Table of Contents

Preface CHAPTER 6 Vertical sections 99

Acknowledgements
. Development plan 99
. Longitudinal sections oF
CHAPTER 1 Surveying fundamentals . Cross sections 103
. Computer generated sections 108
. Accuracy of surveyed quantities
= . Answers
nApWN 109
. Units of measurement
. Understanding scale
. Drawing to scale CHAPTER 7 Theodolites and total stations 1 ls
. Basic principles of surveying
. Surveying mathematics THEODOLITES
— . Answers
OARWDN
NA
1. Classification de
2. Principles of construction 114
3. Reading the circles 116
CHAPTER 2 Understanding maps and plans 4. Setting up the theodolite Lig
1. Site plans 5. Measuring horizontal angles 122
2. Ordnance Survey maps and plans 6. Measuring angles in the vertical plane 125
3. Answers 7. Errors affecting angular measurements 127
TOTAL STATIONS
. Principles of EDM
— 131
CHAPTER 3. Linear surveying 2. Comparison of pulsed and phase systems 134
. Principles of linear surveying 3. Factors affecting accuracy 134
. Linear measuring techniques 4. Instrument features 135
. Procedure in linear surveying 5 . Applications of total stations 136
. Plotting the survey 6 . Answers 138
= . Answers
AbhWDN

CHAPTER 8 Traverse surveys 140

CHAPTER 4 Levelling . Types of traverse 140
. Levelling instruments . Basic principles of traversing 141
. Observation procedure . Fieldwork 142
. Reduction of levels (rise and fall method) . Traverse calculations 151
= . Reduction
hWN of levels by the height of plane . Rectangular coordinates (terminology) 161
of collimation (HPC) method . Traverse coordinate calculations 161
5. Inverted staff readings . Plotting rectangular coordinates 165
6. Errors in levelling . Calculation of a closed traverse 167
7. Permanent adjustments . Miscellaneous coordinate problems 169
8. Curvature and refraction J SC
— . Answers
PWHN
AUN
OAN IW -
9. Reciprocal levelling
0. Answers
CHAPTER9 Global Positioning System (GPS) Wes

. Principles of GPS 177

CHAPTERS Contouring
. Errors in GPS 179
1. Contour characteristics . Differential GPS (DGPS) 180
2. Methods of contouring . GPS procedures 182
3. Uses of contour plans . GPS equipment 183
4. Answers — . Terrestrial reference
NANnhWDN frame (TRF) 184

vi
 CONTENTS vii

ff GPS survey project example 185 10. Setting out floor levels 267
8. Future developments 186 iBi Setting out invert levels 268
ie Answers 187 42; Setting out roadway levels 270
a3: Setting out slope stakes 270
14. Vertical control using laser instruments 272
CHAPTER 10 Detail survey 188
AS Large-scale excavations 274
1. Principles of radial positioning 189 16. Answers 275
2. Calculation and plotting of survey
(manually) 190
3. Calculation and plotting using CHAPTER 13. Mensuration - areas 279
microcomputer-based mapping systems is . Regular areas 279
4. Radial survey with automatic total station 198 . Irregular areas 281
5. GPS detail survey 204 . Areas from field notes 282
6. Photogrammetric detail survey 204 . Measuring areas from plans 287
7. Associated mapping software 205 . Answers
AkhWDN 292
8. Answers 208

CHAPTER 14. Mensuration — volumes 295

CHAPTER 11 Curve ranging 211
ie Cuttings (with vertical sides) Patke
1. Curve geometry 211
2. General rule for calculating volume 297
2. Curve elements 212
Ww . Cuttings and embankments (with sloping
3. Designation of curves 214
sides) Pe 4
4. Problems in curve location 214
. Calculation of cross-sectional areas 298
5. Setting out curves (calculations) 2d
. Calculation of volume 305
6. Obstructions 225
. Volumes of large-scale earthworks 307
7. Vertical curves 227,
. Answers 311
8. Transition curves 230
9. Answers 238
CHAPTER 15 Surveys of existing buildings 314
CHAPTER 12 Setting out construction works 246 . Classification of drawings 314
i Setting out — principles 246 . Principles of measurement 315
2s Equipment for setting out 246 . Conducting the survey 315
a Setting out a pegs on a specified distance . Surveying higher-rise buildings 321
and bearing 247 . Automated methods of building frontage
ARWDN

. Setting out roadways — calculations 249 survey 323

. Setting out small buildings 253 . Plotting the survey 324
. Setting out large buildings 255 . Answers 326
. Checking verticality 264
. Setting out — vertical control 266 Glossary 327
FS. Setting out a peg at a predetermined level
COONAN 266 Index B29
Preface

This is the fifth edition of Surveying for Construction. endeavoured to include references that are as up to date
It has been necessitated principally by the unprece- as possible.
dented technological advances in survey instrumenta- This edition has been reviewed independently by
tion and computing techniques. eleven university or college lecturers who have made
Nowadays, qualified surveyors are obliged to keep several suggestions, which we have endeavoured to
abreast with modern developments due to the intro- incorporate. Some were critical of the continued inclu-
duction of continuous professional development, by sion of linear surveying, taped measurement in travers-
reading modern literature, in the form of professional ing and the use of non-electronic theodolites, while
journals, technical papers and books. others expressed a wish for their retention and even
This book is not written for them. It is written as a further amplification. We think these forms of survey-
course for the aspiring potential surveyor who is at the ing are still valid because they continue to be a part of
beginning of his or her career and who requires a solid the syllabi of many Educational Qualification Boards
grounding in the fundamental principles of land and the instruments are still in widespread use with
surveying. small construction companies and educational estab-
This book therefore concentrates on teaching the lishments. They have therefore of necessity been
basic principles of surveying and follows the format of included in addition to other forms of surveying, thus
previous successful editions by (a) introducing theories emphasizing the flexible nature of the book.
in a clear, hopefully unambiguous manner, (b) Some reviewers pointed out that the inclusion of a
exemplifying the theories in a series of well-structured chapter on computing and a chapter on a student pro-
examples and (c) providing self-assessment exercises, ject were valuable but, due to time constraints on col-
with answers, at frequent intervals throughout every lege and university courses, were seldom used. The
subject area. In short, it follows the principles of a well- authors have therefore deemed it wise to remove them
designed lecture. and give only some introductory guidance to the use of
This edition has been completely revised and rewrit- spreadsheets in the text. The project will be made
ten wherever necessary to reflect the huge changes in available on the book’s Online Learning Centre,
surveying practice which have taken place throughout www.mcgraw-hill.co.uk/textbooks/irvine
the past decade. In doing so, however, the authors have This edition is aimed at undergraduate university
attempted to keep the sections on new technology courses in civil engineering and building and
non-specific and have concentrated on the wider spec- environmental studies, as well as college surveying
trum rather than on particular models of surveying modules in construction, town planning, engineering
instruments and software packages. There are literally and topographic studies. The responsibility for the
hundreds of new models of surveying equipment drawing and accuracy of all diagrams and the compil-
which are being constantly up-graded and we have ation and solutions to all questions is entirely our own.

Viii
Guided Tour

Learning Objectives
CHAPTER7 Theodolites and Each chapter opens with a set of learning objectives,
total stations
summarising what readers should learn from each
chapter.

Figures and Tables

Each chapter provides a number of detailed and
practical figures and tables to help you to visualise the
various methods and to illustrate and summarise
important concepts.

Examples
Throughout the book these short examples give you
opportunities to test your understanding of the section
material.

ix
x GUIDED TOUR

Exercises
The exercises interspersed throughout the chapter
material provide a more in-depth chance to practice
your understanding of surveying methodology and
computation, and to understand real-world surveying
practice.

Answers
The answers to the exercises are provided at the end of
each chapter.

Chapter summary
This briefly reviews and reinforces the main topics you
will have covered in each chapter to ensure you have
Scenes tomers oraoatStApremiere anctroandoaraage omtewaeNhecar haemcrae
nd yt reayAaNev pa?oy
teres
acquired a solid understanding of the key topics.
Technology to enhance learning and teachin

_LearningCenter

Visit www.mcqraw-hill.co.uk/textbooks/irvine today

Online Learning Centre (OLC)

SURVEYING FOR
=, |CONSTRUCTION

After completing each chapter, log on to the supporting Online Learning Centre
website. Take advantage of the study tools offered to reinforce the material you
have read in the text, and to develop your knowledge in a fun and effective way.

Resources for students include:

e A surveying project allowing you to practise the techniques you have learnt.
e Coverage of alternative methodologies.
e Useful weblinks for land surveying.

xi
xii. TECHNOLOGY TO ENHANCE LEARNING AND TEACHING

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 TECHNOLOGY TO ENHANCE LEARNING AND TEACHING xiii

Study Skills

Open University Press publishes guides to study, research and exam skills to help
undergraduate and postgraduate students through their university studies.

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Peter Levin

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Acknowledgements

Our thanks go to the following reviewers for their comments at various stages in the text’s development:

Morteza Alani University of Portsmouth

John Arthur University College London
John Ashton-Yamnikar University of Central Lancashire
Paul Barber University of Glamorgan
Mark Davison Nottingham Trent University
William Evans Kingston University
Mike Hoxley Anglia Ruskin University
Iwan Morris Swansea Institute
John Rafferty Cork Institute of Technology
Mike Young Coventry University

Authors’ Acknowledgements
Our sincere thanks are due to the following organizations and individuals:

Rachel Letts, Marketing Manager and Sokkia Coy. Ltd; Topcorn Europe B.V.; Leica Geosystems; Pentax Ltd; Hilti
(Gt Britain); Craig Muir, Peter Houghton and Trimble Ltd; Autodesk; Survey Solutions (Scotland); LazerCAD;
and Riegl Ltd. — for permission to use material from their various advertising literature and information from their
websites.

The City and Guilds of London Institute; The Institute of Building; The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors; and
The Scottish Qualification Authority — for permission to use questions from their various examination papers.

Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge ownership of copyright and to clear permission for material
reproduced in this book. The publishers will be pleased to make suitable arrangements to clear permission with any
copyright holders whom it has not been possible to contact.

Xiv
CHAPTER 1 Surveying
fundamentals

In this chapter you will learn about:

the accuracy of surveyed quantities
the classification of errors and the difference between accuracy and precision
the units of measurement used in surveying
the use of scales and the methods of showing scales on maps and plans
drawing to scale
the fundamental trigonometrical formulae used in surveying and some applications of these formulae

Every day of the year, in many walks of life, maps and Gross. Gross errors are simply mistakes. They arise
plans are in common use. These maps and plans mainly due to the inexperience, ignorance or careless-
include road maps, charts of lakes and rivers, construc- ness of the surveyor. Simple examples are (i) reading
tion site plans and architectural plans. the tape wrongly, (ii) recording a wrong dimension
All of these plans are drawn to scale by cartographers, when booking, (iii) turning the wrong screw on an
engineers, architectural draughtsmen or surveyors, instrument. These errors cannot be accommodated and
using conventional drawing tools and materials or observations have to repeated.
computer aided drawing packages, from measurements Systematic. These are errors which arise unavoidably
of distance, heights and angles. The measurements are in surveying and follow some fixed law. Their sources
made by surveyors or engineers, using instruments are well known. A simple example is illustrated by the
such as tapes, levels, theodolites, electromagnetic dis- temperature error in tape measurements. A tape is only
tance measuring instruments (EDM) and global posi- correct at a certain standard temperature; therefore if
tioning system instruments (GPS). They are employed the ambient temperature on a certain day is higher
in the field of land surveying, which is the science and than standard, the tape will expand and cause an error
art of measuring the size and shape of natural and man- which will be the same no matter how often the line is
made features on the surface of the earth. measured. Conversely, if the temperature is lower than
the standard, the tape will contract and similarly cause
1. Accuracy of surveyed quantities an error but of the opposite sign.
Constant. These are errors which do not vary at any
In carrying out their work, surveyors’ primary objective
time, in other words they have the same sign, either
is to achieve accuracy in their measurements. No mat-
positive or negative. As an illustration, consider the
ter how speedily or economically they conduct the
nature of the dimensions required for plotting on maps
survey or how neatly or pleasingly they present the
and plans. These must be horizontal and if no atten-
results, the survey is of little value if it is not accurate.
tion is paid to the slope of the ground when making a
In surveying, the most common task is to find the
measurement, the dimension so obtained will be too
three-dimensional positions of a series of points, the x,
long. No matter how often the measurement is made or
y and z coordinates. Physical measurements are there-
how many other slopes are measured, the results will
fore required in the form of linear, angular, and height
always be too long.
dimensions. There will be errors in these quantities
Likewise, if a tape has stretched through continuous
which must be eliminated, discounted or distributed.
use or abuse, any resultant measurements will be
always be too short.
(a) Classification of errors These and all other sources of constant error are well
Errors in surveying are classified under the following known and appropriate corrections are applied to
headings: obtain the correct result.
2 SURVEYING FOR CONSTRUCTION

Accidental or random. These are the small errors while the sexagesimal system is used for angular
which inevitably remain after the others have been measurement.
eliminated. There are three main causes, (i) imperfec-
tions of human sight and touch (indeed they are often (a) Linear measurement
called human errors), (ii) imperfections of the instru-
ments being used at the time and (iii) changing atmos- The following units are the most commonly used units
pheric conditions. in surveying.
A good example arises in the measurement of an
angle using an instrument called a theodolite (Chapter Quantity Symbol Unit
7). Such an instrument can measure angles to one sec- Length metre m
ond (= 1/3600th part of a degree). If ten measurements Area square metre m?
are made of an angle, the results will differ slightly, due Volume cubic metre m?
to (i) the inability of the surveyor to sight a point Mass kilogramme kg
exactly in the same way each time, (ii) the instrument Capacity litre ]
not being in perfect adjustment and (iii) the change in
temperature and wind pressure throughout the meas- Taking the metre as a basic unit, Table 1.1 shows how
urement procedure, which will affect the stability of the multiples and sub-multiples of the unit are derived.
instrument.
These are random errors and are reduced, though Table 1.1
never quite eliminated, by repeating the measurement
Prefix Multiplication Derived unit — $I recommended
of whatever quantity is being measured.
factor unit

Summary: Gross and systematic errors are largely, but

kilo 1000 kilometre kilometre (km)
not necessarily completely, eliminated by sound hecto 100 hectometre
observational techniques, frequent checking and deca 10 decametre
application of corrections, so that the only errors metre metre (m)
remaining are random errors. These errors follow the deci 0.10 decimetre
laws of probability. They can be treated statistically and centi 0.01 centimetre
it can be shown that the most probable value (mpv) of milli 0.001 millimetre millimetre (mm)
a set of observations is the arithmetic mean. The stat-
istical treatment of errors is beyond the scope or remit
of this textbook and will not be further pursued. In Table 1.1, it should be noted that only three units
are recommended for general use. This holds good for
other units and Table 1.2 shows the small selection of
(b) Accuracy and precision units included in the Systeme Internationale (SI) which
Accuracy and precision are not synonymous. The dif- are in common use.
ference is illustrated in the following example.
Table 1.2
A line of a survey is measured six times and all six
measurements lie within an error band of +2 milli-
Quantity | Recommended S/ unit Other units that may be
metres. However, the tape, when checked, is found to
used
have stretched by 10 millimetres through continuous
use. Length kilometre (km) centimetre (cm)
The results of the six measurements are precise in metre (m)
that they have little scatter, but they are not accurate millimetre (mm)
because each is in error by 10 mm. Area square metre (m’) square centimetre (cm?)
Precision is therefore relative in that each measure- square millimetre (mm?) hectare (100 m x 100 m)
ment is close to any other, whereas accuracy is close- (ha)
ness to the truth. Volume cubic metre (m7?) cubic decimetre (dm?)
cubic millimetre (mm?) cubic centimetre (cm*)
In surveying, accuracy is defined by specifying the
Mass kilogramme (kg)
limits between which the error of a measured quantity
gramme (g)
may lie, so, for example, the accuracy of the measured
milligramme (mg)
height of a building might be (20.54 + 0.01) metres. Capacity cubic metre (m*) litre (I)
cubic millimetre (mm?) millilitre (ml)
2. Units of measurement

In most countries of the world (there are some notable Finally, Table 1.3 shows the basic relationship
exceptions), the metric system of measurement is used between volume, mass and capacity (of water), from
for the linear measurement of distance and height, which others may be deduced.
 SURVEYING FUNDAMENTALS 3

Table 1.3 (b) 56° 35’ 20” — 15° 19’ 45”

Volume Mass Capacity Answer: 36° 35’ 20”

— 15° 19’ 45”
1 cubic metre 1000 kilogrammes 1000 litres
Since 1 min = 60 s, the calculation becomes
1 cubic decimetre 1 kilogramme 1 litre
1 cubic centimetre 1 gramme 1 millilitre
56° 34’ 80”
— 15° 19’ 45”
=47° 13 Ay
(b) Angular measurement
Adding the figure 60 to either minutes or seconds is,
Angular measurements are made using surveying
of course, done mentally.
instruments which measure both horizontally and ver-
tically in degrees. Degrees are sexagesimal units which
are subdivided into minutes and seconds in exactly the
same manner as time. There are sixty minutes in one The calculations in example 2 can be done easily, on
degree and sixty seconds in one minute. a pocket calculator using the DMS key. Unfortunately,
It is worth noting that in many European countries not all calculators use the same logic, so users should
(e.g. Switzerland, Austria) angles are measured in consult their calculator manual for full instructions.
grades. There are four hundred grades in one complete
revolution, whereas there are three hundred and sixty Exercise 1.1
degrees in one revolution.
1 Write the following measurements in metres, to three
decimal places:
(a) 4 metres and 500 millimetres
| EXAMPLES (b) 3mand17 mm
(c) 3m,40 cm and 67 mm
Linear measurements should be written to three (d) 100 mand 9 mm
decimal places to avoid confusion, unless required (e) 10cm
otherwise.
2 Calculate the following, giving answers to three
1 Find the sum of the following measurements: decimal places:
(a) 1 metre and 560 millimetres (a) 3m+4cm+250 mm+ 35cm
(b) 10 m—82 cm+140 mm+120 cm
Answer: 1.000
(c) 435mm+965mm+8 mm
+ 0.560
(d) 10.326m+9mm-—126 mm+ 17.826 m
= 1.560 m
(e) 10m+10cm+100 mm—-15 cm—50 mm
(b) 15 metres and 31 centimetres
3 Calculate the area (in hectares) of the following
Answer: 15.000 rectangular plots of land:
+ 0.310 (a) 100 m long by 150 m wide
=15.310m (b) 90m long by 53 m wide
(c) 90.326 m long by 265.112 m wide
(c) 25m,9cmand 8mm.
4
Answer: 25.000
(a) Find the sum of the three angles of a triangle,
+ 0.090
measured using a theodolite (a theodolite is a
+ 0.008
surveying instrument used for the accurate
= 25.098 m
measurement of angles).
2 In surveying, angles have to added or subtracted Angle ABC: 58° 17’ 40”, angle BCA: 67° 23’ 20” and
frequently. Their values are written in sexagesimal angle CAB: 54° 18’ 20”.
form as follows: (b) Find the error of the survey.

10 degs, 23 mins, 18secs = 10° 23’ 18”

Find the value of:

3. Understanding scale
The end product of a survey is usually the production
(a) 23° 24’ 30”— 10° 18’ 15”
of a scaled drawing and throughout the various chap-
Answer: 2a°i24' 30% ters of this book scaled drawings will have to be made.
— 10° 18’ 15” A scale is a ratio between the drawing of an object and
= 13° 06’ 15” the actual object itself.
4 SURVEYING FOR CONSTRUCTION

3. By a representative fraction With this method of

EXAMPLE showing scale, a fraction is used in which the numer-
ator represents the number of units on the map (always
1) and the denominator represents the number of the
3 Figure 1.1 is the drawing of a two pence piece. The
same units on the ground. With a scale of 1 centimetre
diameter of the coin on the drawing is 13 mm. An
representing 1 metre, the representative fraction will
actual two pence piece has a diameter of 26 mm;
be 1/100, shown as 1:100, since there are 100 centi-
hence the scale of the drawing is
metres in 1 metre.
Plan size 13mm 1 A representative fraction (RF) is the international
Actual size 26mm 2 way of showing scale. Any person looking at the RF on
a map thinks of the scale in the units to which he is
accustomed.

O) EXAMPLES
4 Calculate the scale of a plan where 1 mm
represents 0.5 m.
13 mm 26 mm
plansize 1mm 1mm 1
drawing actual
size size

Figure 1.1 5 Figure 1.4 is the scale drawing of a badminton

Perens court drawn to a scale of 1:250. Using the open
divided scale provided, measure:
(a) the overall length and breadth of the court,
(a) Methods of showing scale
(b) the distance between the tram lines,
The scale of a map or plan can be shown in three ways: (c) the size of the service courts.

1. It may simply be expressed in words For example, 1

centimetre represents 1 metre. By definition of scale,
this simply means that one centimetre on the plan rep-
resents 1 metre on the ground.
2. Byadrawn scale A line is drawn on the plan and is
divided into convenient intervals such that distances
on the map can be easily obtained from it. If the scale
of 1 centimetre represents 1 metre is used, the scale
drawn in Fig. 1.2 would be obtained.

Figure 1.2
Figure 1.4

Figure 1.2 is an example of an open divided scale in

Answer
which the primary divisions (1.0 metre) are shown on
(a) 20m,10m
the right of the zero. The zero is positioned one unit
(b) 1m
from the left of the scale and this unit is subdivided
(c) 4mby5m
into secondary divisions. An alternative method of
showing a drawn scale is to fill in the divisions, thus
making a filled line scale, an example of which is
shown in Fig. 1.3. (b) Conversion of area by representative fractions

Frequently, in survey work, the area of a parcel of land

is measured on a scaled plan, using an instrument
called a planimeter (Chapter 13). A planimeter meas-
ures areas in square centimetres (cm*) and the actual
Figure 1.3 ground area has to be calculated. If the RF on a plan is
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