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Contested Democracy
Contested Democracy
Freedom, Race, and Power
in American History
E178.6.C676 2007
973—dc22
c 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Acknowledgments ix
Introduction 1
Manisha Sinha and Penny Von Eschen
3. L
eave of Court: African American Claims-Making in the
Era of Dred Scott v. Sanford 54
Martha S. Jones
We are happy to acknowledge the help and support of several people who
have made this volume possible. We are deeply grateful to Alan Brinkley,
provost and Allan Nevins Professor of History at Columbia University, for
his generous support of this project. We likewise thank Kenneth Jackson,
professor emeritus and director of the Lehman Center for Historical Studies
at Columbia University, for hosting the conference “Contested Democracy:
Freedom, Race, and Power in American History” in honor of Eric Foner.
The conference enabled the contributors to the volume to meet together for
presentations and discussion, greatly enriching our book. Warmest thanks
to those scholars who joined us as commentators. We thank professors Ira
Berlin, Elizabeth Blackmar, Adam McKeown, and Thomas Bender for valu-
able criticism and feedback. We especially thank Elizabeth Blackmar for
her sustained support and encouragement. Both her backing and her astute
comments have been very important to us.
We thank Peter Dimock at Columbia University Press for his wisdom,
rigorous intellectual engagement, and patience through a protracted pro-
cess. Thanks also to Anne Routon for expert guidance and Anne R. Gib-
bons for her excellent copyediting.
We thank all the contributors for their spirited collaboration at every
stage of the project. The articles are a testimony to their wonderful schol-
arship and the manner in which Eric Foner has inspired us all to write on a
variety of topics in our own distinct ways. We thank them for their patience
as we put this volume together over the last two years. We are honored
and delighted that David Blight has contributed a wonderful afterword. His
thoughtful tribute has made this a better book.
acknowledgments
We also thank our families. We thank Karsten Stueber and Kevin Gaines
for their support and engaged editing. Our sons, Sheel Stueber and Ma-
ceo Gaines, tolerated and interrupted our work in degrees not of our own
choosing. We thank Manisha’s baby, Shiv, for sleeping through the night
and taking regular morning and afternoon naps so we could work. All of
them have nurtured our collaboration by allowing us to continue and en-
large conversations that we began in graduate school.
Most importantly, we thank Eric. He is an inspiration—for this book and
much more. His scholarly example has meant the world to us. This volume
is a small token of our gratitude for his passionate commitment to history
and social justice. We hope this will be the first in a series of books that will
honor the work of a master teacher, scholar, and citizen.
Contested Democracy
Introduction
Manisha Sinha and Penny Von Eschen
on power, the realm of politics itself, and the critical place of ideology in
producing political meaning, along with his emphasis on expanding senses
of what constitutes political agency, have special merit in pointing the way
to writing U.S. history in the age of empire.2 The profound contemporary
challenges to democratic governance as well as intellectual inquiry make
this an urgent task for historians and scholars.
An appreciation of the contradictions and limitations of the history of
American democracy guards against celebratory mythmaking as well as the
nostalgic idea that a previously vibrant democracy has only recently become
embattled. Indeed, the birth of the New World was coterminous with the rise
of racial slavery and the world market. The deeply entangled history of race
and American democracy in many ways is replicated and being played out
anew on a global stage today. Since the time of conquest, continental expan-
sion, enslavement, and dispossession of peoples deemed uncivilized, Ameri-
can republicanism has been fully complicit in the history of racial oppression
in the modern world. The story of American freedom goes hand in hand with
the story of its exclusions and the story of American “unfreedom.”
It is essential to realize that the American tradition has been shaped as
much by opposition to the broadening of democracy as by movements for
social and political change. The essays in this volume seek to examine the in-
ternal contradictions and inherent limitations of concepts of American free-
dom. In emphasizing the deep intertwining of oppression and freedom, we
reject not only uncritical accounts of U.S. history but also the inverse teleol-
ogy that posits an inherently violent and racist logic at work in the unfolding
of American democracy. Stories from the margins of U.S. history or alter-
native and radical visions of American freedom have always challenged the
dominant and narrower versions of these ideas. Recentering contradiction
and contingency in American history is vitally important to understanding
the role of the United States in this latest age of American imperialism and
alternative visions of American democracy and freedom.
This volume grew out of conversations between a cohort of U.S. and
international scholars, all trained as Americanists at Columbia University in
the 1980s and 1990s. We came from diverse democratic movements and in-
tellectual training from Europe, Asia, Africa, and the United States, and we
brought these experiences to bear on our study of American history. Our
graduate community was enlivened by perspectives ranging from the South
African antiapartheid movement, German socialism, international feminist
introduction
motherhood. Free and enslaved black women worked without the visibility
and public sanction that secured white women’s loyalty and deference to the
republican order headed by white men. Both essays reveal the narrowly gen-
dered and racial character of antebellum American democracy.
Essays by Manisha Sinha, Martha Jones, and Xi Wang also reveal the
historically racialized nature of freedom and democracy in the United
States. All three insist on the importance of black agency in arriving at a
broader and more complex understanding of American political and legal
history. At a time when racial slavery dominated politics and the economy,
the discourse of citizenship and freedom received its fullest expression in
black protest thought and action. Sinha argues that African American abo-
litionists’ concept of revolution was not derivative of the American revo-
lutionary tradition but offered a profound critique of it. Black abolitionists
developed an oppositional and transnational understanding of revolution
that drew its inspiration from the Haitian revolution and slave rebellions in
the Western world. Jones looks at African Americans’ daily negotiations
in a legal culture to define rights and citizenship in mid-nineteenth-century
Maryland. She uncovers the rich story of everyday black legal claims amid
discussions of colonization, emigration, and citizenship. Xi Wang insists
that we center black discourses in the debates over suffrage during the era of
the Civil War and Reconstruction. African Americans, he argues, were the
strongest exponents of universal suffrage at this time, and they made a semi-
nal contribution to the development of American constitutionalism. These
essays highlight the originality of black American thought and protest over
the questions of democracy, rights, and citizenship.
Concern over the misuse of the discourse of American freedom and de-
mocracy for private and corporate gain has invigorated historical investi-
gations of institutional realms of state formation and the development of
liberal ideology. Essays by Michael Zakim and Melinda Lawson consider
some of the ways in which such tensions undergirded the development of
the nation-state, law, political economy, and liberalism. Zakim examines
how the growth of an industrial economy, and attempts to quantify and
describe it, contributed to a reformulation of the language of democracy
and the legitimization of a market-driven liberalism. While he illuminates
the rise of liberal individualism through the reification of the production
process, Lawson illustrates the vexed nature of liberal ideology in Western
history. She argues that advocates of land reclamation and irrigation in the
sinha and von eschen
West called for the expansion of state power and greater state intervention
in the economy, while continuing to use the language of liberal individual-
ism. The notion that the state is just another individual proprietor became
a wedge for neoliberal arguments that all the actions of the state should be
evaluated according to the precepts of the market economy, and if found
to be inefficient, should devolve to private proprietors and contractors,
thereby eliminating democratic sovereignty as a defining feature of the
American state.
These essays and those by Mae Ngai and Martha Biondi fundamentally
challenge romanticized notions of classical, Progressive, and New Deal
liberalism that have dealt with the contradictions of liberalism as merely
episodic failures. Ngai argues that the internment of Japanese Americans
during World War II represented not a lapse in liberalism but was con-
stitutive of it. As liberals conflated culture and loyalty, coercive assimila-
tion was as important to the ideology and implementation of internment as
were notions of exclusion. Her examination of the liberal and activist state
exposes the inherent flaws of its essentially racialist concept of democracy
and citizenship; concepts that would continue to shape a longer trajectory
of Americanization policies. Focusing on the college campus as an arena
for civil rights activism and the political and legal battles that led to the
formation of black studies programs throughout the country, Biondi ex-
amines black student activists’ critical engagements with liberalism in the
late 1960s and 1970s. Armed with Title VII and a liberal judiciary, these
African American students helped establish affirmative action, widened ac-
cess to education, and ultimately translated educational attainment into oc-
cupational mobility.
An in-depth comprehension of the internal tensions of democratic dis-
courses and state formation complements our understanding of similarly
contradictory international and transnational political and social processes.
Sven Beckert’s essay reveals how the distinct forces of German imperialism,
African American aspirations for racial liberation, and African resistance
interacted in the attempt to create a world economy of cotton. He brings
alive the economic expansion of the West and the production of agricultural
commodities in the global periphery through a narrative involving strange
bedfellows. Alessandra Lorini and Lisa McGirr analyze counterhegemonic
transnational social movements informed by a politics of labor radicalism
and ethnic nationalism. Lorini argues that a transnational Cuba Libre move-
introduction
ment situated in New York City grew not only in opposition to Spanish
imperialism but also as a rejection of the post–Civil War racial order in the
United States. In adapting U.S. republican ideology to the cause of Cuba
Libre, such Cuban exiles as Emilia Casanova de Villaverde and Jose Martí
developed distinct interpretations of American imperial nationalism. Mc-
Girr analyzes the disparate forces and local conditions that comprised the
international outcry over the Sacco and Vanzetti case. Galvanizing protest
from Mexico City, Buenos Aires, and Montevideo, to Marseille and Casa-
blanca, the Massachusetts trial of the formerly obscure anarchists crystal-
lized a unique moment of international collective mobilization. Penny Von
Eschen considers jazz pianist and composer Duke Ellington’s 1963 perfor-
mances in Baghdad, Iraq, to explore the paradox of U.S. ambition and self-
absorption in the post-1945 world. Suggesting that “hard and soft power”
are not the distinct forces they are often assumed to be, she further argues
for the necessity of Americanists broadening their engagement with schol-
ars writing from outside the field of U.S. history in order to comprehend
America’s global relations. Just as a historical investigation of the domestic
development of American democracy, liberalism, and citizenship necessi-
tates a focus on marginalized groups and peoples, any comprehension of
the nature of American empire is possible only by studying it from locations
around the globe.
This volume concludes with Eric Foner’s meditation on questions that
have beset American historians in the post-9/11 world. His cautionary
words about how to think historically rather than mythically about Ameri-
can freedom are especially pertinent at a time when politicians and public
figures justify the brazen use of torture, spying, the undermining of civil lib-
erties, and other undemocratic practices and policies in the name of Amer-
ican democracy. The current dilemma of American democracy has been
exacerbated by an accompanying obscurantist attack on science, history,
and intellectual inquiry in general. In this dismal moment of our history,
the example of Eric Foner’s confident scholarship, based on a courageous
commitment to historical truth, inspires us to meet the challenges of today.
As David Blight notes in his moving afterword, Eric Foner’s devotion to
the craft of history is as much a product of rigorous archival research as his
passionate belief in democracy and equal citizenship. We hope that the es-
says in this volume are a sufficient tribute to a master practitioner of history
“from the archive and from the heart.”
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