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The Interpersonal Dynamics of Emotion

Emotions are an elemental part of life – they imbue our existence with meaning and
purpose, and influence how we engage with the world around us. But we do not
just feel our own emotions; we typically express them in the presence of other
people. How do our emotional expressions affect others? Moving beyond the
traditional intrapersonal perspective, this is the first book dedicated to exploring
the pervasive interpersonal dynamics of emotions. Integrating existing theory and
research, Van Kleef develops the Emotions as Social Information (EASI) theory, a
ground-breaking comprehensive framework that explains how emotional expres-
sions influence observers across all domains of life, from close relationships to
group settings, conflict and negotiation, customer service, and leader-follower
relations. His deeply social perspective sheds new light on the fundamental ques-
tion of why we have emotions in the first place – the social influence emotions
engender may very well constitute their raison d’être.
gerben a. van kleef is Professor of Social Psychology at the University of
Amsterdam. He obtained his PhD from the University of Amsterdam in 2004 and
has held visiting appointments at UC Berkeley and Columbia University. He
received numerous awards for his scholarship, including the best dissertation
award of the International Association for Conflict Management, the early career
award of the European Association of Social Psychology, and the most influential
paper award of the Academy of Management. He is currently Chair of the Social
Psychology department of the University of Amsterdam and Associate Editor of
Social Psychological and Personality Science.
STUDIES IN EMOTION AND SOCIAL INTERACTION
Second Series

Series Editors

Keith Oatley
University of Toronto
Antony S. R. Manstead
Cardiff University

Titles Published in the Second Series

The Psychology of Facial Expression, edited by James A. Russell
and José Miguel Fernández-Dols
Emotions, the Social Bond, and Human Reality: Part/Whole Analysis,
by Thomas J. Scheff
Intersubjective Communication and Emotion in Early Ontogeny,
edited by Stein Bråten
The Social Context of Nonverbal Behavior, edited by Pierre Philippot,
Robert S. Feldman, and Erik J. Coats
Communicating Emotion: Social, Moral, and Cultural Processes,
by Sally Planalp
Emotions across Languages and Cultures: Diversity and Universals,
by Anna Wierzbicka
Feeling and Thinking: The Role of Affect in Social Cognition, edited by
Joseph P. Forgas
Metaphor and Emotion: Language, Culture, and Body in Human Feeling,
by Zoltán Kövecses
Gender and Emotion: Social Psychological Perspectives, edited by
Agneta H. Fischer
Causes and Consequences of Feelings, by Leonard Berkowitz
Emotions and Beliefs: How Feelings Influence Thoughts, edited by
Nico H. Frijda, Antony S. R. Manstead, and Sacha Bem
Identity and Emotion: Development through Self-Organization,
edited by Harke A. Bosma and E. Saskia Kunnen
(Continued after Index)
The Interpersonal Dynamics
of Emotion

Toward an Integrative Theory of Emotions

as Social Information

Gerben A. van Kleef

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107048249
© Gerben A. van Kleef 2016
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2016
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data
Kleef, Gerben A. van, author.
The interpersonal dynamics of emotion : toward an integrative theory
of emotions as social information / Gerben A. van Kleef.
Cambridge, United Kingdom : Cambridge University Press, 2016. |
Studies in emotion and social interaction
LCCN 2015048602 | ISBN 9781107048249 (hardback)
LCSH: Emotions – Social aspects. | Emotions – Sociological aspects. |
Interpersonal relations.
LCC BF531 .K54 2016 | DDC 152.4–dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015048602
ISBN 978-1-107-04824-9 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
To my parents, with love and gratitude
 Contents

List of figures page x

List of tables xii
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv

1 Emotion: an interpersonal perspective 1

Definitional issues 3
An interpersonal approach to emotion 5
Goals and overview of the book 6
PART I Emotions as Social Information Theory 11
2 Emotions as social information 13
Emotional expressions as evolutionary adaptations 14
What do emotional expressions signal? 21
Emotional expressions as communicative tools 23
Emotional expressions as cues to social predispositions 27
When emotional signaling fails 30
Conclusion 35
3 Mechanisms involved in the social effects of emotions 37
Emotional expressions trigger affective reactions
in observers 38
Emotional expressions elicit inferential processes in
observers 45
The relationship between affective reactions and inferential
processes 52
Conclusion 55
4 Contingencies of the social effects of emotions 56
General prerequisites for the social effects of emotions 56
Factors shaping the impact of inferential processes and
affective reactions 60
Conclusion 77

vii
viii Contents
PART II Social effects of emotions: the empirical record 79
5 Social effects of emotions in close relationships 81
The functionality of emotions in close relationships 81
Emotional convergence in interpersonal relationships 84
Social consequences of emotional expressions for
relationships 86
Conclusion 98
6 Social effects of emotions in groups 101
The functionality of emotions in group life 102
Affective reactions, affective composition, and group
functioning 104
Emotional expressions and inferential processes in groups 112
Contingencies of the social effects of emotional expressions
in groups 115
Conclusion 119
7 Social effects of emotions in conflict and negotiation 123
Affective reactions and their behavioral consequences 125
Inferential processes and their behavioral consequences 128
Affective reactions versus inferential processes 134
Emotional intelligence in conflict and negotiation 142
Conclusion 143
8 Social effects of emotions on consumer behavior and
customer service 146
Effects of service providers’ emotions on customers 148
Effects of customers’ emotions on service providers 155
How third parties’ emotional expressions shape consu-
mers’ attitudes 160
Interpersonal emotion regulation 162
Emotional intelligence in the service industry 165
Conclusion 167
9 Social effects of emotions in leadership 170
Leaders’ emotional displays and perceptions of leadership
quality 172
Leaders’ emotional displays and followers’
performance 177
Leadership and emotional intelligence 190
Conclusion 192
 Contents ix
PART III Conclusions, implications, and new directions 195
10 Critical evaluation, theoretical integration, and
implications 197
Summary of EASI theory 198
A critical evaluation of the empirical support for EASI
theory 201
How does EASI theory relate to other approaches?
Differences, commonalities, and integration 206
Implications for theory and research 212
Conclusion 221
11 Caveats and future directions 223
The elusive nature of evolutionary arguments 223
Measurement and separability of affective versus
inferential processes 225
Expanding the repertoire of emotional expressions 228
Temporal issues regarding the social effects of emotions 234
Broadening the outlook on the social context 239
Coda 243

References 244
Author Index 292
Subject Index 295
 Figures

3.1 Affective reactions as a mediating mechanism between

one person’s emotional expression and another person’s
response. page 38
3.2 Inferential processes as a mediating mechanism between
one person’s emotional expression and another person’s
response. 47
5.1 Effects of emotional expression versus suppression in
face-to-face interaction on conversation partners’ self-
reported experience of rapport and willingness to affiliate
(on a scale of 0–10). 83
5.2 Women’s smiles in college yearbook photographs
taken around the age of 20 positively predict observers’
approach and acceptance tendencies, marital status at
age 27, and personal well-being and marital satisfaction
at age 52. 89
5.3 Intended donations (in euros) to a charity collector as a
function of the collector’s emotional expression. 91
6.1 Effects of a confederate’s positive emotional displays on
the positive affective state of the group and downstream
consequences for cooperation and conflict. 107
6.2 Frequency of facial behavior in FACS action units AU4
(associated with anger) and AU5 (associated with fear)
in response to anger and fear displays as a function of
the expresser’s ingroup versus outgroup membership. 110
6.3 Observers’ ratings of group members’ common fate and
cohesiveness (on a scale of 1–9) as a function of the group
members’ constellation of facial emotional expressions. 113
6.4 Percentage of participants conforming to the majority’s
position as a function of the majority’s expressions of happi-
ness versus anger and the participant’s prototypical versus
peripheral position in the group. 119
7.1 Magnitude of concessions (in points) made over the course
of a negotiation as a function of the counterpart’s expressions

x
 List of figures xi
of anger versus happiness and time pressure. The total
amount of points to be divided was 760. 136
7.2 Magnitude of participants’ final offers in a negotiation
as a function of the opponent’s emotional expression
and participants’ cultural background. The total amount
of points to be divided was 760. 140
7.3 Concessions (in dollars) in a negotiation about a
second-hand car as a function of the counterpart’s
emotional displays. There was a discrepancy of $1,100
between the seller’s initial asking price and the buyer’s
initial offer. 141
8.1 The effects of positive “affective delivery” of salespeople
on customers’ favorable intentions vis-à-vis the store are
mediated by customers’ positive affect. 149
8.2 Customer satisfaction as a function of a service provider’s
authentic versus inauthentic positive emotional displays
and the quality of the service provider’s performance. 151
8.3 Attitude favorability (on a scale of 0–100) as a function
of the emotional display of the source of a persuasive
communication and the perceiver’s cognitive load. 163
9.1 Positivity of followers’ moods (on a scale of 1–7) and
perceptions of leader effectiveness (on a scale of 1–5)
as a function of the leader’s emotional expressions. 173
9.2 Effects of a leader’s positive versus negative mood on
followers’ ratings of the leader’s charisma and followers’
task performance are mediated by followers’ affective state. 179
9.3 Effects of a leader’s positive versus negative mood on
observer-rated group coordination and effort on a scale
of 1–5. 181
9.4 Team performance as a function of a leader’s displays of
anger versus happiness and team members’ information-
processing motivation. Team performance scores were
automatically calculated by the computer software through
which the task was administered, and they ranged from
11,796 to 40,586 points. 183
9.5 Likelihood of followers’ compliance with a leader (in per-
centages) as a function of the leader’s emotional displays and
followers’ trait positive affectivity. 187
10.1 A schematic representation of the main variables and rela-
tionships specified in EASI theory. 200
 Tables

3.1 Processes involved in producing the social effects

of emotions. page 54
4.1 Moderators of the social effects of emotions. 78
5.1 Emotional similarity at Time 1 (in correlations) of
couples who were still together at Time 2 (six months
later) and those who had broken up. 85

xii
 Preface

The social nature of emotions has interested me ever since I took a

course on emotions by Nico Frijda at the University of Amsterdam, in
1997. In the years to come, my fascination with this topic would be
nurtured by close collaborations with fellow emotion researchers such
as Tony Manstead, Dacher Keltner, Agneta Fischer, and Stéphane Côté,
as well as by the writings of numerous other inspiring scholars whose
work is featured in the pages of this book.
At the time when I took Frijda’s classes, scholarly awareness of the
social effects of emotions was clearly on the rise, but empirical research
was scarce. Now, almost two decades later, there is a burgeoning
literature on the social functions and consequences of emotional dis-
plays. Researchers have begun to examine how emotional expressions
shape close relationships, influence group processes, regulate the nego-
tiation of social conflict, affect consumer behavior and customer service
encounters, and contribute to (or undermine) effective leadership.
Although research is quickly accumulating, the literature is scattered,
and no single volume exists that brings together the important theore-
tical and empirical advances that have been made over the past years.
Now that a substantial body of research on the social effects of
emotions has been amassed, the time seems right for a comprehensive
review and theoretical integration of this literature. What have we
learned from more than twenty years of research? Do we see recurring
patterns in the social effects of emotions across social, clinical, develop-
mental, and organizational domains of inquiry? Where are the incon-
sistencies in the empirical record? Can we start building an integrative
theory of the social effects of emotions? Which important questions
remain unaddressed? And where should we go from here?
This book presents my attempt at addressing these questions. Being
the first volume dedicated specifically to the relatively young research
field of the social effects of emotions, it should be seen as a beginning
rather than an end point. My intention is to provide a theoretical frame-
work that can be used to interpret and integrate previous findings and
to guide future research. I hope this book will be instrumental in

xiii
xiv Preface
spurring new research that will bring us closer to a full understanding
of the social nature of emotions.
In addition, it is my hope that this book will prove useful as a teaching
resource. During ten years of lecturing on the social effects of emotions,
I have been frequently alerted by both undergraduate and graduate
students that there is a need for a book that offers a comprehensive
treatment of this rapidly growing field of research. I have therefore tried
to make this text accessible to students as well. If this book turned out to
be half as stimulating to a new generation of emotion researchers as my
personal heroes have been to me, I would be very satisfied indeed.

Gerben van Kleef

 Acknowledgments

The ideas and research presented in this book reflect the collective efforts
of a large group of scholars. Several of them have contributed directly to
my own work through various collaborations. I thank Hajo Adam, Adi
Amit, Bruce Barry, Bianca Beersma, Arik Cheshin, Stéphane Côté,
Frederic Damen, Carsten de Dreu, Xia Fang, Agneta Fischer, Allison
Gabriel, Adam Galinsky, Fieke Harinck, Skyler Hawk, Marc Heerdink,
Ivona Hideg, Astrid Homan, Dacher Keltner, Lukas Koning, Gert-Jan
Lelieveld, Tony Manstead, Christina Moran, Liat Netzer, Bernard
Nijstad, Chris Oveis, Lisanne Pauw, Katerina Petkanopoulou, Davide
Pietroni, Jeffrey Sanchez-Burks, Disa Sauter, Marwan Sinaceur, Eftychia
Stamkou, Wolfgang Steinel, Maya Tamir, Ilja van Beest, Helma van den
Berg, Ilmo van der Löwe, Joop van der Pligt, Eric van Dijk, Evert-Jan van
Doorn, Daan van Knippenberg, Paul van Lange, Victoria Visser, Lu
Wang, and Barbara Wisse for the pleasant collaborations and inspiring
discussions. In addition, I am indebted to the countless scholars with
whom I have had the pleasure of interacting during conferences and
other meetings. Their work, much of which is covered in this book, has
greatly influenced my thinking.
At this point I would also like to acknowledge the financial support I
have been offered by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific
Research. The various research grants I have been privileged to receive
have catalyzed my research on the interpersonal dynamics of emotion
and have allowed me to create favorable conditions for writing this
volume.
I am grateful to my colleagues at the University of Amsterdam for
contributing to a stimulating intellectual environment, and to Columbia
University for hosting me during part of the time when I was working on
this book.
Finally, I would like to extend a warm thank-you to Tony Manstead for
the honorable invitation to contribute a volume to this series, which is so
close to my heart, and for providing valuable comments on a previous
draft of the manuscript.

xv
 CHAPTER 1

Emotion
An interpersonal perspective

Emotion accomplishes very little in the social world unless it is

communicated.
Planalp (1999, p. 138)

Emotions are a defining feature of the human condition – they shape our
social relationships and imbue our lives with meaning and purpose. Few
would disagree that our emotions influence how we perceive the world,
how we think about it, and how we engage with it. What may be less
obvious, however, is that our emotions can have far-reaching effects on
the thinking and actions of others, and, logically, that the emotions of
others influence our own cognition and behavior. This book is about these
social effects of emotions.
Questions about the nature and meaning of emotions date back to at
least the old Greek philosophers (e.g., Plato, Aristotle), and these very
questions later propelled the conception of psychology as a scientific field
of inquiry (see James, 1884). What are emotions? Why did they evolve?
Are emotions functional or dysfunctional? Do our emotions cloud our
rationality and misguide our behavior, as suggested by philosophers like
Descartes and Kant, or are they the fuel that gets us going and steers us
toward great achievement, as proposed by thinkers such as Hume and
Nietzsche? Do emotions disrupt evenhanded social interactions or are
they the cornerstone of well-adjusted relationships?
Inspired by Darwin’s (1872) seminal book The expression of the emotions
in man and animals, scholars have increasingly embraced the notion that
emotions are functional in that they help the individual to adapt to an
ever-changing environment. Classic theorizing and research have
emphasized the individual-level functionality of emotions (Frijda, 1986;
Lazarus, 1991; Oatley & Jenkins, 1992). Emotions are believed to regulate
bodily adaptations to environmental changes (Farb, Chapman, &
Anderson, 2013). This involves regulation of the autonomic nervous
system, endocrine system, and immune system. It has been demon-
strated, for example, that anger leads to enhanced distribution of blood
to the hands, whereas fear involves reduced blood flow to the periphery
(Levenson, 1992). These patterns can be interpreted as adaptive responses

1
2 Emotion: an interpersonal perspective
to challenges involved in fighting an enemy versus escaping one with
minimal loss of blood (Keltner, Haidt, & Shiota, 2006).
I do not dispute this individual-level functionality of emotions. At the
same time, however, it is clear that the individual perspective alone
cannot account for the full breadth of emotional phenomena. After all, if
emotions were only functional at the individual level, why would they
show on our faces? Why would they become audible in our voices and
visible in our bodily postures? And why would so many people feel the
urge to communicate their emotional experiences to others (Rimé,
Philippot, Boca, & Mesquita, 1992)? As a result of these various expres-
sive tendencies, our emotions often do not remain confined to our indi-
vidual minds and bodies.
Whoever first coined the term “emotion” was surely aware of this.
Before the term was introduced, thinkers commonly used the word
“passions” to refer to emotional phenomena. The word “passion” is
derived from the Greek πάσχω, which means “to suffer” and thus empha-
sizes individual experience. The word “emotion” is derived from the
Latin emovere, which means “to move out.” The very meaning of the
term suggests that emotions are about bringing out, and making known
to observers, the internal state of the individual, thus emphasizing the
social nature of the phenomenon. As we will see, there is considerable
debate in the literature as to whether emotional expressions reflect inter-
nal feeling states and/or (deliberate) communications (see, e.g.,
Parkinson, 2005). This controversy notwithstanding, the active moving
that is implied in the word “emotion” better captures the essence of the
phenomenon than the passive undergoing that is implied in the archaic
“passions.” Emotions actively set things in motion. They move ourselves
and they move others.
Although emotions can of course be privately experienced, more often
than not they are expressed in one way or another – whether verbally or
nonverbally, mildly or intensely, knowingly or unknowingly, deliber-
ately or inadvertently (Ekman & O’Sullivan, 1991; Manstead, Wagner,
& MacDonald, 1984; Scherer, Feldstein, Bond, & Rosenthal, 1985). The
very fact that emotions tend to be expressed means that they will often be
observed by others, who may in turn respond to the expressions. Put
differently, our hardwired tendency to express our emotions implies that
emotions may have social functions and consequences in addition to their
more commonly studied and widely accepted intrapersonal effects.
Indeed, emotional expressions have been proposed to contribute to the
effective regulation of social interaction. According to this perspective,
emotions may have evolved in part because they help us address social-
relational concerns (Fischer & Manstead, in press; Oatley & Johnson-
Laird, 1987). Some have argued, for instance, that emotions help to
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