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Frank Lloyd

Wright
Robert McCarter
Frank Lloyd Wright
Titles in the series Critical Lives present the work of leading cultural
figures of the modern period. Each book explores the life of the artist,
writer, philosopher or architect in question and relates it to their
major works.

In the same series

Michel Foucault
David Macey

Jean Genet
Stephen Barber

Pablo Picasso
Mary Ann Caws

Franz Kafka
Sander L. Gilman

Guy Debord
Andy Merrifield

Marcel Duchamp
Caroline Cros

James Joyce
Andrew Gibson

Jean-Paul Sartre
Andrew Leak
Frank Lloyd Wright

Robert McCarter

reaktion books
To Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer

Published by Reaktion Books Ltd


33 Great Sutton Street
London ec1v 0dx, uk

www.reaktionbooks.co.uk

First published 2006

Copyright © Robert McCarter 2006

All rights reserved


No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the publishers.

Printed and bound in The Netherlands


by Krips B. V.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data


McCarter, Robert
Frank Lloyd Wright. – (Critical lives)
1. Wright, Frank Lloyd, 1867–1959 2. Wright, Frank Lloyd, 1867–1959 –
Criticism and interpretation 3. Architects, United States – 20th century
– Biography 4. Architecture, Modern – 20th century 5. Architecture –
United States – 20th century
I. Title
720.9'2

isbn 1 86189 268 3


Contents

Introduction: Wright at the Defining Moment 7


1 Unity and Nature’s Geometry 9
2 Chicago and the Tradition of Practice 26
3 White City and New World Monumentality 44
4 Prairie House and the Progressive Movement 62
5 Europe and the Shining Brow 90
6 Eastern Garden and Western Desert 103
7 Fellowship and the Disappearing City 120
8 Natural House and the Fountainhead 144
9 Usonia Lost and Found 171
Epilogue: Wright in the Rearview Mirror 201

References 204
Bibliography 217
Acknowledgements 223
Photographic Acknowledgements 224
Frank Lloyd Wright in 1926.
Introduction:
Wright at the Defining Moment

This book examines both the critical events and the defining works
of architecture – and the places, occasions, relationships and ideas
that shaped them – in the life of American architect Frank Lloyd
Wright (1867–1959). Wright’s life and architecture have been the
subject of a seemingly endless number of books and writings,
beginning in 1900, when Wright was aged 33, and continuing
unabated to this day, at the beginning of a new century. Yet within
this outpouring the reader will discern a consistent division
between those books that document and analyse his architectural
works, largely excluding any discussion of his daily life, and those
books that tell the often sensational tale of his life, with barely
a passing reference to either the buildings themselves or the
countless hours he spent working on his designs. Also too often
overlooked in existing studies are the ideas and beliefs that shaped
Wright’s work, the larger intellectual context in which he worked,
and the manner in which these affected, and are reflected in, his
architecture. The result is that, despite the large number of books
on Wright, the most essential part of his life – his life as an
architect, working, as he said, ‘in the cause of architecture’ –
remains virtually unexplored. This book, which endeavours to
give an account of Wright’s life as an architect, may thus be defined
as an architectural biography.
During a life and career that spanned the greater part of the
United States’s second century, Wright actively engaged and
endeavoured to shape American democracy’s emergence and

7
evolution in the modern world. Joining ancient place-making
geometries to contemporary ideals of Transcendental philosophy,
Wright sought to develop an appropriate architecture for both
the young American nation and the new world of the twentieth
century. Wright believed it was his task to house the experiences
of daily life in a new architecture that was formed by integrated
conceptions of both collective monumentality and individual
dwelling. Wright’s work thus redefined our understanding of the
city, the ideal of the community, and the nature of the single family
house. In this way, Wright’s architecture crystallized key conceptions
of both private dwelling and public citizenship for the young
American society, as well as serving as the primary inspiration
for the emergence of Modern architecture around the world.
Today, almost 50 years after his death, Wright remains by far
the most widely recognized Modern architect in the world. Though
he came to maturity in the nineteenth-century American culture
of immigration and Emerson, and was already middle-aged at the
turn of the twentieth century, Wright’s buildings, and the ideas
that underlie them, nevertheless continue to inspire new architecture
in the twenty-first century. Wright’s architecture is timeless and
affects us in a manner that is as aggravating to historians, intent
upon chronological, comparative and conceptual categorizations,
as it is endearing to the general public, who recognize in Wright’s
architecture both its appeal to fundamental, unchanging human
qualities and its spirited engagement of contemporary life. Wright
himself felt that, despite their unparalleled formal, material and
spatial variety, all his architectural works originated from the same
ordering principles, consistently applied throughout his 72-year
career. Frank Lloyd Wright’s built works fully embody his ethical
ideals for architecture, his conception of democracy founded on
both individual and collective integrity, and his vision of modern
life in harmony with nature – all of which continue to be as valid
today as when he first conceived these exceptional places.

8
1

Unity and Nature’s Geometry


1867–87

Frank Lincoln Wright, so named by his parents William Carey


Wright and Anna Lloyd Jones Wright, was born on 8 June 1867
in Richland Center, Wisconsin. Wright would maintain through-
out his life that his date of birth was two years later, and much
has been made of this in biographies of Wright. This includes
the assertion that Wright’s life ‘starts with a lie’,1 and the equally
questionable claim that this change of birth date was the begin-
ning of Wright’s ‘lifelong habit of turning fact into fiction’.2
In this case, it is perhaps more appropriate to note this as a
very effective example of Wright’s turning fiction into fact, for
Wright’s revised birth date of 1869 is today, almost 140 years
afterwards, still to be found in many highly respected and
widely employed reference books.
Wright always maintained that he believed his birth date
of 1869 as given by his mother, yet Anna Lloyd Jones had also
changed her own date of birth by four years, from 1838 to 1842.3
In her case the motive is fairly clear, for it allowed her to main-
tain that she was 24 years old at the time of her marriage in 1866,
rather than her true age of 28 – late to be getting married in that
period and place. Wright likely knew from a fairly early age that
his mother had changed the date of his birth, yet he chose to
maintain his public belief in his mother’s modified version until
the end of his life, when, just two months shy of his 92nd birth-
day, he passed away in Phoenix, Arizona. At the time of his death,

9
preparations were under way for what virtually everyone involved
thought would be Wright’s 90th birthday party in June.
Even without the two years of added youth, Wright was as pre-
cocious an architect as the world had ever known. In no small part
this must be credited to the remarkable family, time and place into
which he was born. The first significant influence on Wright’s early
development was his mother’s extraordinary family, the Lloyd
Joneses, a Celtic clan of religious revolutionaries who had broken
away from the established Protestant church during the Methodist
revival, and played a part in the founding of the Unitarian sect
in Wales in 1726.4 Considering themselves Nonconformists and
Dissenters in their religious practices, the Lloyd Joneses were
among the numerous freedom-seeking refugees and rebels from
Europe arriving in the New World at this time. From 1840 to 1890
some 15 million immigrants came to America, accounting for one-
third of the nation’s population increase during that period.
For European immigrants, America offered the possibility of
a new beginning, and this appealed particularly to the radical
ministers and educators in the Lloyd Jones family, who brought
with them a tradition of holding to their own thoughts and
beliefs in the face of all opposition. Wright’s grandparents,
Richard and Mallie Lloyd Jones, emigrated to America in 1844
from Llandysul, Wales, bringing their seven children, Thomas,
John, Margaret, Mary, Anna, Nanny and Jenkin. Nanny died during
their subsequent travels in search of a homestead, and four
more children, James, Enos, Nell and Jane (called Jennie), were
born in America. In 1852 the close-knit family began purchasing
what would eventually total 1,800 acres of land outside Spring
Green, near Madison, along the Wisconsin River. In 1864, as
the end of the Civil War approached, the Lloyd Joneses settled
in what came to be known as ‘The Valley of the God-Almighty
Joneses’,5 adopting as their family motto the phrase ‘Truth
against the world’.

10
Large family portrait of the Lloyd Jones family, c. 1883, in Madison, Wisconsin.
The future architect sits to the right of the empty chair.

Traditional Celtic society was structured around close family


relations, and a child was considered to belong to his mother’s
side of the family, rather than to his father’s.6 Without question,
Wright’s mother’s family was of the utmost importance in the shap-
ing of his world-view, as is indicated by his decision at the age of
eighteen to change his name from Frank Lincoln Wright to Frank
Lloyd Wright, thus becoming a full-fledged member of the clan.
Wright’s original middle name of Lincoln likely came from his
father, and it was a popular name for children at the time. In April
1865 in Lone Rock, Wisconsin, William Wright had given a highly
praised eulogy for Abraham Lincoln following the Civil War presi-
dent’s assassination, and the Lloyd Jones family was deeply commit-
ted to the anti-slavery, abolitionist cause. Lincoln would haunt the
young American nation for years to come, and Frank Lincoln Wright
grew up in a tradition of Unitarian religious practice standing in
opposition to slavery that linked his family with that of such New
England contemporaries as Henry and William James, novelist and
philosopher-psychologist, respectively, and Oliver Wendell Holmes,
Supreme Court Justice, as well as the father-figure and founder of
American Transcendental philosophy, Ralph Waldo Emerson.

11
While building their farm houses in the Valley near Spring
Green, the Lloyd Jones family lived in Bear Creek, near Lone
Rock, and Anna Lloyd Jones worked in the school district of
which William Wright was the superintendent. A family story
holds that Anna lodged in the Wright household prior to the
death of William’s first wife, Permelia, in 1863. After their mother’s
death, William’s three young children, Charles, George and
Elizabeth, went to live with their maternal grandmother until
Anna and William were married in August 1866.
William Wright was of noble English lineage, his family claim-
ing to be descendants of William the Conqueror,7 and his father
was a Baptist minister. William had studied medicine and passed
the bar exam to practice law, later establishing himself as an organist,
musician and teacher of the keyboard, as well as an educator and
public speaker. William had come to Lone Rock in 1859 as a lawyer,
and later was elected school superintendent. When he met Anna,
William was studying for the ministry, which he subsequently
took up as yet another occupation. At the time of their marriage,
Anna was 28 and William 42, and they would have three children
together, making six altogether with his three children from his
first marriage.
In May 1867 Anna and William moved to Richland Center,
about 30 kilometres from Spring Green, where William, newly
ordained as a minister, was to oversee construction of the Central
Baptist Society’s new building. One month later their son Frank
was born, followed in the next years by his sisters Jane and
Maginel. William Wright was by all accounts quite popular,
involved in both the political and moral life of the communities
where he served as minister. He was an accomplished musician,
giving highly praised recitals, and a public speaker able to lecture
on a wide variety of subjects. In fact, it is clear that William was
skilled at almost anything he put his mind to do, with the glaring
exceptions of continuous employment and making a living.

12
Wright’s family moved five times over the next ten years, when
he was two, four, six, seven, and ten years of age: to MacGregor,
Iowa (on the Mississippi River); Pawtucket, Rhode Island; Essex,
Connecticut; Weymouth, Massachusetts; and finally to Madison,
Wisconsin. Each time they arrived in a new town William made a
good first impression and often a successful start, but thereafter
proved incapable of securing adequate financial support for his
family, forcing them to move again soon in search of better oppor-
tunity. Each move meant the pain of parting, and yet also a new
place, new friends and new opportunities. Wright learned to make
new friends and to engage new places; while these relationships
were denied the luxury of longevity, they possessed an unusual
intensity of feeling.
The situation of the Wright family was hardly unique, however,
for in the 1870s the nation was in the midst of a severe economic
depression that coincided with the fire in Chicago of 1871 and that
city’s subsequent rebuilding, and small towns often could not pro-
vide sufficient funding for their church and its pastor, despite the
best of intentions. Wright’s memories of what was without ques-
tion an impoverished childhood included living in various small
crowded houses, strenuously pumping the bellows until the tears
flowed while his father played the church organ, as well as the all
too common ‘donation parties’, where everything from second-
hand clothing to pies were given to the Wrights by the congrega-
tion in a doomed effort to keep them in town.
Despite these hardships, during the eighteen years he lived
with his father Wright developed a deep and abiding love of music,
a marked talent for playing the piano, an understanding of musical
composition as a creative act (watching his father go back and
forth from piano to writing table, his pen held in his teeth while
he played), the memorization of much of Bach and Beethoven by
listening to his father playing the piano late into the night, and
his own daily practice of Schubert, Mendelssohn and Czerny’s

13
Exercises, among others. While the family remained poverty-stricken
throughout Wright’s youth, there was always a piano (if not much
else) in his home, and later in life he would return to playing the
piano as both a way to establish his presence in a strange place –
even in the Arizona desert at a makeshift camp – and as rejuvena-
tion from arduous labour during the long nights of working at the
drawing board. As Wright said of his father, ‘He had his music still,
which always consoled him, and music was his friend to the last
when all else had failed.’8
Wright inherited from his father a natural skill at a wide variety
of tasks, a stubborn self-assurance and a seemingly unfailing self-
confidence in public presentations. Combined with the skills at
making friends and adapting rapidly to new situations forced upon
him by his family’s constant moves from state to state, these traits
can be counted among the reasons Wright would later be recog-
nized as the only modern architect with a commanding and captiv-
ating public presence equal to famous contemporary cultural
and political figures. On the other hand, Wright also inherited his
father’s inability to manage the family finances, his habit of spend-
ing money on luxuries rather than necessities, his tendency to make
exaggerated claims and occasional distortions of the truth, and his
penchant for avoiding rather than confronting difficult situations.
From both his father and mother Wright inherited an all-con-
suming love of reading (books were the family’s most prized
possessions) and he recalls reading the works of Emerson, William
Channing, Theodore Parker, Henry David Thoreau, John Ruskin,
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow,
Percy Bysshe Shelley, Edgar Allen Poe, Thomas Carlyle, Edward
Gibbon, Plutarch, Jules Verne, Victor Hugo, James Russell Lowell,
William Blake, Eugene-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, as well as The
Arabian Nights (Wright’s nickname for himself at this time was
‘Aladdin’) and dozens of ‘Nickel Library’ mysteries, ghost stories
and thrillers.

14
This was complemented by Wright’s early interest in printing
and typography (he set up a printing press ‘business’ with his closest
friend in Madison, Robie Lamp, a cripple without the use of his
legs), in making all manner of inventions and in drawing. From his
earliest memories Wright describes himself as perpetually making
drawings: drawings for inventions, drawings of nature, drawings
as a way to exercise the imagination – he was always drawing,
especially in the evenings by lamplight.
Most histories have made little of his father’s influence, instead
emphasizing his mother’s claim to have predetermined her only
son to be an architect – including hanging etchings of English
Gothic cathedrals above his crib before he was born. It may well
have been the high esteem in which her oldest brother Thomas, a
self-made carpenter and builder, was held by the Lloyd Joneses of
the Valley, that made architecture seem a suitably noble profession
towards which to direct her eldest child and only son. Anna’s
intense desire for Frank to be a success resulted in her placing wildly
excessive expectations and demands on him, as well as in her
obsessive dedication to him from his infancy until her own death.
Yet Wright would in the end emerge as a complex blend of both
his father and mother, in all their best and worst traits.
Eventually the pattern of nomadic family life and ever-insufficient
means led to the slow deterioration of Anna and William’s marriage.
After their move back to Madison in 1877, probably supported by the
Lloyd Jones family, comfortably settled in the Valley, William again
pursued a series of apparently unprofitable jobs, including establish-
ing a conservatory of music. While the Wright family lived in
Madison for eight years, far longer than they had stayed in any other
place, the marriage nevertheless began to fail soon after their arrival,
with her demanding more financial support than he was able to pro-
vide and then denying him conjugal relations, starting in 1883. Years
before, Anna had begun to favour her own children, denying atten-
tion and affection to William’s children from his former marriage.

15
As a result of all the escalating tensions and conflicts between them,
William began to withdraw more and more from the family, and
Frank assumed that his parents’ frequent heated differences were over
him, that perhaps he was the cause, as is typical in such situations.
When his parents’ split finally came, in 1885, Wright would
accept his mother’s story, claiming that his father abandoned the
family; in fact it was his father who instigated the divorce proceed-
ings, charging spousal abuse and abandonment. In the divorce pro-
ceedings William stated that Anna said she hated the very ground
he walked on,9 and it was Anna’s bitterness that finally drove him
away. Wright never saw his father again, nor did he attend William’s
funeral in Lone Rock in 1904, although in later years he did make
solitary visits to the grave. Anna and her three children remained
in the house in Madison, on Lake Mendota, 60 kilometres from
the Valley of the Lloyd Joneses, and it was around this time that
the eighteen-year-old changed his name to Frank Lloyd Wright.

Wherever his family happened to be living at the time, each summer


during his childhood Wright returned to visit his Lloyd Jones
relatives in the Valley, along the Wisconsin River. Thus the area
was already quite familiar to Wright at the age of ten when his family
moved back to Madison, after which he spent every summer work-
ing on the farm of his uncle, James Lloyd Jones. Wright recalled
the exhausting labour of farm life, getting up early and working
hard all day long, which he described as ‘adding tired to tired’.10
The experience of eight summers spent on his uncle’s farm, the
discipline for hard work it instilled in him, and the opportunity
it provided him to spend long hours in nature, were to have a
profound and lasting effect on Wright, resulting in his great love
of and respect for the formative powers of nature.
Nature – capitalized to signify that it was Wright’s church, the
place where he worshipped God in His works – would become for
Wright both the inspiration and the measure of all his own works.

16
This was reinforced from an early age by Anna’s favourite quota-
tion from Shakespeare, from As You Like It: ‘And this our life,
exempt from public haunt, finds tongues in trees, books in the
running brooks, sermons in stones, and good in everything.’11 As
an additional prompting of Anna’s decision to will Frank to become
an architect, we should note that this quotation combines the idea
of nature as the source of all that is good, and the definition of
architecture as ‘sermons in stones’ – a phrase surely freighted with
meaning for a family of preachers such as the Lloyd Joneses.
For Wright, Sundays in the Valley were his salvation from
‘adding tired to tired’, when it was his responsibility to rise early
and decorate the pulpit of the family chapel with blooms and
branches he collected from the hillsides. His uncle, Jenkin Lloyd
Jones, who at this time was emerging as the most famous Unitarian
minister in the world, would preach a sermon and read from the
Transcendental classics of Emerson and Thoreau, as well as from
the poetry of Longfellow and Lowell, and at the end the children
would sing. Uncle Thomas would then take them on a picnic in the
woods and fields that opened in every direction.
Every summer Jenkin Lloyd Jones would raise a tent in the
Valley and host a Unitarian Chautauqua, educational gatherings
at which the speakers eventually included progressive politicians
such as Robert La Follette, settlement house founder Jane Addams,
women’s suffrage leader Susan B. Anthony, as well as other reli-
gious leaders, such as William C. Gannett, a leading Unitarian
from Chicago. Years later Wright would collaborate with Gannett
on the design and printing of The House Beautiful, the text of
which is a sermon on that subject by Jenkin Lloyd Jones. The
Unitarianism of the Lloyd Joneses, as the young Wright understood
it, was an attempt to emphasize, amidst the competing creeds of
the day, ‘the idea of life as a gift from a divine source’, with nature
exemplifying the perfect works of God. Wright was raised in
the Welsh branch of the Unitarian faith, with the ideal of unity,

17
‘the unity of all things!’12 understood to be the beginning and
the end of all humankind’s efforts to achieve truth – and beauty,
Wright would later say.
In An Autobiography Wright recalls how his reverence for
nature and the ideal of unity were reinforced and transformed
into constructive method through the Froebel kindergarten training
introduced to him by his mother. In 1876, while the Wright family
was living in Weymouth, Massachusetts, Anna and her teacher
sisters, Jane and Nell, visited the Centennial Exposition held
in Philadelphia, celebrating the first 100 years of the American
nation. There the three sisters were able to examine a display of
the kindergarten ‘gifts’ and instructions for teachers developed
by Friedrich Froebel. Soon after returning from Philadelphia
Anna made a trip to Boston, to the Milton Bradley store,
to purchase a set of Froebel ‘gifts’ for use in educating the three
Wright children, including the first English translation of the
all-important teaching manuals, which had been published in
1874, only two years earlier.
Froebel had begun his own education studying science in the
field of crystallography, the study of the geometry of rock crystal
formations. He later studied architecture for two years and finally
became a teacher. From 1807 to 1809 he worked with Johann
Pestalozzi, whose experimental school emphasized the principle
of teaching and learning through the child’s voluntary activities.
Froebel’s own methods, described in the instructional manuals
that accompanied his training ‘gifts’, consisted of both philosophical
and formal ordering principles imparted to the child through a
series of twenty ‘gifts’, spatial and tactile (rather than written)
instruments of learning, a number of which were developed from
crystallography. These ‘gifts’ were to be given to the child in a
predetermined sequence, ideally starting at infancy and finishing
at age five, although the pace at which the child moved through
the ‘gifts’ was largely self-determined.

18
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