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Accessible Elements
Accessible Elements

Teaching Science Online and at a Distance

DIETMAR
KENNEPOHL

AND

LAWTON
SHAW
© 2010 Dietmar Kennepohl and Lawton Shaw

Published by AU Press, Athabasca University

1200, 10011 - 109 Street
Edmonton, AB T5J 3S8

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Kennepohl, Dietmar Karl, 1961–
Accessible elements : teaching science online and at a distance /
Dietmar Kennepohl and Lawton Shaw.

Includes index.
Issued also in electronic format (978-1-897425-48-0).
ISBN 978-1-897425-47-3

1. Science--Study and teaching (Higher). 2. Science--Computer-

assisted instruction. 3. Distance education. I. Shaw, Lawton, 1972–
II. Title.

Q181.K46 2010 507.1’1 C2009-906647-5

Cover and book design by Natalie Olsen

Printed and bound in Canada by Marquis Book Printing

Please contact AU Press, Athabasca University at

[email protected] for permissions and copyright information.
We wish to express our gratitude and appreciation to those who
have contributed to this book. The authors graciously gave of their
time and expertise to make this book truly come alive, and were
also very patient through the review and production process. Many
reviewers and colleagues from around the world provided helpful
comments and suggestions. The AU Press editors and designers —
Erna Dominey, Peter Enman, Kathy Killoh and Natalie Olsen —
demonstrated exceptional professionalism and creativity.

Dietmar Kennepohl thanks his loving wife, Roberta, for help with
redesigning some chapter figures and for her patience in listening to
innumerable discussions around delivering science courses at a
distance.

Lawton Shaw thanks his wife, Tanya, for always being positive and
encouraging about this project.
Contents
Foreword
Introduction
Learning
CHAPTER ONE

Interactions Affording Distance Science Education

Terry Anderson

CHAPTER TWO

Learning Science at a Distance: Instructional Dialogues and

Resources
Paul Gorsky and Avner Caspi

CHAPTER THREE

Leadership Strategies for Coordinating Distance Education

Instructional Development Teams
Gale Parchoma

CHAPTER FOUR

Toward New Models of Flexible Education to Enhance Quality in

Australian Higher Education
Stuart Palmer, Dale Holt, and Alan Farley

Laboratories
CHAPTER FIVE

Taking the Chemistry Experience Home — Home Experiments

or “Kitchen Chemistry”
 Robert Lyall and Antonio (Tony) F. Patti

CHAPTER SIX

Acquisition of Laboratory Skills by On-Campus and Distance

Education Students
Jenny Mosse and Wendy Wright

CHAPTER SEVEN

Low-Cost Physics Home Laboratory

Farook Al-Shamali and Martin Connors

CHAPTER EIGHT

Laboratories in the Earth Sciences

Edward Cloutis

CHAPTER NINE

Remote Control Teaching Laboratories and Practicals

Dietmar Kennepohl

Logistics
CHAPTER TEN

Needs, Costs, and Accessibility of DE Science Lab Programs

Lawton Shaw and Robert Carmichael

CHAPTER ELEVEN

Challenges and Opportunities for Teaching Laboratory Sciences

at a Distance in a Developing Country
Md. Tofazzal Islam
CHAPTER TWELVE

Distance and Flexible Learning at University of the South Pacific

Anjeela Jokhan and Bibhya N. Sharma

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

Institutional Considerations: A Vision for Distance Education

Erwin Boschmann

Author Biographies

Index
Foreword
PROFESSOR MICHAEL GRAHAME MOORE, PH.D.
The Pennsylvania State University
Editor: The American Journal of Distance Education

I first became aware that there were special problems in teaching

science at a distance some forty years ago when Charles
Wedemeyer asked me to write (in those days on a typewriter to be
delivered by surface mail) to a selection of distance teaching
institutions around the world. What he wanted to know was what
solutions, if any, they had found to the problem of enabling people
who studied at home to undertake scientific experiments as part of
a distance learning program. One of Wedemeyer’s core beliefs was
that if teachers applied enough creative intellectual effort, any
learning outcome that could be achieved in a classroom should be
achievable outside also, and he would not accept the popular
assumption that people who studied at home, usually in their spare
time, could not study science simply because they should have to
undertake experiments. The question was not if it could be done,
but how best to do it, and particularly, how to accommodate the
need for experiences that were usually undertaken in a laboratory.
In his Articulated Media Project (Wedemeyer & Najem, 1969) he
had already come up with one answer to this particular problem, in
the form of mobile laboratories that traveled around his state, an
idea based on what he had heard about a common practice in the
Soviet Union, where laboratories for distance learners were shunted
around the country on railway trains. Looking for a simpler and less
costly solution, my assignment was related to his work on the
concept of the home experiment kit. This would be a package of
materials and equipment that could be loaned to the student, who
would use it in conducting science experiments at home. It was one
of many ideas that Wedemeyer had been discussing with friends in
the United Kingdom who were in the process of setting up the Open
University, where it became extremely successful as sophisticated
and ingenious home experiment kits were developed on an
industrial scale (see Chapter 10).
Forty years after those early initiatives — and in spite of the
example of the Open University, which has not only shown that
science can be taught at a distance, but has become a world center
of high quality science — the prejudice that science can only be
taught face-to-face is still widespread, especially in the United
States. Indeed, innovative course and program proposals frequently
fail to get off the ground because of very ill-informed assertions by
classroom teachers that distance teaching of science is not possible.
It should be a matter of some surprise — now that we have
Dietmar Kennepohl and Lawton Shaw’s book before us — to realize
how long it has taken for someone to produce a book to challenge
this prejudice, indeed to begin to describe the problem and to
document some of the ways in which it has been tackled. Further
evidence of the slowness of the educational community to deal with
the challenge — and opportunity — of distance teaching in the
sciences is provided by the number of articles that have appeared in
the quality research journals. In more than twenty years, the
American Journal of Distance Education has received only one
publishable research-based article having “science” in its title; this
was an article on the subject of science teaching in high schools
(Martin & Rainey, 1993). Added to this, there have been descriptive,
i.e., non-research based reports, in the Journal’s “Grassroots”
section describing isolated experiences in science teacher education
(Jaeger, 1995), and another about an attempt to deliver a biology
laboratory (Naber & Leblanc, 1994). A recent research article
(Abdel-Salam, Kauffmann & Crossman, 2007) reports an experiment
to provide laboratory experiences in engineering courses.
Given this dearth of information, the arrival of a whole volume
on the subject of science education at a distance is an extremely
important event. The book is not a final answer to the challenge of
science teaching, and of course none of its contributors would
imagine it to be so. (Personally, I would have liked the editors to
have found more evidence about the use, or potential use, of virtual
reality as a powerful alternative to the real-world laboratory; it is
presumably a topic that will follow as this book inspires others to
experiment and report on their progress in this approach.) The book
is, however, an excellent overview of the state of the art, revealing
where we are today, and pointing to the problems and opportunities
now opening up to us, especially the opportunities for using, as I
have just indicated, Web 2.0 technologies. As such it provides an
excellent foundation for teachers, researchers, and students who
are preparing themselves to come to grips with the exciting
opportunities in this field.
The book provides the global perspective, the editors having
searched globally for their contributors — as indeed in such a
neglected area they would have to. Thus, while the majority of
contributions come from their own Athabasca University and
Australia’s Monash University, these are complemented by
experiences from other North American universities, from Israel,
Bangladesh, the University of South Pacific, and the United
Kingdom. Represented here are physicists, biologists, and chemists,
an astronomer, a microbiologist, and a geographer, among others.
All of course, are engaged in teaching their subjects, but — and this
is the core strength of the book in my opinion — they have been
well complemented with a team of educational scientists, people
who I am fairly sure are like me in knowing little or nothing about
biology, chemistry, or physics, but who know quite a lot about how
people learn and how best to teach them. In this regard, I was very
impressed by the editors’ forthright explanation of the reasons that
teaching science at a distance has been such a neglected part of the
field of distance education, particularly the fourth of their five
points. But all five bear repeating; they are: first, that it is
particularly challenging to construct an effective learning
environment for the study of the sciences; second, that science
teachers suffer as do others from lack of resources, combined with
the expectation of their employing organizations that they teach at a
distance in the same “lone-ranger style” they use in the classroom;
third, that the literature that might inform innovators in this area is
hard to find, being scattered in a variety of both scientific as well as
educational journals; and fourth, and perhaps most difficult to cope
with, the educators of science students at post-school levels
invariably bring very strong disciplinary and research backgrounds to
their teaching but have no training in teaching or in-depth study of
the philosophies and methods of teaching and learning; finally, there
is the problem of providing laboratory experiences that I have
already referred to.
Based on this analysis, the editors have brought together a team
of teaching and learning specialists to complement the experts in
the disciplines. By so doing they have provided a series of responses
to the problem of teaching science that is based on pedagogical
theory and research, which helps move the quality of analysis and
then the level of debate several steps beyond anything we have
seen on this subject until now. I particularly enjoyed seeing the first
chapter deal with the challenge of managing instructional
development teams. What a revolution in the quality and efficiency
of distance education there would be if we could move from rhetoric
to reality in the application of the team concept in course design
and delivery! The book goes forward then with leading experts on
the subject of interaction and dialogue revisiting and developing this
relatively well known part of the field, though here very interestingly
approached through the lenses of the specialists in teaching
subjects that have not always, until recently, been seen universally
as lending themselves to a constructivist pedagogy. The big
question, of providing laboratory experiences, is the subject of a full
section, in my opinion one of the core questions in this book, and
then a final section deals with some issues of the logistics and
infrastructure of program delivery.
This book will, I hope, be read by everyone with an interest in
education. This is not only for science educators or distance
educators alone. Certainly one hopes that teachers of science in the
classroom — most of whom are likely to be called on in the future to
teach at a distance at least in blended learning conditions — as well
as those who already do teach at a distance, and also the
administrators and policy makers who have to allocate and manage
the resources that are available for science education will study this
book carefully and glean from it some of the valuable ideas it
provides for the expansion and improvement of distance education
in the sciences. Surely our students deserve better programs, the
out-of-school population needs more opportunity of continuing
education in the sciences, and society deserves and needs a better
return on its education and training investment in the sciences than
it has enjoyed until now.
If this book goes even a short way toward sensitizing these
populations to the challenges of teaching science at a distance and
also the enormous potential for society and the individual of
upgrading our response to that challenge, it will indeed prove to be
a most important work — besides being a thoroughly enjoyable
read.

REFERENCES
Abdel-Salam, T.M., Kauffmann, P.J., & Crossman, G.R. (2007). Are
distance laboratories effective tools for technology
education? The American Journal of Distance Education,
21(2), 77–92.
Jaeger, M. (1995). Science teacher education at a distance. The
American Journal of Distance Education, 9(2), 61–75.
Martin, E.D., & Rainey, L. (1993). Student achievement and
attitude in a satellite-delivered high school science course.
The American Journal of Distance Education, 7(1), 54–61.
Naber, D., & Leblanc G. (1994). Providing a human biology
laboratory for distant learners. The American Journal of
Distance Education, 8(2), 58–71.
Wedemeyer, C.A., & Najem, C. (1969). AIM: From concept to reality.
The Articulated Instructional Media program at Wisconsin.
Syracuse, NY: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for
Adults, Syracuse University.
Introduction

DIETMAR KENNEPOHL AND LAWTON SHAW

We’ve arranged a civilization in which most crucial elements

profoundly depend on science and technology.
• Carl Sagan

The importance of science education and science literacy is rising

rapidly. As a society and as individuals, having access to it has
become absolutely vital. Established educational routes of the past
have served us well, but their limitations are becoming more
apparent. There is very real and growing demand by students for
more flexible approaches to learning science. Online and distance
delivery offers practical alternatives to traditional on-campus
education for students facing barriers such as classroom scheduling,
physical location, and financial status, as well as job and family
commitments. In short, it is becoming a viable and popular option
for many on-and off-campus students in meeting their educational
goals.
As educators in science and science-related disciplines, we
recognize that pursuing online and distance delivery not only
provides equal access for students, but also gives us several more
teaching options that can lead to quality learning. This book
embodies the experience of educators around the globe and
presents approaches that have been successful in teaching science
online and at a distance. We hope it will inspire a positive change in
science and science-related education.

The challenge
Teaching science online and at a distance is more demanding than
and certainly not as common as in many other disciplines. There are
a variety of reasons why this might be the case. First of all, the
concepts and skills that a student must master are numerous,
complex, and often build on each other. Crafting an effective
learning environment for a science student is not trivial for any
mode of delivery. Secondly, science teachers do not necessarily
always have sufficient technological savvy or logistical support to
create their courses. The myth of free multimedia resources that
can be created out of thin air is alive and well. To make matters
worse, many teachers still want to go it alone with a sort of ‘lone
ranger’ attitude. While this might be okay for a chalk talk in the
classroom, many modern courses with multimedia resources really
do require a team approach to develop. Thirdly, the literature
available specific to online and distance delivery of science courses
(especially the laboratory component) has appeared in widely
scattered sources. There is frankly little organized pragmatic
information readily available in the sciences for distance educators.
The fourth reason is primarily found at the post-secondary level.
Science educators, who bring with them very strong disciplinary and
research backgrounds, often do not have any formal pedagogical
training. To develop their teaching skills faculty rely on their own
learning experiences, model colleagues, and research the literature.
This self-taught and learning-on-the-job approach brings variable
results at best. Finally, there is the very real problem surrounding
the practical or laboratory component. A strong laboratory
component is at the heart of many science courses, but it is also
one of the more difficult components to deliver effectively at a
distance.
The challenge of teaching science online and at a distance is
very real. There are no simple answers or silver bullets for any of
these concerns. However, as you go through this book you will
quickly see you are not alone and many problems will sound
familiar. You will also discover some interesting approaches and
clever solutions that might be adapted to your own science courses.
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