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Paving Our Ways
 Paving Our Ways
A History of the World’s Roads and
Pavements

Maxwell Lay
John Metcalf
Kieran Sharp
First edition published 2021
by CRC Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

and by CRC Press

6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2021 Maxwell Lay, John Metcalf, Kieran Sharp

CRC Press is an imprint of Informa UK Limited

The right of Maxwell Lay, John Metcalf, and Kieran Sharp to be identified as authors of this work
has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form
or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.
copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive,
Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact
[email protected]

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Lay, M. G. (Maxwell G.), author. | Metcalf, J. B., author. | Sharp,
K. G. (Kieran G.), author.
Title: Paving our ways : a history of the world’s roads and pavements / Max Lay,
John Metcalf, Kieran Sharp.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2021. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020031512 (print) | LCCN 2020031513 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367520786 (paperback) | ISBN 9780367520809 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781003056300 (ebook) | ISBN 9781000228465 (epub) |
ISBN 9781000228403 (mobi) | ISBN 9781000228342 (adobe pdf)
Subjects: LCSH: Pavements—History. | Roads—History.
Classification: LCC TE250 .L39 2021 (print) | LCC TE250 (ebook) |
DDC 625.809—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020031512
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020031513

ISBN: 978-0-367-52080-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-52078-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-05630-0 (ebk)

Typeset in Sabon
by codeMantra
 Advice from Leunig1
and
A pavement charter

First let the wayes be regularly brought

To artificial form, and truly wrought;
So that we can suppose them firmly mended,
And in all parts the work well ended,
That not a stone’s amiss; but all compleat
All lying smooth, round firm, and wondrous neat.
Thomas Mace, Trinity College, Cambridge 16752
Contents

Preface: What is a road pavement? ix

Authors xiii

1 How pavements are affected by traffic and weather 1

2 Early pavements in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete and Greece 7

3 Making pavements using local materials and simple

equipment 13

4 The essential paving properties of soil, sand and stones 27

5 Paving ways through swamps and bogs 37

6 Roman pavements – a major advance in pavement

quality and extent 43

7 Pavement management processes from medieval Europe 51

8 Trésaguet and Telford lead a pavement renaissance in

France and England 59

9 McAdam invents a major new pavement using broken stones 67

10 Using masonry methods to produce pavements for

heavy traffic 87

vii
viii Contents

11 The essential paving properties of bitumen, asphalt and

cement 99

12 Three unique pavement engineers – Metcalf, McAdam

and Mountain 105

13 The first asphalt pavements, produced in 19th-century

France and England 113

14 A new form of pavement using thin, sprayed bituminous

surfacings 131

15 Asphalt paving produced to carry 20th-century truck traffic 137

16 The design of asphalt pavements – a predominantly

American initiative 151

17 The 20th-century development of concrete pavements 165

18 Chemical and physical means of modifying local

materials for paving 175

19 Devices and methods for measuring and evaluating

pavement performance 181

20 Full-scale testing of pavements to validate designs using

local materials 207

21 Possible future pavements, with an emphasis on recycling 229

22 How pavements could be funded and operated in future

years 235
Timeline 239
Bibliography 253
End Notes 269
Index 291
Preface: What is a road pavement?

Travel has always played an important role in the functioning of the human
species. After our ancestors descended from the trees, the character of that
role changed as human existence now relied on journeys across the ground.
Frequent essential journeys to one particular location, such as a waterhole,
led to the incidental creation of tracks and paths. Some paths later became
wide enough to be called roads and some of these paths and roads came to
have surfaces applied to them. The purpose of these surfaces – now called
pavements – was to make travel easier or safer or more impressive. Our
roads were the silver threads that tied our communities together over both
distance and time, and the pavements were the fabric that turned those
threads into a useful reality.
This all-pervading role of pavements might be reason enough to write a
book about their world history over the four millennia or so of their exis-
tence, particularly as no previous history has been published. However,
another potent reason is that the construction and subsequent use of pave-
ments reflect the real world in which they existed, presenting their strengths,
foibles and weaknesses in an interesting new light. This history will also
demonstrate the shaky and stumbling nature of human progress over the
millennia.
The book is written for interested laypeople and does not require any
prior knowledge of pavement technology or of road engineering. To assist
such a readership, two chapters provide optional detours into some of the
more arcane mysteries that surround paving materials.
Ground travel was once an occasion in itself. Today, travel by road is
often considered as a peripheral event and may only have subconscious
impacts on the traveller. Most of us recognise the distance that we must
travel as a necessary and unavoidable dimension but, because it is much
longer than human dimensions, we often measure our journeys in units of
time rather than in kilometres and we rarely realise that the pavements we
use also have dimensions of width and thickness and surface texture.
Pavements are sufficiently wide to accommodate vehicles such as cars
and trucks. Their total width is usually thought of in terms of the number
of lanes, rather than metres. The number of vehicles expected to use the

ix
x Preface: What is a road pavement?

road will determine the number of lanes needed and hence the required
pavement width. The broader surface geometry of the pavement – such as
its curves and gradients – is a function of the road and is largely determined
by the terrain and the desired speed of travel. It is beyond the scope of this
book but has been well covered elsewhere.3 One exception to this exclusion
is the common feature in many parts of the world where tracks follow ridge
lines. Ridges are commonly stony rather than soft. Such ridgeways also
avoid the swampy land that frequently occurs in valleys.4
Travellers are often concerned with road curves and gradients and the
quality and comfort of the ride, but they rarely, if ever, consider the type
and thickness of the pavement on which they travel. Indeed, they often
think poorly of road pavements and of those who provide and maintain
them. Even pavement engineers can be critical of their colleagues. George
Deacon was a well-known 19th century British pavement engineer and a
colleague of Lord Kelvin. The opening sentence in his major 1879 paper on
street pavements read: “As a branch of Civil Engineering street paving has
never occupied a very high place.”5
The cost of the construction and maintenance of a pavement will depend
on its length, local “engineering” conditions, regional statutory require-
ments and the amount of traffic the pavement will be required to carry.
Heavily used pavements and pavements in prosperous localities are usually
readily funded by taxes on users and adjacent land owners. At the other
extreme, pavements connecting poor remote areas must usually be funded
from external sources via some form of community service obligation.
Pavements are thicker than most travellers would imagine. For modern
pavements, the thickness to be used is determined by the magnitude and
number of the loads to be carried and these are essentially the wheel loads
of heavy commercial vehicles. Cars will usually determine the width of a
pavement, but trucks will always determine its thickness. Attempts to mini-
mise pavement thickness and thus the cost of the road can give rise to sur-
face defects such as roughness, rutting and cracking of the pavement, which
will directly affect ride quality and safety and increase the pavement’s sub-
sequent maintenance costs. All pavements deteriorate over time and need
routine maintenance, but the process is hastened not only by the passage of
heavy wheel loads but also by the effects of climate, specifically water entry
and immersion, and by the temptation for various providers of utility ser-
vices to dig poorly backfilled trenches in any pavement in good condition.
The first road pavements were often built for ceremonial purposes, some-
times to allow the king’s remains to be transported in state! Later they
were piecemeal attempts to ensure trafficability, first for human and animal
foot traffic, then for human- or animal-drawn vehicles. A major change
occurred with the Romans, who are rightly famous for their extensive net-
work of essentially military roads built to allow the control and taxation
of their Empire, and who consequently did build thick pavements. It wasn’t
 Preface: What is a road pavement? xi

until the much later widespread use of routes predominantly servicing local
horse and cart traffic that serious attention began to be paid to the sorts of
thickness necessary and the types of materials needed.
Thus, in concentrating the discussion in this book on road pavements,
we will assume that others have estimated the magnitude and type of traf-
fic that will use the road and that this has led to decisions about the form
of the pavement and to decisions by others about the pavement’s width and
its overall geometry and alignment – particularly its curves and slopes. We
will focus in this book on how, over history, a pavement has been selected,
constructed and maintained to carry that estimated traffic over the required
alignment. Clearly, the key decision factors which we will focus on will be
the type and thickness of the materials used and how they were placed and
maintained in position to form the operating pavement and, of course, on
how the underlying ground – technically called the subgrade – is able to
support the construction of the pavement and its subsequent service under
traffic.
When a bridge fails, it clearly can no longer perform its intended function.
However, when a pavement fails by such calamities as being washed away,
bogging vehicles or causing crashes on ice-covered surfaces, the failures can
be seen as short term and readily fixable. In most cases, its performance
measures will still be satisfied to some degree or other, as the ways that the
pavement performs and resists any degradation of its performance are both
matters of degree and of scale rather than of catastrophic proportions.
So, given all this, how does a user or an interested observer then judge
whether a pavement is performing satisfactorily? In 1843, the City of
Philadelphia asked its renowned Franklin Institute to advise it of the best
modes of paving highways. Later in the same year, the Institute reported6
to Council that A good pavement ought to combine stability and moderate
smoothness of surface, with facility of removal and replacement, and be as
free as possible from noise and dust. Facility of removal and replacement
might seem a strange objective, but the good burghers of Philadelphia were
concerned that some of the proposed new pavements might make it difficult
to provide, access or repair the pipes and services that they were increas-
ingly placing beneath the city’s pavements. Their concern was real as expe-
rience elsewhere indicated that often 50% of a street pavement would have
been removed and replaced during its lifetime for reasons quite unrelated to
its prime purpose as a means for carrying traffic.7 When France built a very
sophisticated pavement testing machine in the 1980s (Chapter 20), one of
its first tasks was to test the performance of potential manhole covers to be
used to access services below the pavement surface.
A century later in 1948, when the provision and management of pave-
ments were moving from being subjective and empirical towards being
objectively based on technical and economic assessments, two acknowl-
edged experts from the California Division of Highways proposed the
xii Preface: What is a road pavement?

following simple performance measures. With some enhancements of the

Franklin view, they argued8 that a pavement should be:

• capable of carrying the intended loads,

• sufficiently smooth to minimise the cost of motion,
• skid resistant, to improve safety and aid turning movements,
• economical to build, operate and maintain, and
• sufficiently durable to justify the investment.

With the authors’ addition of maintain, these measures stand the test of
time quite well, although today one might expand “relatively smooth” to
retain Franklin’s low noise generation and include manageable light reflec-
tance. Recall these five easily understood needs and also how pavement
performance might be assessed as we discuss the history and development
of pavements over the following chapters.
In recent times, pavements have also been widely used at aerodromes and
container terminals. The technologies used are very similar to those used
for road pavements although the wheel loads are usually much larger. Thus,
with but a few passing references, we will leave their story for others to tell.
Authors

Dr Maxwell Lay is an engineering consultant known for his international

contributions to road engineering and his acclaimed international road
histories. He is a member of the Order of Australia, former Executive
Director of the Australian Road Research Board, and past President of
the Royal Automobile Club of Victoria and the Australian Automobile
Association. He has been awarded the Moisseif Medal of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, the Peter Nicol Russell, Warren and Transport
Medals of the Institution of Engineers Australia, and the Gold Medal
of Roads Australia. He is the author of Handbook of Road Technology
(CRC Press, 2019).

Dr John Metcalf has worked in pavement materials and engineering at

the British Road Research Laboratory, Queen’s University in Canada,
and the Queensland Main Roads Department. He was Deputy Director
of the Australian Road Research Board and later was appointed Chaired
Professor of Civil Engineering at Louisiana State University. He was a
Fellow of the (UK) Institution of Civil Engineers and the Geological Society
of London and a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers. He is
an Honorary Fellow of the Institution of Engineers Australia.

Kieran Sharp worked for the Australian Road Research Board (ARRB) as a
researcher in the fields of pavements, roads, and transport, and as technical
editor, for over 40 years. He was the first member of ARRB to receive an
Austroads Achievement Award. He is the Chair of the Technical Committee
of the Road Engineering Association of Asia and Australia, a member of the
Governing Council, and an Honorary Member. He was awarded the Roads
Australia Award for Technical Excellence in 2013.

xiii
Chapter 1

How pavements are affected

by traffic and weather

Life on our planet has always involved movement, with its various inhabit-
ants seeking food and shelter and partners. On land, many well-used travel
routes developed preferentially as they led to common destinations such as
fresh water or used convenient ways such as strips of firm ground between
swamps or gaps in mountain ranges. Firm is an important term in this
book and will imply that, under any likely combinations of temperature
and moisture, the layer in question can withstand any realistic construc-
tion processes and any traffic-induced forces applied to its upper surface,
without limiting its ability to perform all of its intended functions. A very
early definition of “firm” was given in an 80 AD description of Roman road
construction: The ground must not give way nor must the bedrock or base
be at all unreliable when the paving stones are trodden.9
Commonly used routes utilising firm ground often became pronounced
paths across the countryside, with hindering vegetation pushed aside and
surfaces trampled by the foot passage of their many users. The resulting
ways were usually far from ideal, particularly in terms of their location,
gradient and surface condition. Thus, as human societies developed, there
were increasing pressures to improve the relevance and usefulness of many
ways. The demand heightened as humans learnt how to use animals such as
oxen and horses to haul loads. The haulage devices were initially sleds and
primitive wheeled vehicles. The subsequent widespread availability of useful
wheeled vehicles, of large marching armies and of herds of market-bound
animals placed significant demands on the surface condition of strategically
located routes.
The purpose of this book is to describe how these demands have been
met over the ages by improvements to the in situ surfaces and, more com-
monly, by providing imported pavements to enhance those surfaces. It aims
to provide a descriptive history of pavements for a general readership, and so
it would be wise to begin by defining what a pavement is. The pavement is
the upper portion of a road or path. It is placed on top of the natural ground
which may have been prepared for the pavement by clearing, excavating or
filling. The pavement thus provides a suitable surface for travellers and avoids
the underlying ground being damaged by those travellers or by the weather.

1
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