Dryland Horticulture

Dryland Horticulture

o Content Creator: V.P. SANTHI, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,

Coimbatore

o Content Reviewer: SANGRAM SAHEBRAO DHUMAL,

Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri

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Dryland Horticulture

Lesson Lesson Name

Number

Lesson 1 Definition, Importance and Limitation of Dry Land

Horticulture, Present Status and Future Scope,
Constraints Encounter in Dry Lands

Lesson 2 Constraints Encounter in Drylands

Lesson 3 Agro-climatic Features in Rain Shadow Areas, Scarce

Water Resources, High Temperature, Soil Erosion, Run-
off Losses etc.

Lesson 4 Techniques and Management of Dry Land Horticulture

Lesson 5 Watershed Development, Soil and Water Conservation

Methods – Terraces, Contour Bunds etc.

Lesson 6 Methods of Control and Impounding of Run-off Water –

Farm Ponds, Trenches, Macro Catch Pit

Lesson 7 In-situ Water Harvesting Methods, Micro-Catchment,

Different Types of Tree Basins, etc.

Lesson 8 Methods of Reducing Evapotranspiration, Use of Shelter

Belts, Mulches, Antitranspirants, Growth Regulators etc.

Lesson 9 Water Use Efficiency – Need-Based, Economic &

Conjunctive Use of Water, Micro System of Irrigation

Lesson 10 Selection of Plants Having Drought Resistance

Lesson 11 Special Techniques, Planting & After Care Use of

Seedling Races, Rootstocks, In-situ Grafting, Deep

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Dryland Horticulture

Pitting/Planting, Canopy Management

Lesson 12 Characters and Special Adaptation of Crops: Ber, Aonla,

Annona, Jamun, Wood Apple, Bael, Pomegranate,
Carissa, Date Palm, Fig, West Indian Cherry, and
Tamarind

Disclaimer: The data provided in this PDF is sourced from the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) and is intended only for educational and research
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Understanding a farmer’s life is crucial

because he puts all his hopes into his

fields.

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 Dryland Horticulture

Course Name Dryland Horticulture

Definition, Importance and Limitation Of Dry Land
Lesson 1
Horticulture
Content Creator V.P.SANTHI
University Name Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,Coimbatore
Course Reviewer SANGRAM SAHEBRAO DHUMAL

University Name Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth,Rahuri

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 Dryland Horticulture

Objectives of the lecture:

 Definition, importance and limitation of dry land horticulture,

present status and future scope.
 Constraints encounter in dry lands
Glossary of terms
- The area where annual rainfall or precipitation
counter-balance the evapotranspiration and
1. Dryland
provides limited length of growth period for
growing crops
Dryland -
2. The practice of farming in drylands
Agriculture
Dryland - Practice of Horticulture in drylands which could
3.
Horticulture be helped by harvested rainwater also
Rainfed - Describes horticultural practices that rely on
4.
horticulture rainfall water
- Process of a substance in a liquid state changing
5. Evaporation to gaseous state due to increase in temperature
and pressure.

Dryland agriculture occupies 68% of India's cultivated area and

supports 40% of the human and 60% of the livestock population. It
produces 44% of food requirements, thus has and will continue to play a
critical role in India's food security. However, aberrant behavior of
monsoon rainfall results in frequent droughts that impact resource poor
farmers. Eroded and degraded soils with low water-holding capacity and
multiple nutrient deficiencies, declining groundwater table, etc. contribute
to low crop yields that lead to further land degradation.

Growing of crops entirely under rainfed conditions is known as dryland

agriculture.
Depending on the amount of rainfall received, dryland agriculture can be
grouped into three categories;

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1. Dry Farming
Dry farming is cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall less
than 750 mm. Crop failure is most common due to prolonged dry spells
during the crop period. These are arid regions with a growing season
(period of adequate soil moisture) less than 75 days. Moisture
conservation practices are necessary for crop production.
2. Dryland Farming
Dryland farming is cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall
more than 750 mm. In spite of prolonged dry spells crop failure is relatively
less frequent. These are semiarid tracts with a growing period between 75
and 120 days. Moisture conservation practices are necessary for crop
production. However, adequate drainage is required especially for
Vertisols.
3. Rainfed Farming
Rainfed farming is crop production in regions with annual rainfall
more than 1150 mm. Crops are not subjected to soil moisture stress during
the crop period. Emphasis is often on disposal of excess water. These are
humid regions with growing period more than 120 days.
4. Dryland horticulture
Growing horticultural crops which needs less water in drylands with
the use of rainfall is called dryland horticulture. Certain crops such as ber,
custard apple, amla and mango require less water and can be grown as
rainfed crops. With supplemental irrigation pomegranate and mango can
be used for alternate land use systems. These orchards can be
intercropped up to 3 years to generate more biomass.
4.1. Importance Of Dry Land Horticulture
The nature-dependent lands are rich in horticultural diversity,
resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses, and have the potential
for quality production of fruits, vegetables, flowers, and spices. Indian
dryland is characterized by high temperature, erratic rainfall, poor soil,
and water quality, limiting productivity. However, these conditions
can favorably enhance productivity through advanced horticultural

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technological interventions resulting better income by utilizing solar

and wind energy, human workforce, and developing infrastructure,
greatly favoring the farming community's income. It is now realized
that there is plenty of scope for a quantum jump in fruit and vegetable
production in dryland areas. Several fruit crops such as ber, aonla, bael,
pomegranate, tamarind, jamun, chironji, custard apple, wood apple,
karonda, lasoda, fig, and in vegetables such as cucurbits, legumes, and
solanaceous vegetable crops, spices, flower crops, medicinal and
aromatic plants can be grown in semi- arid dryland areas for higher
economic return. The existing low productivity could be doubled by
following improved new sustainable technologies and inputs without
irrigation.
1. Rainfed semi-arid horticulture supports the dwellers' livelihood and
plays a significant role in nutritional and income security and
environmental security.
2. The implication of untapped potential of natural resources and
application of new production technologies suits to dry climate can
double the farm income of arid tracts of the country.
3. Production of seeds and quality planting material of dryland
horticultural crops on a large scale, the horticultural basket can
provide food, nutrition, and livelihood security to the farmers of
semi-arid regions with doubling farm income.
4. To a farming system in low productive land use, growing of fruit
plants in drylands like arid and semiarid zones as rainfed crop. This
concept is gaining importance as several fruit crops have been
identified for cultivation in arid and semi-arid regions. Eg: Ber,
Aonla, Date palm, Tamarind, Fig, Phalsa etc. With the advancement
of irrigation technology and efficient water harvesting and
conservation some of high value fruit crops are also being grown in
arid and semiarid/rainfed regions. Eg: Mango, Grape, Pomegranate
etc.

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5. Being important component of dryland flora, they provide greater

scope for wider adaptability through extensive root system,
adaptability mechanism and synchronization of growth phase with
rainfall. Besides, being of perennial nature and deep root system, fruit
trees are able to utilize the moisture commonly stored in deeper layers
of the soil. They also easily adapt to the marginal agro-ecological
conditions such as undulating uplands, gullied and ravine lands, mining
and industrial wastelands and poor sandy plains.
6. It is a better land use option as it provides wider opportunities on
better land use, reduced pressure on natural resources, improved
productivity, risk minimization, agro-industries opportunities, better
economic return and nutritional security.
7. Visualizing the pattern of growth of this component it can provide
support to targeted growth of agriculture.
Horticulture is therefore, important for diversification in rainfed area
for nutritional and livelihood security and environmental protection on
long term basis.

5. Present Status and Future Scope

Rainfed agriculture accounts for 60% of total cropped area, 48% of

the food crops and 68% of non-food crops and in terms of crop groups 77%
of pulses, 60% of oil seeds, 45% of cereals are grown under rainfed
conditions. The additional food and nutrition have to come from the
rainfed areas. Therefore, a breakthrough in rainfed farming is imperative
for poverty alleviation, livelihood promotion and nutritional security in the
country. It is a well-known fact that the perennial fruit trees form an
important component of the flora of rainfed area. The extent, distribution
and composition are however, not recorded being informal, it is estimated
that out of 313 million tons of horticultural produce in the country (2019-
20) 166.8 million tones is vegetables and 90 million tons of fruits. Whereas
70-80% of vegetable crops have access and irrigation, 60% of fruit crops is
coming from rainfed conditions in varied proportions depending on the
areas. About 80% of apples, stone and other temperate fruits in Himalayas

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are generally rainfed. Mangoes, wild bananas, pineapple and other

plantation crops in north-east regions are thriving without committed
irrigation. Konkan region is known for the production of cashew and
mangoes. Similarly cashew nut another hardy crop is coming up in large
proportion under rainfed conditions in western coast. About 80% of
mangoes in the plains of north, central and southern plateau of Karnataka
are rainfed except the initial 4-5 years during establishment. It is estimated
that bulk of fruits (60%) produced in India come from rainfed regions
receiving more than 700 mm annual precipitation (rainfall). The fruits
common in these areas are mango, cashew, pomegranate, custard apple,
ber, aonla, jamun, rayan, kokum, palmyrah palm, tamarind, plum, khejri,
ker, pilu. Exact statistics is not available for their area and production
because presently they are grown in sideline, scarcely mixed as a
component of mixed cropping, product of nontraditional areas like hills,
non-cultivable lands, common corner forests, neglected corners, around
water source, forests. Nevertheless, all these fruits entirely come from
rainfed conditions. However, looking to their sustainability attributed for
rainfed areas regular inclusion is becoming popular especially in the form
of agroforestry.

Looking to their potential usefulness, sustainability, fruit crop-based

farming systems are being emphasized region wise like:

5.2.1 Arid ecosystem - Ber, Khejri, ker, khajoor, bael, anonla with arid
legumes, grasses (Stylosanthus, and Cencrus) and seed spices.
5.2.2 Cold arid ecosystem – Chilgoza, chuli, almond, walnut, pecan,
pistachio, Chinese jujube with local vegetation.
5.2.3. Sub-humid ecosystem – Mango, litchi, aonla, Jackfruit, custard
apple, guava. Cashew and pomegranate can be major component
with ragi, black gram, groundnut, niger, sesamum, and grasses
like Stylosanthus and Dinath.
5.2.4. Humid ecosystem – Mango, coconut, areca nut, with tuber crops,
turmeric, ginger, black pepper, cardamom such eco-friendly crops

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are being integrated. However, exact statistics is not available for

lack of such delineation like rainfed and irrigated.
6. Limitations of dryland horticulture
Dryland is areas where annual rainfall or precipitation counter
balance the evapotranspiration and provide a limited length of growth
period for growing crops. The areas with rainfall less than 750 mm per
annum come under this category and dryland horticulture means the
practice of horticulture in dry lands which could be helped by harvested
rainwater also. The climate of such areas is characterized by complex
climatic deficiencies, manifested as water deficiency for rainfed/ dryland
crop productions.
Indian semi-arid zone occupies nearly 37 percent of the total
geographical area (131m ha) of the total 329 m ha of the country's
geographical location and spread over in Maharashtra (19%), Karnataka
(15%), Andhra Pradesh (15%), Rajasthan (13%), Gujarat (9.5%), Tamil
Nadu (10%), Uttar Pradesh (7%) and Madhya Pradesh (6%) over 38.7
million ha (cold and hot zone) in various states of the country.

7. The important limitations of dryland horticulture are as under

1. The semi-arid region is characterized by moisture stress and poor

soil and water quality.
2. Soil Quality interior of structure, texture, maturity, depth and fertility
due to poor rainfall and consequent vegetation is poor.
3. They are thirsty and hungry, poor, degraded and marginal. They are
shallow, marginal in fertility, low in water holding capacity and
associated with severe plant nutrient deficiency with undulating
physiographic and shallow depth.
4. The annual average rainfall in the semi-arid areas ranges between
200-500 mm, which is 2 to3 times less than the potential
evapotranspiration. Therefore, the crop selected for the region
must be abiotic stress-tolerant and should have the reproduction
phase synchronized to the maximum moisture availability period.
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5. The prevailing stress conditions necessitate special technologies

relating to the use of suitable cultivars, propagation technologies
and cultural practices, plant- protection measures, and utilization
methods to realize maximum value.
6. In the semi-arid region, the large number of farming community
have small land holdings and poor resources, and cannot afford the
burden of credit with available resources, but they can generate
income by using scientific dryland horticultural technologies.
7. A biotic stress due to extremes of temperature, atmospheric
humidity, soil salinity, impermeable subsoil layers etc.
8. Biotic stress due to wild animals, rodents, birds, insects and diseases.
9. Variable resource base or lack of uniformity in resource base.
10. Small holdings and upcoming challenges of climate change.
11. Poor access to irrigation.
12. Frequent occurrence of droughts of 1 to3 weeks consecutive
duration during the main cropping season happens to be dominant
reason for crop failure and low yields.

8. Dry farming and Dryland farming Vs Rainfed agriculture

United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
distinguished dry land agriculture mainly into two categories: dryland and
rainfed farming. The distinguishing features of these two types of farming
are given below.
8.1. Dry farming and Dryland farming Vs Rainfed agriculture
Dry farming and dryland farming Rainfed agriculture
Emphasis is on soil and water Emphasis is on disposal of excess
conservation; sustainable crop water, maximum crop yield, high
yields and limited fertilizer use levels of inputs and control of
according to soil moisture water erosion
availability

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8.2. Dryland Vs. Rainfed farming

Constituent Dryland farming Rainfed farming
Rainfall (mm) <750mm >750mm
Moisture availability Shortage Enough
to the crop
Growing season <200 days >200 days
(days)
Growing regions Arid and semiarid as well as Humid and sub-
uplands of sub-humid and humid region
humid region
Cropping system Single crop or intercropping Intercropping or
double cropping
Constraints Wind and water erosion Water erosion

Growing of fruit plants in drylands like arid and semiarid zones as

rainfed crop. This concept is gaining importance as several fruit crops have
been identified for cultivation in arid and semi-arid regions. Eg: Ber, Aonla,
Date palm, Tamarind, Fig, Phalsa etc. With the advancement of irrigation
technology and efficient water harvesting and conservation some of high
value fruit crops are also being grown in arid and semiarid/rainfed regions.
Eg: Mango, Grape, Pomegranate etc.
8.3 Ber
Can be grown on any type of soil. Proper manuring and irrigation
during fruit development checks the dropping of berries. Regular pruning
is necessary. Spacing may be kept as 6 to 9m.
8.4. Guava
Can be grown in all types of soil where rainfall is more than 750mm having
pH ranging from 4.5 to 8.2. Regular irrigation throughout the year is
necessary. Light pruning of trees assists in heavy fruiting. The usual spacing
is kept as 5.5 to 6m.

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 Dryland Horticulture

8.5. Amla
Can be grown even on slightly alkaline soils. Plants need light
irrigation till they are well established. Fruiting starts at the age of 8 years.
The trees should be planted at a spacing of 7.5 to 9m.
8.6. Mango
Though it is a dryland crop, it requires irrigations only in summer season
from March to May at an interval of 15 to 20 days for fruit retention and
maturity Mango requires slightly deep soils with good drainage and pH at
6.5 to 7.6. It needs 10m x 10m spacing in well deep soils and 9m x 9m in
medium deep soils.
 Along with horticultural crops, plantations for timber and fibre can

be developed on soils, which are not suitable for grain crops. The
trees include neem / Lucerne and agave in paired rows. Stylosanthes
hamata can be grown in the interspace.
 Silvipastural systems: Involve lopping trees and grazing under storey

grasses and bushes in forests and plantations. This system is

applicable to vast areas of cultivable wasteland.
Reference
Singh,A.K., Sanjay Singh,D.S. Mishra and P.L.Saroj.2020. Dryland
Agriculture: An Agro technology for water scarce areas. 2(2): pp:15-21
Dhruva Narayana, V. V., G.S. Sastry and V.S. Patnaiak (1999). Watershed
Management in India. ICAR, New Delhi.
Mohamad Shahid and Mohamad Raza (1987). Dry land Agriculture in India.
Rawa Publications, Jaipur.
Murthy, J.V.S. (1994). Watershed Management in India. Wiley Eastern
Publishers, New Delhi.
Panda, S.C. (2010). Agrometeorology and contingent crop planning.
Agrobios (India), Jodhpur – 342 002.
Panda, S.C. (2014). Dry land agriculture. Agrobios (India), Jodhpur – 342
002.
Sharma, B. L. (1991). Dry land Farming Perspectives and Prospect. Daya
Publishing House, New Delhi.

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Course Name Dryland Horticulture

Lesson 2
Constraints Encounter in Dry Lands
Content Creator V.P.SANTHI
University Name Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Course Reviewer SANGRAM SAHEBRAO DHUMAL

University Name Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth,Rahuri

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 Dryland Horticulture

Objectives of the lecture:

 Constraints encounter in Dry Lands

 Drought: definition, types- occurrence of drought and effects of drought on

crop production –Management strategies for drought

Glossary of terms
Vagaries of - The subnormal and abnormal activities of the
1.
monsoon Monsoon affect the seasonal pattern of rainfall
- Is a situation occurring in any area where the
2. Drought
annual rainfall is less than 75% of normal rainfall.
3. Constraints - something that limits or restricts
4. Pre-monsoon - Before a monsoon
5. Post - monsoon - After a monsoon

Constraints Encounter in Drylands

I. Factors affecting crop production in dry farming regions:

Dryland is the area where annual rainfall/precipitation counters balance

the evapo-transpiration and provide a limited length of growing period for raising
crops. The areas with rainfall less than 750 mm per annum come under this
category. These areas are characterized by deficiency of rainfall/ precipitation,
prolonged period of heat, low relative humidity and high rates of evaporation
resulting in situations for constraints in dryland making intensive agriculture
difficult and risk free. In other words dryland ecosystem, limited by moisture is
characterized by extreme rainfall variability. Recurrent but unpredictable
droughts, high temperatures, low soil fertility leading to various categories of
constraints to well planned or intensive agriculture. These characters influence
resources for agriculture, technological input and socio-economic status leading
to various constraints. It is for these reasons that these areas are inhabited by
world’s most poor people. To help these areas, the constraints need to be
understood so that strategic plan for their development/ management could be
worked out to raise the happiness index of people living there. Accordingly, these
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constraints have been basically classed into three categories: (i) Resource
constraints (ii) Technological constraints and (iii) Socio-economical constraints.

I. RESOURCE CONSTRAINTS
(a) Agro-climatic conditions:
In dryland areas, the environment is often more yield limiting than even the
genetic potential of the crops. The dominant features of rainfall in dryland
regions are its limited quantum, temporal and spatial variability and
unpredictability. There are more years below the mean than above the
mean with the degree of skewers inversely relented to amount of rainfall.
Rainfall distribution is also very irregular. Rainfall intensity is extremely
variable and high intensity events even when the quantum is relatively low,
can result in substantial run- off and soil erosion, so a crop management
system must protect the soil resource. The temperature extremes also limit
productivity in many dryland areas.
(b) Wind erosion:
Wind erosion is one of the geomorphologic processes that affects the
process in semi-arid region and influences the very future of civilization. Soil
is essential to sustain mankind, but soil can be rendered infertile by the
complete removal of top soil or selected removal of soil fines by wind. As
soil erosion becomes increasingly severe, alternative methods of control
compatible with farming practices must be employed.
(c) Water erosion:
Water erosion at some level is inevitable. Accelerated erosion reflects the
activity of man. It occurs because of cultivation of sloppy lands or lands or
vegetation alteration caused by a concentrate of domesticated animals.
Genetically accelerated erosion is detrimental. It results in movement of top
soil from hill slopes to valley bottoms or to streams and reservoirs. Subsoil is
usually less hospitable to plant growth than top soil because of lack of nutrients
and lower available water holding capacity. To water erosion reduced tillage
or no till systems were developed.

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(d) Soil characteristics:

Soils in the dryland regions of world range from sandy, shallow, low-fertility
soils to highly productive, medium to fine textured, deep soils, but the majority
of dryland soils have serious problems. Soils characteristics are strongly
influenced by the climate in which soils develop, and the interactions of these
characteristics with current climatic conditions are a major consideration in
understanding the productivity of dryland soils. Other soil problems such as
surface soil hardening, compaction by tillage implements, susceptibility to water
and wind erosion, low fertility, shallowness, hardening, restricted drainage and
Salinization also affect crop production.

i.Physical:

Many of the upland soils in the tropical dryland areas are sandy, often gravelly,
and generally shallow. These factors contribute to a low water holding capacity
which makes it more difficult to deal with the detrimental effects of erratic and
limited precipitation. Erosion, both wind and water intensify these constraints.
Soil hardening and crusting are very common in dryland soils and result in large
amounts of run-off. When water runs off, there is less water available for
producing biomass and less input of organic material into the soil, which makes
maintenance of good soil physical conditions even more difficult.

ii.Chemical:

Soil chemical problems include low inherent fertility, acidity, toxic levels of
aluminum or other elements and low-nutrient holding capacity. Essential plant
nutrients can be lost through surface run-off, erosion, leaching and removal of
plant nutrients. Soil acidity resulting in aluminum toxicity is a common chemical
problem in dryland soils.

iii.Biological:

Restricted biological activities resulting from a sub-optimum soil

environment would greatly affect the cycling and transformation of nutrients

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present in organic from. Biological activity in soils is generally much lower in

dryland than in more humid zones. The reasons are apparent lower organic
matter levels and periods of extreme dryness. There is also evidence that the
organic matter present in dryland soils is chemically and biologically less stable,
because there is less biological turnover of organic matter.

II. TECHNOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS

a) Soil fertility:

Low native fertility is a widespread problem on sandy soils and on lateritic

ferruginous, medium textured soils. The lack of micronutrients is apparent in
specific areas, and these deficiencies will intensify and spread as cropping systems
intensify. The interactions between nutrients and water are very pronounced,
resulting in inadequate response to additional water at low fertility levels and
poor response to nutrient additions if water is not available for plant growth.

b) Crop germplasm:

Attention for long-term plant breeding programmes for improved drought

resistance is warranted, but this effort should be relatively small part of the
overall effort, particularly for developing near-term strategies. Improving
germplasm for disease and insect resistance is another matter of concern and this
activity and the development of cultivars that are tolerant to aluminum toxicity
resulting from soil acidity are extremely important in dryland regions.

c) Production practices:

Low crop and animal production in dryland farming is not necessarily the
result of lack of scientific knowledge. The principles of dryland farming are fairly
well established and proven practices have been developed for some areas only.

d) Horticultural practices:

A farmer with limited resources will find it difficult and risky to

simultaneously adopt several new techniques that require a shifting of household
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resources. Moreover, learning a new practice thoroughly may extend over several
seasons and have an uncertain future payoff. For these reasons technology
adoption often proceeds slowly despite the potential benefits demonstrated at a
research level. Choosing the optimum plant population and width of row spacing
continues to be one of the most difficult challenges for dryland producers. High
or too low plant densities can reduce grain yields because high densities use too
much of the available soil water early in the season and low densities does not
fully exploit the available soil water of the complete season. The constraints
include contour ridging tied ridges, water harvesting, organic and chemical
fertilizers, green manuring, weed control, erosion control practices, agro-forestry
etc.

e) Mechanization and Power:

The lack of adequate animal and mechanical traction constrains crop

production in many dryland regions. The size and complexity of equipment are
not economically and socially acceptable to the farmers.

f) Institutional credit and infrastructural constraints:

A move towards more intensive farming systems significantly raises the

cost of production and dryland areas where moisture supplies are not assured,
greatly elevate the risk level of making a profit. Better institutions in rural areas
are needed to ensure that all segments of the communities have access to credit
at affordable terms. Affordable credit must be available to the poor farmer.

g) Marketing and Distribution:

The inability to effectively market the produce limits a farmer’s ability to

dispose of surplus output and reduces their income earning potential.
Transportation systems also improve access to production inputs.

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h) Research and Technology transfer:

In dryland regions research institutions are woefully inadequate. Too often,

the resources allocated to drylands have been minimal, because primary
attention has been focused on irrigated agriculture. Data are often inadequate for
analyzing the agro-climatology and soil resources and management practices.
Good databases are essential for the development of dryland regions.

i) Fertilizers and pesticides:

The productivity of many dryland soils cannot be increased without raising

the fertility level and controlling pests. Soil fertility can quickly become the
limiting factor in crop production and infrastructure is inadequate in many
dryland regions to assure the availability of fertilizers and pesticides. Unwise or
misguided use of chemical inputs can be very costly and can lead to low efficiency
and disenchanted farmers.

j) Farm level knowledge base:

If dryland farmers are to fulfil their role in the development process, they
must become better informed about technical and economic matters that affect
them. In the past, though the traditional practices were adequate for producing
the food and fibre requirements of that population. They cannot serve the current
and future needs to support increased numbers of population. Hence, dryland
farmers must have a better base of technical knowledge and an understanding of
the interactions between their farming practices and current and future physical
resources.

III. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSTRAINTS

a) Population growth:

Population pressure affects the resource base extensively and intensively.

Extensive pressure leads to conversion of grasslands and forests to cropland, with
expansion normally progressing into less and less favorable areas.

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b) Land tenure and Fragmentation:

Land ownership patterns in many parts of the world are based on the
cultural inheritance traditions and often provide for equal division of agricultural
land among heirs. This often results in dividing land into small blocks. With small
land parcels, use of modern machinery is much more difficult to use sound soil
and water conservation practices such as terracing, contouring and other
methods of cross- slope farming.

The constraints raised in general are now totally different under present
circumstance due to policies on liberalization, privatization and globalization/
world trade, etc. Nevertheless, the major constraints under present context also
fall in following categories.

 Moisture conservation
 Soil and moisture conservation methods
 Availability of labour
 Market
 Technological development and
 Credit facilities

In the changing scenario life styles, living standards may also change, but the fate
of population living in dryland farming regions may face many problems. Thus the
constraints of farmers differ from time to time or over years under dynamic
progress in India as well as in the world.

There are a number of limitations in arid region which hinder successful

cultivation of fruit crops. These problems also relate to soil and its types and
moisture and its quality.

 Land use capability classes: Soil types available in arid regions are of very
low capability. Most of the soils are of class VI, IV and II, in that order, are
of marginal type where cultivation of annual crops is very risky and fit only
for pastures. With meticulous management, they can be advantageously
used for high value fruit crops.
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 Saline soil and saline irrigation water: The arid soils are largely saline with
pH ranging from 8 to 9. The underground water is scarce and highly saline,
this limits the fruit culture to only salinity tolerant fruit crops.
 Low and erratic rainfall: The rainfall in arid zone is very low and it’s confined
to the period from July to September with 9-21 rainy days out of 12 to 30
rainy days in the whole year, resulting in both soil and atmospheric water
stress after rainy season. In summers the vapour pressure deficit is very high
reaching 24 to 30 mb during May and June. At the same time the water
holding capacity of arid zone soil is very poor with very high infiltration rate.
 Intense radiation: In arid zone the radiation is very intense ranging
between 500 to 650 cal/cm2/day during summer months and at times it may
adversely affect photosynthesis due to limitation of co2. At the same time,
rate of transpiration both through stomatal opening and cuticle and leaf
temperature aggravating the problem of limited moisture. This also creates
the problem of sun burning in developing fruits.

Besides these limitations, dusty winds are common in summer months which
would hinder fruit setting and fruit development and increase transpiration
and cause mechanical injury to trees. Therefore, choice of the fruit crops for
arid areas is very important demanding careful selection for successful
cultivation. This is a logical approach.

IV. Drought: Definition, types- occurrence of drought and effects of drought on

crop production –Management strategies for drought

Definition of drought
There is no universally accepted definition for drought.
a. Early workers defined drought as a prolonged period without rainfall.
b. According to Ramdas (1960) drought is a situation when the actual seasonal
rainfall is deficient by more than twice the mean deviation.
c. American Meteorological Society defined drought as a period of abnormally
dry weather sufficiently prolonged for lack of water to cause a severe
hydrological imbalance in the area affected.

9
 Dryland Horticulture

d. Prolonged deficiencies of soil moisture adversely affect crop growth

indicating incidence of agricultural drought. It is the result of an imbalance
between soil moisture and evapotranspiration needs of an area over a fairly
long period as to cause damage to standing crops and to reduce the yields.
e. The irrigation commission of India defines drought as a situation occurring
in any area where the annual rainfall is less than 75% of normal rainfall.
IV.1.Classification of drought
Drought can be classified based on duration, nature of users, time of
occurrence, and using some specific terms. The demarcation between the
classifications is not well defined and many a time overlapping of the cause and
effect of one on the rest is seen.
1. Based on the duration
a. Permanent drought: This is characteristic of the dessert climate where sparse
vegetation growing is adapted to drought and agriculture is possible only by
irrigation during the entire crop season.
b. Seasonal drought: This is found in climates with well-defined rainy and dry
seasons. Most of the arid and semiarid zones fall in this category. The duration
of the crop varieties and planting dates should be such that the growing season
should fall within the rainy season.
c. Contingent drought: This involves an abnormal failure of rainfall. It may occur
almost anywhere, especially in most parts of humid or sub-humid climates. It
is usually, brief, irregular and generally affects only a small area.
d. Invisible drought: This can occur even when there is frequent rain in an area.
When rainfall is inadequate to meet the evapotranspiration losses, the result
is borderline water deficiency in soil resulting in less than optimum yield. This
occurs usually in humid regions.

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 Dryland Horticulture

2. Based on their relevance to the users (National Commission on Agriculture,

1976)

a. Meteorological drought: It is defined as a condition, where the annual

precipitation is less than the normal over an area for a prolonged period
(month, season or year).
b. Atmospheric drought: It is due to low air humidity, frequently accompanied by
hot dry winds. It may occur even under conditions of adequate available soil
moisture. It refers to a condition when plants show wilting symptoms during
the hot part of the day when transpiration exceeds absorption temporarily for
a short period. When decreases absorption keeps pace with transpiration and
plants revive. (Mid day wilt).
c. Hydrological drought: Meteorological drought, when prolonged results in
hydrological drought with depletion of surface water and consequent drying
of reservoirs, tanks etc. It results in a deficiency of water for all sectors using
water. This is based on water balance and how it affects irrigation as a whole
for bringing crops to maturity.
d. Agricultural drought: It is the result of soil moisture stress due to an imbalance
between available soil moisture and evapotranspiration of a crop. It is usually
gradual and progressive. Plants can, therefore, adjust at least partly, to the
increased soil moisture stress. This situation arises as a consequence of scanty
precipitation or its uneven distribution both in space and time. It is also usually
referred to as soil drought.

The relevant definition of agricultural drought appears to be a period of

dryness during the crop season, sufficiently prolonged to adversely affect the
yield. The extent of yield loss depends on the crop growth stage and the degree
of stress. It does not begin when the rain ceases but actually commences only
when the plant roots are not able to obtain the soil moisture rapidly enough to
replace evapotranspiration losses. Important causes of agricultural drought are
 Inadequate precipitation
 Erratic distribution
 Long dry spells in the monsoon
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 Dryland Horticulture

 Late onset of monsoon

 Early withdrawal of monsoon
 Lack of proper soil and crop management
3. Based on the time of occurrence
a. Early season drought: It occurs due to a delay in the onset of monsoon or due
to long dry spells after early sowing
b. Mid season drought: Occurs due to long gaps between two successive showers
of rain and stored moisture becoming insufficient during this long dry spell.
c. Late season drought: Occurs due to early cessation of rainfall and crop water
stress at maturity stage.
4. Other terms to describe drought
a. Apparent drought: What is drought for one crop may not be a drought for
another crop; what is drought in red soil may not be a drought in black soil.
b. Physiological drought: Refers to a condition where crops are unable to absorb
water from the soil even when water is available, due to the high osmotic pressure
of soil solution due to increased soil concentration, as in saline and alkaline soils.
It is not due to a deficit in the water supply.
Periodicity of drought
The Indian Meteorological Department examined the incidence of drought
for the period from 1871 to 1967, utilizing the monthly rainfall of 306 stations in
the country. It was seen that during 1877, 1899, 1918 and 1972 more than 40 per
cent of the total area experienced drought. General observation on the
periodicity of drought in respect of different meteorological subdivisions of India
is given below.
Meteorological subdivisions Period of recurrence of
drought
Assam Very rare, once in 15 years
West Bengal, MP, Konkan, Coastal AP, Kerala, Once in 5 years
Bihar, Orissa

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 Dryland Horticulture

South interior Karnataka, Eastern UP, Gujarat, Once in 3 years

Vidharbha, Rajasthan, Western UP, TN,
Kashmir, Rayalaseema and Telangana
Western Rajasthan Once in 2.5 years

Usual Drought period in different parts of India

Beginning of drought
 Droughts do not occur in Assam, South Kerala and the eastern part of West
Bengal.
 Severe drought begins on 1 October in the northwest arid zone and even
much earlier in the western part.
 In the southern arid zone and adjoining interior portion of Maharashtra State,
the severe drought begins by the end of November.
 In most of the central portion of the country to the east of the line joining
Delhi, Udaipur and Baroda, the commencement is only in the month of
February or later. This is due to the high water holding capacity of the black
soil region.
 In the western coastal region of Maharashtra and Karnataka states, the
rainfall is very high. In spite of this, severe drought begins by December-
January, probably because of the lower water holding capacity of the soil.
 Severe drought commences only after April in Gwalior, Guna, Jabalpur,
Pendra, and the Satna region of Madhya Pradesh.
Closure of drought
a. On average, the severe drought ends outside the regions of east Bihar, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, and southern Andhra Pradesh only by 1 May. In most of
these regions, it ends mainly after 15 May.
b. In the arid zone of northwest India, the severe drought ends normally during
the second fortnight of June, except in the Jaisalmer and Bikaner regions
where normally cessation of severe drought is only by the first week of July.

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 Dryland Horticulture

V. Effect of drought on crop production

Water relations – Alters the water status by its influence on absorption,
translocation and transpiration. The lag in absorption behind transpiration results
in loss of turgor as a result of an increase in the atmospheric dryness.
a. Photosynthesis – Photosynthesis is reduced by moisture stress due to a
reduction in Photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll content, leaf area, and increase
in assimilates saturation in leaves (due to lack of translocation).
b. Respiration – Increase with mild drought but more serve drought lowers water
content and respiration.
c. Anatomical changes – Decrease in size of the cells and intercellular spaces,
thicker cell wall,greater development of mechanical tissue, stomata per unit
leaf tend to increase.
d. Metabolic reaction – Most all metabolic reactions are affected by water
deficits.
e. Hormonal Relationships altered – The activity of growth-promoting hormones
like cytokinin, gibberellic acid and indole acetic acid decreases and growth-
regulating hormone-like abscisic acid, ethylene, betain etc. increases.
f. Nutrition – The fixation, uptake and assimilation of nitrogen is affected. Since
dry matter production is considerably reduced the uptake of NPK is reduced.
g. Growth and Development – Decrease in the growth of leaves, stems and fruits.
Maturity is delayed if drought occurs before flowering while it advances if
drought occurs after flowering.
h. Reproduction and grain growth – Drought at flowering and grain development
determines the number of fruits and individual grain weight, respectively.
Panicle initiation in cereals is critical while drought at anthesis may lead to
drying of pollen. Drought at grain development reduces yield while vegetative
and grain filling stages are less sensitive to moisture stress.
i. Yield – The effect on yield depends hugely on what proportion of the total dry
matter is considered as useful material to be harvested. If it is aerial and
underground parts effect of drought is as sensitive as total growth. When the
yield consists of seeds as in cereals, moisture stress at flowering is detrimental.
When the yield is fiber or chemicals where the economic product is a small

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 Dryland Horticulture

fraction of total dry matter moderate stress on growth does not have an
adverse effect on yields.

Reference
Singh,A.K., Sanjay Singh, D.S. Mishra and P.L.Saroj.2020. Dryland Agriculture: An
Agro technology for water scarce areas. 2(2): pp:15-21
Dhruva Narayana, V. V., G.S. Sastry and V.S. Patnaiak (1999). Watershed
Management in India. ICAR, New Delhi.
Mohamad Shahid and Mohamad Raza (1987). Dry land Agriculture in India. Rawa
Publications, Jaipur.
Murthy, J.V.S. (1994). Watershed Management in India. Wiley Eastern Publishers,
New Delhi.
Panda, S.C. (2010). Agrometeorology and contingent crop planning. Agrobios
(India), Jodhpur – 342 002.
Panda, S.C. (2014). Dry land agriculture. Agrobios (India), Jodhpur – 342 002.
Sharma, B. L. (1991). Dry land Farming Perspectives and Prospect. Daya Publishing
House, New Delhi.

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 Dryland Horticulture

Course Name Dryland Horticulture

Agro-climatic features in rain shadow areas, scarce
Lesson 3 water resources, high temperature, soil erosion, run-
off losses etc.
Content Creator V.P.SANTHI
University Name Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Course Reviewer SANGRAM SAHEBRAO DHUMAL

University Name Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth,Rahuri

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 Dryland Horticulture

Objectives of the lecture:

• Agro-climatic features in rain shadow areas, scarce water resources, high
temperature, soil erosion, run-off losses etc.
Glossary of terms
1. Rain Shadow -It is a patch of land that has been forced to become
a desert because all plant-growing, rainy weather has been blocked by
mountain ranges
2. Drought -It is a situation occurring in any area where the annual
rainfall is less than 75% of normal rainfall.

3. Constraints - something that limits or restricts

4. Pre-monsoon -Before a monsoon
5. Post - monsoon -After a monsoon

I. Agro-climatic features in rain shadow areas

A rain shadow is a patch of land that has been forced to become a
desert because all plant-growing, rainy weather has been blocked by
mountain ranges. Wet weather systems will drop rain and snow on one side
of the mountain. All the precipitation is blocked on the other side of the
mountain-the rain shadow side. An area with relatively little precipitation
due to the effect of a topographic barrier, especially a mountain range,
which causes the prevailing winds to lose their moisture on the windward
side, causing dryness on the leeward side. In India, along the eastern side
of Sahyadri on the Deccan plateau, the rain shadow zone is present, e.g. The
Northern Karnataka & Solapur Plateau of India, Beed, Osmanabad, and
Vidarbha.
Rain-bearing winds that cause rain on the western slopes are blocked
by the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats are located in the rain-fed zone
of the south-western monsoon branch of the Arabian Sea, while the Eastern
Ghats are located in the rain-shadow area of the south-western monsoon
branch of the Arabian Sea. Orographic means the mountains are connected

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 Dryland Horticulture

to it. They have lost much of their moisture by the time the winds make it
across the Western Ghats and very little falls on the Deccan Plateau to the
east of the Ghats. This decreased rainfall is called a Rain shadow effect on
the leeward side of the mountains (away from the wind) ( Fig.1).

Fig.1. Rain Shadow effect

The way that mountains shape climate is known as the orographic
effect, which describes how air masses change as they ascend and descend
the sides of mountains. The leeward side of a mountain is often associated
with warm, dry air. Rain shadows are created on the leeward slopes of
mountain ranges, resulting in deserts or other climates characterized by low
precipitation. This impacts the condensation water cycle step and the
precipitation water cycle step as well.
A. Factors responsible for rain shadow areas
a. Temperature and Humidity
To understand what happens to leeward slope air, it is necessary to
get a sense of what happens to air when it cools and warms. Relative
humidity (RH) measures the amount of water vapor, or moisture, in the air
in relation to how much moisture the air could hold at a given temperature.
Thus, an RH of 40 percent means that the air contains 40 percent of the
moisture that it could hold at its current temperature. When the RH
reaches 100 percent, the air is said to have reached its saturation, or dew,
point, and condensation will happen in the form of dew, fog, rain, or other
precipitation. Because cool air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air,
the dew point is reached more quickly when warm air cools.
b. Windward and Leeward
Mountains have two sides: windward and leeward. The windward
side faces the wind and typically receives warm, moist air, often from an
ocean. As wind hits a mountain, it is forced upward and begins to cool. Cool
air reaches its dew point more quickly, and the result is rain and snow. As
the air crests the mountain and goes down the leeward slope, however, it
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 Dryland Horticulture

has lost much of its moisture on the windward side. The leeward side air
also warms as it descends, lowering humidity even more. An example of this
effect is Death Valley National Monument in California. Death Valley is
located on the leeward side of the Sierra Nevada mountains, and it is one
of the driest and warmest places on Earth.
c. Chinook winds
The orographic effect creates cooler air moving up the windward side
of mountains and warmer air moving down the leeward side. Often, as the
leeward air plunges down the slope, it warms quite dramatically and
rapidly. Such rapid warming and drying of air can produce very high winds
known as Chinook or Foehn winds. They occur when mountain ranges are
at right angles to prevailing winds, such as in the Sierra Nevadas of North
America or the Alps in Europe. The leeward slope winds can raise
temperature as much as 1 degree Celsius for every 100-meter drop in
elevation (5.5 degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000 feet). In Canada, the Chinook,
or "snow eater" winter winds bring quickly rising temperatures that rapidly
melt snow.
d. Rain Shadows
Another aspect of the orographic effect is the creation of rain
shadows on the leeward side of mountains. Rain shadows are more
prevalent when the windward side of a mountain is steep, and thus warm
air cools more rapidly over a shorter distance creating more windward-side
precipitation. Thus, the leeward-side air is even drier since the saturated air
lost its moisture more quickly on the windward side. An example of this
effect is seen in the Appalachians of the eastern United States. Moist air
cools at a normal lapse rate of 6 degrees Celsius for every 1,000-meter rise
in elevation (3 degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000 feet). In the Appalachians,
however, the moist lapse rate is 40 percent greater, and thus the western,
or leeward, side of the mountains receives much less precipitation.
e. Rain shadow areas in Indian subcontinents
Eastern Side of Sahyadri ranges on Deccan e.g. Northern Karnataka &
Solapur, Beed, Osmanabad and Vidharba Plateau of India. Answer: The Thar
desert is bounded and rain shadowed by the Aravalli ranges to the south-
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 Dryland Horticulture

east, the Himalaya to the northeast, and the Kirthar and Sulaiman ranges to
the west. Rain-bearing winds that cause rain on the western slopes are
blocked by the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats are located in the rain-
fed zone of the south-western monsoon branch of the Arabian Sea, while
the Eastern Ghats are located in the rain-shadow area of the south-western
monsoon branch of the Arabian Sea.
f. Agro climatic features in rain shadow areas
Higher evaporation
Low precipitation and humidity
Rainfall in the range of 40 – 75 cm with poor cloud cover with
rain burst
Soils are prone to desertification
Scanty vegetation and poor nutritional status of soil
Subsoil moisture is poor and shorter length of growing period
High wind speed
Orographic means the mountains are connected to it. They have lost
much of their moisture by the time the winds make it across the Western
Ghats and very little falls on the Deccan Plateau to the east of the Ghats.
This decreased rainfall is called a RAIN SHADOW EFFECT on the leeward side
of the mountains (away from the wind).
g. Rain shadow regions in the Indian subcontinent

1. Ladakh Plateau cold, hyper arid eco sub-region: The mean

annual precipitation ranges from 100 to 115 mm covering 15 % of PET
demand. They receive erratic and scanty precipitation from westerly
depression mainly as snow, during winter months. The sub -region
constitutes the leeward flanks of Western Himalaya facing Tibetan Plateau.
It is eastern aspect of Ladakh Plateau includes Leh and its surroundings. The
length of growing period is 60 – 90 days between August and November.

2. Deccan Plateau, hot arid eco-region: This constitutes the part

of the Deccan plateau that include Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh state
situated in the rain shadow of south west monsoon along the leeward side
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 Dryland Horticulture

of Sahyadaris. It is characterised by hot type arid with dry summers and

mild winters. The rainfall is erratic and varies from year to year to a great
extent. The mean annual precipitation is between 400 to 500mm. The
length of growing period is less than 60 days.

3. South Western Maharashtra and North Karnataka Plateau, hot,

dry semi-arid eco-region:
Being on the Leeward side of Sahyadris, the area receives the
southwest monsoon in late June with erratic and scanty rainfall. The
monsoon season extends till the first week of October in most the years.
The mean annual precipitation ranging from 600 -750mm covers 40 -42
percent of the mean annual PET demand of 1500 – 1800 mm with a large
deficit in the area.
4. Central and Western Maharashtra Plateau and N.Karnataka
Plateau and North Western Telangana Plateau, hot humid, moist semi-arid
eco-sub-region:

a. Being this region also lies on the leeward side of Sahyadris

comprising rain shadow areas of South Western monsoon. Hence erratic
summer monsoon sets in last week of June and extends till the second week
of October. The main annual rainfall ranging from 700 -1000 mm covers 44
- 53 percent of the mean annual PET demands ranging between 1700 – 1900
mm. The beginning of rainy season is stormy clouds burst and ending in an
abrupt with moderately high PET. The LGP of the region is 120 – 150 days
with distinct moist and humid period.
b. Tamil Nadu Uplands and Leeward Flanks of South Sahyadris, hot
dry semi-arid eco-sub-region. The agro eco sub- region constitutes the
southern part of the Deccan Plateau situated on Leeward side Sahyadris and
Nilgiris range. The area constitutes the rain shadow part of southwest
monsoon, receiving the mean annual rainfall ranging from 600 – 900mm
that covers 38 – 47 per cent of mean annual PET demands between 1600
and 1900 mm. The length of growing period in the area ranges 90 – 120
days beginning with October and ending with January.
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 Dryland Horticulture

II. Scarce Water Resources

Scarcity has many negative impacts on the environment, including lakes,
rivers, wetlands, and other freshwater resources. Additionally, water
overuse can cause water shortage, often occurs in areas of irrigation
agriculture, and harms the environment in several ways including increased
salinity, nutrient pollution, and the degradation and loss of flood plains and
wetlands. Furthermore, water shortage makes flow management in the
rehabilitation of urban streams problematic. Owing to a poor water
resource management system and climate change India faces a persistent
water shortage. As per OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development) environmental outlook 2050, India would face severe water
constraints by 2050. Indian agriculture accounts for 90% of water use due
to fast-track groundwater depletion and poor irrigation systems.
II.a. Water available for Agricultural Production
The states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh
and Rajasthan have been facing serious water crisis since 2017-2018.
According to the Union Ministry of Agriculture, the groundwater level has
fallen alarmingly over the years. Available water India is not a water-rich
country and is further challenged due to the negative impact of climate
change; enormous wastage owing partly to poor management and
distorted water pricing policies. The Northern Ganga River Basin has
abundant water resources, whereas the Southern River Basin has few, but
with high levels of pollution in groundwater and surface water. An increase
in population and changing lifestyles have increased the demand for water
(largely for irrigation) in both urban and rural areas. India has 18% of the
world9s population, having 4% of the world9s fresh water, out of which 80%
is used in agriculture. India receives an average of 4,000 billion cubic meters
of precipitation every year. However, only 48% of it is used in India9s surface
and groundwater bodies. A dearth of storage procedure, lack of adequate
infrastructure, inappropriate water management has created a situation
where only 18-20% of the water is actually used. India9s annual rainfall is
around 1183 mm, out of which 75% is received in a short span of four
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 Dryland Horticulture

months during monsoon (July to September). This results in runoffs during

the monsoon and calls for irrigation investments for the rest of the year.
The population of India is likely to be 1.6 billion by 2050, resulting in
increased demand for water, food and energy. This calls for infrastructure
expansion and improved resource utilization.
III. High temperature
Plant life exists between temperatures of -89℃ to +58℃. However, most
plants are adapted to a limited range of temperatures. If the temperature
drops below 15℃ plants experience low-temperature stress and if it is
above 45℃, plants are subjected to high-temperature stress. An increase of
15 – 20ºC above normal temperature causes deeper modification of growth
without being necessarily lethal viz., protein denaturation, enzyme
inactivation, and reduction in chloroplast9s photosynthetic activity.
III. 1. Heat stress on growth and development
• Seedling establishment is hampered
• Pollen development is affected
• Grain and fruit development and quality is affected

Fig. 2 Effect of High Temperature

III.1.i.HIGH-TEMPERATURE INJURIES
High temperature adversely affects mineral nutrition, shoot growth
and pollen development resulting in low yield (Fig.2).
1. The critical temperature above which plants gets killed is called
thermal 8death point9.
2. The temperature above 50°C may kill many annual crops.
3. The limit varies with plants; shade loving plants are killed at
lower temperature.
Mineral Nutrition
1. High temperature stress causes reduction in absorption and
subsequent assimilation of nutrients.
2. Absorption of calcium is reduced at temperature of 28º C in
Maize.
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 Dryland Horticulture

3. Nutrient uptake is affected by both soil and air temperature in

rice.
4. Nitrate reductase activity decrease under high temperature.
Shoot growth
1. High temperature, even for short period, affects crop growth
especially in temperate crops like wheat.
2. High air temperature reduces the growth of shoots and in turn
reduces root growth.
3. High soil temperature is more crucial as damage to the roots is
severe resulting in substantial reduction in shoot growth.
4. High temperature at 38º C in rice reduced plant height, root
elongation and smaller roots.
Pollen development
1. High temperature during booting stage results in pollen
abortion.
2. In wheat, temperature higher than 27º C caused under-
development of anthers and loss of viability of pollen.
Scorching : High-temperature lead to dehydration and leaves are
scorched
Physiological activities: High temperature disturbs photosynthesis
and respiration.
Injury due to scorching sun: High temperature causes injury to the
exposed area of the plant/fruits (eg) Tomato, Brinjal, and Cucumber. It is
known as 8Sun scald9
Burning off: The symptoms are noticed on young seedlings due to high
soil temperature. The seedlings are killed.
Stem gridle: High soil temperature causes stem scorches at the
ground level (eg) cotton.
Management Techniques for High-Temperature Stress in Crops
Cowpea: Foliar spray of CCC @ 50 ppm or GA3 @ 50 ppm at flowering
to increase yield
Tomato:

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 Dryland Horticulture

1. Foliar spray of Triacontanol @ 1.25 ppm (625 ml in 500 liters of

water) 15 days after transplanting and at the full bloom stage to control
flower drop and improve fruit set.
2. Foliar spray of 0.5% ZnSO4 thrice at 10 days interval from 40
days after planting to control flower drop and improve fruit set
Bhendi:
1. Foliar spray of 1 % Urea + 1 % MOP at 30 and 45 days after
planting to improve yield.
2. For hybrids, foliar spray of 0.5% NPK (19:19:19) at 10 days
interval from 30 days after planting to improve yield
Brinjal
1. Foliar spray of Triacontanol @ 2 ppm plus Sodium Borate or
Borax (35 mg/l of water) at 15 days after transplanting and at the time of
full bloom to increase flower and fruit set.
2. Mulch with black LDPE sheets of 25-micron thickness and burry
both the ends into the soil to a depth of 10 cm to conserve soil moisture.
Chillies
1. Foliar spray of 1% Potassium Sulphate to boost up the flowering
and fruit set.
2. Foliar spray of NAA @ 10 ppm on 60 and 90 days after planting to
increase fruit set.
3. Foliar spray of Triacontanol @ 1.25 ml/l on 20, 40, 60 and 80th day
of planting to enhance
flower and fruit set
Tapioca
1. Foliar spray of water (500 lit/ha) at weekly twice during evening
hours to rejuvenate the crop.
2. Foliar application of 0.5% NPK (19:19:19) + 0.5% FeSO4 + 0.25%
ZnSO4 twice at 15 days interval to rejuvenate the crop
Mango
1. Foliar spray of water when it is hot and dry to prevent heat stress
effects.

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 Dryland Horticulture

2. Use of wind-breaks for protecting the orchard from warm air during
February to May.
3. Foliar spray of 0.5% NPK(19:19:19) + 0.5% FeSO4 + 0.25% ZnSO4 +
0.3% Borax twice
at 15 days interval to rejuvenate the crop
4. Foliar spray of 2% KNO3 at mustard size will increase the fruit set
and retention of fruits
5. Foliar spray of 0.5% Urea or 1% Potassium Nitrate to induce
flowering during February (if
trees do not flower by that time)
6. Foliar spray of NAA @ 20 ppm at flowering stage to increase the
fruit retention.
7. A shelterbelt in the southwest of the orchard block can control
sunscald in mango by decreasing direct sunlight and protect the fruit
from overexposure to heat
8. Use of shade nets or shade-frames to decrease strong sunlight in
hot, dry seasons can also reduce sun-scald. Shading should be 25-50% as
heavier shading will reduce fruit set the following season
Banana
1. Foliar spray of GA3 @ 50 ppm on 35 or 55 days old banana bunches
three times on alternate days increases the weight and volume of fingers in
both young and old bunches
2. Foliar spray of micronutrients viz., 0.5% ZnSO4 + 0.2% FeSO4 + 0.2%
CuSO4 + 0.1% H3BO3 at 3, 5 and 7 MAP to increase yield and quality of
banana
Custard apple
1. Irrigation and mulching during summer season helps to prevent
fruit drop
2. Foliar spray of NAA @ 20 ppm four times at weekly interval during
flowering to enhance the fruit set
3. Dipping of freshly opened flower in GA3 @ 50 ppm to enhance fruit
set, retention, size, weight with less seeded

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 Dryland Horticulture

4. Use black polythene mulch or organic mulch around the tree to

conserve moisture and reduced the formation of stone fruits
5. Application of superphosphate and bone meal improves crop yield
and reduce the formation of stone fruits
Tuberose
1. Dipping of bulbs in CCC @ 5000 ppm to enhance flower yield
2. Foliar spray of 0.5% ZnSO4 + 0.2% FeSO4 + 0.1% Boric acid.
3. Foliar application of GA3 @ 50-100 ppm thrice at 40, 55 and 60 days
after planting
Jasmine
Foliar spray of CCC @ 1000 ppm to enhance early flower production
Note:
1% - 10 gram dissolved in 1 litre (made up to 1 litre)
1ppm - 1 mg dissolved in 1 litre (made up to 1 litre)
IV. Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is defined as the detachment and transportation of soil
mass from one place to another through the action of wind, water in motion
or by the beating action of rain drops. Erosion extensively occurs in poorly
aggregated soils (low humus) and in a higher percentage of silt and very fine
sand. Erosion increases when soil remains bare or without vegetation. In
India, about 86.9% of soil erosion is caused by water and 17.7% of soil
erosion is caused by wind. Out of the total 173.6 M ha of total degraded
land in India, soil erosion by wind and water accounts for 144.1 M ha (Govt.
of India, 1990). The surface soil is taken away by the runoff causing loss of
valuable topsoil along with nutrients, both native and applied. In India,
about 5334 million tonnes (16.35 tonnes/ha/year) of soil is being eroded
annually due to agriculture and associated activities.
Soil erosion is the process of detachment of soil particles from the top
soil and transportation of the detached soil particles by wind and / or water.
The agents causing erosion are wind and water. The detaching agents are
falling raindrop, channel flow and wind. The transporting agents are
flowing water, rain splash and wind.
a.Nature and extent of erosion
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 Dryland Horticulture

The problem of soil erosion exists all over the country. Out of the 329
m. ha of India9s geographical area about 175 m. ha (53.3%) is subjected to
soil erosion and some kind of land degradation (Druvanarayana, 1993).
About 150 m. ha is subjected to wind and water erosion. It is estimated that
about 5333 Mt of soil is detached annually. Out of this 29 % is carried away
by rivers to seas and about 10% is deposited in reservoirs resulting in 1-2 %
of loss of storage capacity annually. The estimated annual soil loss is 16.35
tones /ha/year.
b. Losses due to erosion
i Loss of fertile top soil vi Reduction in soil depth
ii Loss of rain waterVii Floods
iii Loss of nutrients Viii Adverse effect on public health
iv Silting up of reservoirs ix Loss of fertile land
v Damage to forests x Economic losses
c. Types of erosion:
There are two major types of soil erosion
1. Geological erosion (Natural or normal erosion): is said to be in
equilibrium with the soil-forming process. It takes place under the natural
vegetative cover completely undisturbed by biotic factors. This is a very
slow process.
2. Accelerated erosion: is due to disturbance in natural equilibrium by
the activities of man and animals through land mismanagement,
destructing of forests overgrazing etc., Soil loss through erosion is more
than the soil formed due to the soil-forming process.
3. Based on the agent causing erosion, erosion is divided into
a. Water erosion b. Wind erosion c. Wave erosion
a. Water erosion
Loss of soil from the land surface by water including runoff from
melted snow and ice is usually referred to as water erosion. Major erosive
agents in water erosion are impacting/ falling raindrops and runoff water
flowing over the soil surface.

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 Dryland Horticulture

Process of water erosion

Detachment of soil particles is by either raindrop impact or flowing
water. Individual raindrops strike the soil surface at velocities up to 9 m/s
creating very intensive hydrodynamic force at the point of impact leading
to soil particle detachment. Overland flow detaches soil particles when their
erosive hydrodynamic force exceeds the resistance of soil to erosion.
Detached soil particles are transported by raindrop splash and runoff. The
amount of soil transported by runoff is more than due to raindrop splash.
Thus the falling raindrops break the soil aggregates and detach soil particles
from each other. The finer particles (silt and clay) block the soil pores and
increase the rate of runoff and hence the loss of water and soil.
Forms/Types of water erosion
Water erosion occurs in stages identified as sheet erosion, rills,
gullies, ravines, landslides and stream bank erosion.
a) Sheet erosion: It is the uniform removal of surface soil in thin
layers by rainfall and runoff water. The breaking action of raindrops
combined with the surface flow is the major cause of sheet erosion. It is the
first stage of erosion and is the least conspicuous, but the most expensive.
b) Rill erosion: When runoff starts, channelization begins and
erosion is no longer uniform. Raindrop impact does not directly detach any
particles below the flow line in rills but increases the detachment and
transportation capacity of the flow. Rill erosion starts when the runoff
exceeds 0.3 to 0.7 mm/s. Incisions are formed on the ground due to runoff
and erosion is more apparent than sheet erosion. This is the second stage
of erosion. Rills are small channels, which can be removed by timely normal
tillage operations.
c) Gully erosion: It is the advanced stage of water erosion. Size of
the unchecked rills increases due to runoff. Gullies are formed when
channelized runoff from vast sloping land is sufficient in volume and velocity
to cut deep and wide channels. Gullies are the spectacular symptoms of
erosion. If unchecked in time no scope for arable crop production.

14
 Dryland Horticulture

d) Ravines: They are the manifestations of a prolonged process of

gully erosion. They are typically found in deep alluvial soils. They are deep
and wide gullies indicating an advanced stage of gully erosion.
e) Landslides: Landslides occur in mountain slopes when the slope
exceeds 20% and width is 6 m. Generally, landslides cause blockage of traffic
in ghat roads.
f) Stream bank erosion: Small streams, rivulets, and torrents (hill
streams) are subjected to stream bank erosion due to obstruction of their
flow. Vegetation sprouts when streams dry up and obstruct the flow causing
cutting of bank or changing of flow course.
g) Factors affecting water erosion
i.Climate: Water erosion is directly a function of rainfall and runoff.
Amount, duration and distribution of rainfall influence runoff and erosion.
High-intensity rains of a longer duration cause severe erosion. Greater the
intensity, the larger the size of the raindrop. Rainfall intensity of more than
5 cm/hr is considered as severe. The total energy of raindrops falling over a
hectare land with rainfall intensity of 5 cm /hr is equal to 625 H.P. This
energy can lift 89 times the surface of 17.5 cm of soil from one ha to a height
of 3 ft. Two-thirds of the above energy is used for sealing soil pores. Runoff
may occur without erosion but there is no water erosion without a runoff.
The raindrop thus breaks down soil aggregates, detaches soil particles and
leads the rainwater with the fine particles. These fine particles seal the
pores of the surface soil and increase runoff causing erosion.
ii.Topography: The degree, length and curvature of slope determine
the amount of runoff and extent of erosion. Water flows slowly over a
gentle slope whereas at a faster rate over a steeper one. As water flows
down the slope, it accelerates under the forces of gravity. When runoff
attains a velocity of about 1 m/s it is capable of eroding the soil. If the
percent of the slope is increased by 4 times the velocity of water flowing
down is doubled. Doubling the velocity quadruples the erosive power and
increases the quantity of soil that can be transported by about 32 times and
size of the particles that can be transported by about 64 times.

15
 Dryland Horticulture

iii. Vegetation: Vegetation intercepts the rainfall and reduces the

impact of raindrops. It also decreases the velocity of runoff by obstructing
the flow of water. The fibrous roots are also effective in forming stable soil
aggregates, which increases infiltration and reduces erosion.
iv. Soil Properties: Soil properties that influence soil erodability by
water may be grouped into two types.
Those properties that influence the infiltration rate and
permeability
Those properties that resist the dispersion, splashing, abrasion
and transporting forces of rainfall and runoff.
The structure, texture, organic matter and moisture content of upper
layers determine the extent of erosion. Sandy soils are readily detachable
but not readily transportable. Soils of medium to high clay content have low
infiltration capacities and they are readily transported by water after they
are dispersed, but their detachability is generally low.
a.Man and beast
Man and beast accelerates erosion by extensive farming and
excessive grazing. Faulty practices like cultivation on steep slopes,
cultivation up and down the slope, felling and burning of forests etc., leads
to heavy erosion. Excessive grazing destroys all vegetation and increases the
erosion.
b.Estimation of soil loss by water erosion
Based on the mechanism and factors influencing soil erosion, a
universal soil loss equation (USLE) developed by Wischmeier (1959) is most
useful for predicting soil loss due to water erosion. It is an empirical
equation and estimates average annual soil loss per unit area as a function
of major factors affecting sheet and rill erosion. It enables determination of
land management erosion rate relationships for a wide range of rainfall, soil
slope and crop and management conditions and to select alternative
cropping and management combinations that limit erosion rates to
acceptable limits.

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 Dryland Horticulture

A= R x K x L x S x C x P
A= predicted soil loss in t/ha/year
R= rainfall erosivity factor or index K= soil erodibility factor
L= length of slope factor
S= slope steepness factor
C= soil cover and management factor and P= erosion control factor
c.Wind erosion
Erosion of soil by the action of wind is known as wind erosion. It is a
serious problem on lands devoid of vegetation. It is more common in arid
and semi-arid regions. It is essentially a dry weather phenomenon
stimulated by the soil moisture deficiency. The process of wind erosion
consists of three phases:
a. initiation of movement b. transportation and c. deposition.
About 33 m.ha in India is affected by wind erosion. This includes 23.49
m.ha of desert and about 6.5 m.ha of coastal sands. The Thar Desert is
formed mainly by blow in sand.
d.Mechanism of wind erosion
Lifting and abrasive action of wind results in detachment of tiny soil
particles from the granules or clods. The impact of these rapidly moving
particles dislodge other particles from clods and aggregates. These
dislodged particles are ready for movement. Movement of soil particles in
wind erosion is initiated when the pressure by the wind against the surface
soil grains overcomes the force of gravity on the grains. Minimum wind
velocity necessary for initiating the movement of most erodable soil
particles (about 0.1 mm diameter) is about 16 km /hr at a height of 30.5 cm.
Most practical limit under field conditions, where a mixture of sizes of single
grained material present is about 21 km/hr at a height of 30.5 cm.
In general movement of soil particles by wind takes place in three
stages: saltation, surface creep and suspension.
i.Saltation:
It is the first stage of movement of soil particles in a short series
of bounces or jumps along the ground surface. After being rolled by the
wind, soil particles suddenly leap almost vertically to form the initial stage
17
 Dryland Horticulture

of movement in saltation. The size of soil particles moved by saltation is

between 0.1 to 0.5 mm in diameter. This process may account for 50 to 70%
of the total movement by wind erosion.
ii.Surface creep:
The rolling and sliding of soil particles along the ground surface
due to the impact of particles descending and hitting during saltation is
called surface creep. The movement of particles by surface creep causes an
abrasive action of the soil surface leading to the breakdown of non-
erodable soil aggregates. Coarse particles longer than 0.5 to 2.0 mm
diameter are moved by surface creep. This process may account for 5 to
25% of the total movement.
iii.Suspension:
The movement of fine dust particles smaller than 0.1 mm in
diameter by floating in the air is known as suspension. Soil particles carried
in suspension are deposited when the sedimentation force is greater than
the force holding the particles in suspension. This occurs with decrease in
wind velocity. Suspension usually may not account for more than 15% of
total movement.
V. Runoff losses:
Runoff occurs when rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity
of the soil which is a measure of the ability of the soil to absorb and transmit
rainwater. Runoff is limited on soils with a high infiltration capacity.
High surface runoff and accelerated soil erosion are major
degradative problems on newly cleared land. Immediately implementing
appropriate erosion management techniques is therefore, essential.
Accelerated erosion can be most severe in the very first season after land
clearing. Soil erosion is caused by raindrop impact surface sealing, and crust
formation leading to high runoff rate and amount, high runoff velocity on
long and undulating slopes, and low soil strength of structurally weak soils
with high moisture content due to frequent rains. Effective erosion
management lies in:
(a) preventing or minimizing the raindrop impact, through mulching
and canopy cover;
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 Dryland Horticulture

(b) maintaining favorable soil structure for reducing crusting; (c)

managing soil surface to enhance infiltration rate;
(d) reducing slope length to minimize runoff build-up; and
(e) disposing of excess runoff safely through protected waterways and
graded channels.
Based on these principles, erosion control measures are grouped into
two broad categories: erosion preventive techniques and erosion control
measures .

Fig. 3 Technological options for erosion management on newly

cleared land

References

1. Lenka,D.2005. In Book : Irrigation and drainage. Kalyani

Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002 . Pages- 327
2. F.A. Banday and M. K Sharma. 2018. In Book: Advances in
Temperate Fruit Production. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. pages:
387
3. Bimal Chandra Mal. 2013. In Book: Introduction to Soil and
water conservation engineering surveying, Irrigation, Drainage and Soil
Conservation. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. 429 pages
4. V.V.N. Murthy and Madan K. Jha. 2013. In Book. Land and water
management engineering. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002.pages:
604
5. Ganesaraj,V, V.K. Paul Pandi, R. Balasubramanian., T. Myrtle
Grace and K. Balakrishnan. 2010. In Book : Irrigation agronomy. Associated
Publishing Company . Pages : 237
6. Saroj, P.L, B. Varshishta, D.G. Dhander. 2004. In Book.
Advances in Arid Horticulture. International Book distributing CO. Pages:
628

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 Dryland Horticulture

Course Name Dryland Horticulture

Lesson 4
Techniques and management of dry land horticulture
Content Creator V.P.SANTHI
University Name Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Course Reviewer SANGRAM SAHEBRAO DHUMAL

University Name Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth,Rahuri

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 Dryland Horticulture

Objectives of the lecture:

 To learn about the dryland farming techniques, Selection of trees, flowering

and fruiting period of dryland horticulture

Glossary of terms
The portion of the precipitation or other water
that could not be absorbed by the soil finds its
1. Run-off
way out of the location of its occurrence to the
lower areas and streams.
- The difference between the gross and net
2. Water losses
application
- The saturation of soil with water, causing the
water table of soil to rise high enough to expel
3. Water logging
normal soil gases and interfere with plant growth
or cultivation. It causes soil degradation.
- The combination of two separate processes
whereby water is lost on the one hand from the
4. Evapotranspiration soil surface by evaporation and on the other hand
from the crop by transpiration is referred to as
evapotranspiration (ET)
Water -
5. As in-situ rain water harvesting
conservation

TECHNIQUES AND MANAGEMENT OF DRYLAND HORTICULTURE

I. DRYLAND FARMING TECHNIQUES

Dryland farming is the profitable production of crops, without irrigation, of

land with a low average or highly variable rainfall. Appropriate techniques
developed to minimize the effects of constraints need to be followed.

1. Water conservation: Water conservation methods, often referred to as in-

situ rain water harvesting; include activities such as mulching deep tillage,

2
 Dryland Horticulture

contour farming and ridging, the purpose behind these methods is to ensure
that the rainwater is helped long enough on the cropped area to ensure
infiltration. These techniques are best suited to areas to ensure infiltration.
These techniques are best suited to areas where rainfall and water holding
capacity are sufficient to meet the crop water holding capacity to meet the
crop water requirement. But the amount of water infiltration is not adequate
to reach the required moisture level.
2. Increase water absorption:
a. Prevent a crust at the soil surface: Probably the greatest deterrent to a
high rate of water absorption is the tendency for soils to puddle at the
surface and room a seal or crust against water intake. The beating action of
raindrops tends to break down clods and disperse the soil.
By tillage, create a rough, cloddy surface which lengthens the time necessary
for the rain to break down the clods and seal the surface. For seedbed
preparation in general, small seeds should have a finer, mellower bed than
large seeds. After harvest, create stubble mulch on the surface. Such material
not only prevents raindrops from impinging directly on the soil, but impedes
the flow of water down the slope, increasing absorption time.
b. Reduce the run-off of water: To the extent that water logging is not a
problem, the runoff of water and its attendant erosion must be stopped.
Croplands should be as leveled as possible. All planting and tillage must run
across (or perpendicular to) the slope of the land. Such ridges will impede the
downward movement of water.

3. Reducing the loss of soil moisture

a. Reducing soil evaporation: Water in the soil exists as a continuous film

surrounding each grain. As water near the surface evaporates, water is drawn
up from below to replace it, thinning the film. When it becomes too thin for
plant roots to absorb, wilting occurs. Shelterbelts of trees or shrubs reduce
wind speeds and cast shadows which can reduce evaporation 10 to 30 per cent
by itself and also reduce wind erosion. Mulching reduces the surface speeds
of wind and reduces soil temperatures. Tillage must be repeated after each
3
 Dryland Horticulture

rain to restore the discontinuity. This is most workable where rainfall occurs
in a few major rainfalls with relatively long intervals in between.
b. Reducing transpiration: All growing plants extract water from the soil and
evaporate it from their leaf and stem surface in a process known as
transpiration. About 99 percent of water absorbed by the roots is lost in the
atmosphere as transpiration. Plants with reduced transpiration (xeric)
mechanism like small leaves, succulent stem and loss of leaves in hot season
should be preferred for plantation. Anti- transpirant are used to conserve
water that otherwise is lost through transpiration. They can be effective in two
ways.
 Through films that coat the leaf surface and
 Chemicals that close the stomata

Antitranspirant is any material applied to transpiring plant surfaces for reducing

water loss from the plant. These are of four types:

i) Stomatal Closing
ii) Film forming
iii) Reflective
iv) Growth retardant
i) Stomatal closing type

Most of the transpiration occurs through the stomata on the leaf surface.

1. Fungicides like Phenyl Mercuric Acetate (PMA) and herbicides like atrazine
in low concentrations serve as antitranspirants by inducing stomatal
closing.

These might reduce the photosynthesis also simultaneously. PMA was found to
decrease transpiration to a greater degree than photosynthesis in a number of
plants.

4
 Dryland Horticulture

ii) Film Forming Type

Plastic and waxy materials which form a thin film on the leaf surface retard the
escape of water due to formation of physical barrier.
Mobileaf, hexadeconol, silicone are some of the film forming type of
antitranspirants. The success of these chemicals is limited since they also reduces
photosynthesis.

The desirable characteristics of film forming type of antitranspirants are:

1. They should form a thin layer,

2. They should be more resistant to the passage of water vapour than carbon
dioxide and the film should maintain continuity and should not break

iii) Reflectant Type

These are white materials which form a coating on the leaves and increase the
leaf reflectance (albedo). By reflecting the radiation, they reduce leaf
temperatures and vapour pressure gradient from leaf to atmosphere and thus
reduce transpiration.

1. Application of 5 per cent kaolin spray reduces transpiration losses.

2. A diatomaceous earth product (celite) also increases reflection of solar
radiation from crop canopy

iv) Growth Retardant

These chemicals reduce shoot growth and increase root growth and thus enable
the plants to resist drought. They may also, induce stomatal closure.

1. Cycocel is one such chemical useful for improving water status of the plant

Antitranspirants generally reduce photosynthesis. Therefore, their use is limited

to save the crop from death under severe moisture stress. If crop survives, it can
utilise the rainfall that is received subsequently. Antitranspirants are also useful

5
 Dryland Horticulture

for reducing the transplantation shock of nursery plants. They have some practical
use in nurseries and horticultural crops.

c. Weeds compete for soil nutrients & water

a. Selection of crop is significant as well. Dwarf varieties have less surface and
so lose less water. Some plants close their stomata when it is hot, reducing
their leaves during hot afternoon and open them at night, effectively
changing their surface area in response to conditions.
b. Where rainfall is frequently marginal to insufficient, drought <insurance=
can be obtained by clear fallowing a sufficient area.
c. Post harvest tillage will create stubble and dirt mulches and destroy weeds
before the onset of the dry season.

4. Budding and Terracing:

It is one of the important methods to conserve soil and moisture by creating
earthen barriers in watersheds. The shape and size of the bund will depend
upon soil type, and rainfall. Amount of water to be stored, infiltration rate and
tolerance of crop to be grown. Buds in clayey soils may develop cracks, so one
should be careful while planning for earthen bunds in black cotton soils.
5.Contour bunding:
In this, earthen bunds are constructed on contours in gentle slopes ranging
from 0.5 to 6% with average annual rainfall not exceeding 750 to 1000 mm. It
is adopted on all types of relatively permeable soils except clayey or deep
black cotton soils, where it may cause water stagnation and reduction of yields
on upstream side. Contour bunded treatment records a low soil loss per ha
(0.3t/ha) compared to control plot being around 18t/ha.
6. Ridge and furrow with mulch
It consists of forming furrows and beds across the slope before sowing. This is
beneficial for moisture storage in soil profile while draining of excess run-off
safely. This technique mostly used in soil moisture conservation in black
cotton soil.

6
 Dryland Horticulture

7. Mulching
Mulching is spread of any material on soil surface. It is an important agronomic
practice that not only dissipates the kinetic energy of the rain drops and
prevents soil erosion, but also facilitates infiltration and reduces runoff and
evaporation losses. The water which is held in capillary, it helps in maintaining
its thickness and prevents or slows down the effect of sun, wind and dry air
and help in equalizing the distribution of water. It should be practiced as per
needs stubble mulching aims at disrupting the soil drying process by
protection the soil surface all the times, either with a growing crop or with
crop residues left on the surface during fallow. To be effective, at least one
tone per hectare must cover the surface, and the maximum benefit per unit
residue is obtained at about two tonnes per hectare. The benefit may still be
obtained at 8 tonnes per hectare. It reduces the wind speed and loss through
evaporation. In addition, crop and weed residues can improve water
penetration and decrease water runoff losses.
There are two limitations to the advantages offered by stubble mulching (i)
Dead surface vegetative matter can provide a breeding ground for pests
rodents and diseases and (ii) for decomposition, the ideal carbon to nitrogen
ratio (C/N) being 25 to 30 is raise to 50 to 100, adversely affection the
availability of nitrogen by depleting its level. This may have to be substituted.
Dirt mulching aims at disrupting the soil drying process with tillage
techniques that separate the upper layer of the soil from the lower layers
making the soil moisture film discontinuous. In addition, the soil surface is
made more receptive to water intake.
For drylands with a rainy growing season and a hot, windy, dry season, dirt
mulching should only be performed during the rainy season and with a
growing crop to slow the wind and water and hold the soil.

7
 Dryland Horticulture

7.1.Types of mulches
a. Soil mulch or dust mulch:

If the surface of the soil is loosened, it acts as a mulch for reducing evaporation.
This loose surface soil is called soil mulch or dust mulch. Intercultivation creates
soil mulch in a growing crop.

b. Stubble mulch

Crop residues like wheat straw or cotton stalks etc., are left on the soil surface as
a stubble mulch. The advantages of stubble mulch farming are protection of soil
from erosion and reduction of evaporation losses.

c. Straw mulch

If straw is used as mulch, it is called as straw mulch.

d. Plastic mulch

Plastic materials like polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride are also used as mulching
materials.

8
 Dryland Horticulture

e. Vertical mulching

To improve infiltration and storage of rainwater in these soils, vertical mulches

are formed. It consists of digging narrow trenches across the slope at intervals
and placing the straw or crop residues in these trenches. The pruned plant
material is placed in contour trenches formed between rows or in trenches
around the plants in concentric circles each year in one circle.

8. Intercropping
Intercropping should be a routine practice under dryland conditions for the
purpose of making best use of the soil and inter row moisture harvesting. It is
significant between the rows of trees during juvenile phase. It can also
concentrate on crop diversification based on region.
9. Precision horticulture
Precision horticulture methods focus on information technology using site
specific soil, crop and other environmental data to determine specific inputs
required for certain sections of a field. Many of these methods involve the use
of technologies such as geographic information system (GIS), satellites and
remote sensing. Precision horticulture can directly increase crop yields, and
also improve water availability through greater relative infiltration of rainfall.
In developing countries, the smaller farm sizes could allow for management

9
 Dryland Horticulture

on a field basis. Precision horticulture may hold significant promise in the

future for horticulture in developing countries nutrient levels can vary greatly
from field to field.
10. Use of drip irrigation facilities
Under dryland conditions, water is the most important component and water
harvested should be meticulously recycled. Drip irrigation is the most efficient
irrigation method for horticultural crops where it saves 30-70 per cent
irrigation water and enhances productivity by adding fertilizer into irrigation
water (Fertigation).
11. Crop and variety selection
Crops with synchrony of reproductive phase with moisture availability and
xeric characters are best suited for dry lands and they should form the choice
of crops. The varieties chosen should fulfill following attributes.
a. Short-stemmed varieties with limited leaf surface minimize
transpiration.
b. Deep, prolific root systems enhance moisture utilization.
c. Quick maturing varieties are important in order that the crop may
develop prior to the hottest and driest part of the year and mature
before moisture supplies are completely exhausted.
12. Growth regulators and chemicals
Exogenous application of natural plant hormones as well as synthetic plant
regulators are known to modify growth and development and modify
vegetative growth, flowering, fruit set, and yield and accelerate uniform
ripening for easy and early harvest in rainfed conditions. Mepiquat chloride is
a bio regulator which promotes the reproductive phase in vegetable crops. It
imparts dark green color to the leaves and shortens intermodal length. Under
moisture stress, potassium protects the plant by involving in the exchange of
cytoplasmic potassium for stomatal hydrogen ions thus raising stomatal pH
and facilitating photosynthesis. This spray significantly reduces transpiration
rate, this may be due to increased stomatal resistance, which leads to
conservation of moisture in the cells by maintaining high relative water
content. Proline accumulation was also higher in potassium chloride, which

10
 Dryland Horticulture

helps to channel the diversion of protein metabolism for withstanding

drought.
Therefore, effort should be initiated on war footing, to bring together all the
best that is available and horticulture into an organized unit to give farmers
the maximum benefit and rainfed horticulture a success story. Within
horticulture perennial fruit tree crops are better suited for stressed conditions
of dryland and these need consideration on the following technologies.
13. Selection of fruit trees under dryland conditions
Selection of trees is necessary and care should be taken while establishing
dryland orchards. The criteria for selection should consider the following
points.
The trees selected should have the ability to withstand or tolerate drought
and their water requirement is given in table-1.
Table 1: Water requirement of fruit trees.
S.N. Fruit trees Water requirement 1
/Week
1. Mango 140
2. Sapota 140
3. Guava 91
4. Pomegranate 91
5. Ber 63
6. Tamarind 63
7. Jamun 35
8. Custard apple 7

a. In areas of very low rainfall, while establishing orchards it is desirable to

raise seedling rootstock in long tubes and in-situ grafting should be
employed especially softwood grafting e.g. mango, jamun, guava, ber.
b. Selection of trees should be based on prevailing soil and climatic conditions.
Rainfall plays a major role in deciding the crop growth. The period of high
intensity rainfall should not coincide with flowering or fruiting season as it

11
 Dryland Horticulture

may cause flower and fruit to drop. The flowering and harvesting periods of
different fruit trees suited for dryland orchards are detailed in Table-2.
Table .2: Flowering and harvesting periods of important fruit trees.

S.N. Fruit Flowering period Harvesting period

1. Mango December-February March- may
2. Sapota August -September December-
February
3. Tamarind May-June February - March
4. Guava June- July December- January
5. Pomegranate December- January February - March
6. Ber June- July October- January
7. Custard apple July -August October- January
8. Cashew November - December October- January
9. Aonla February - March December- January

c. Temperature exceeding 45oC coupled with desiccating winds during summer is

highly injurious to crop growth and may lead to fruit drop in crops like mango,
citrus etc. Under these conditions, windbreaks should be provided to avert the
situation.
d. Prevalence of humid weather during flowering and fruiting may attract diseases
and pests diversely affection pollination and colour development.
Precautionary measures against pests and diseases during adverse weather
conditions are necessary as per standards schedules available then.
e. Dryland soils are poor in structure, texture and nutrient status. Plant tolerant to
abiotic stress should be chosen and need-based chemical amendments like
gypsum, organic matter recommended should be incorporated.
f. The dryland regions of the country have huge potential to produce horticultural
crops. This region may work as a huge potential to produce several kind of
horticultural crops in bulk to meet the increasing demand of fast-growing
population of the country. This dream and targets may be achieved by the
adoption relevant scientific approaches; technologies and knowledge by the

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 Dryland Horticulture

farmers like to protect their crops in harsh and hot climatic conditions of the
region.

References

1. Lenka,D.2005. In Book : Irrigation and drainage. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi

- 110 002 . Pages- 327

2. F.A. Banday and M. K Sharma. 2018. In Book: Advances in Temperate Fruit

Production. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. pages: 387

3. Bimal Chandra Mal. 2013. In Book: Introduction to Soil and water

conservation engineering surveying, Irrigation, Drainage and Soil
Conservation. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. 429 pages

4. V.V.N. Murthy and Madan K. Jha. 2013. In Book. Land and water management
engineering. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002.pages: 604

5. Ganesaraj,V, V.K. Paul Pandi, R. Balasubramanian., T. Myrtle Grace and K.

Balakrishnan. 2010. In Book : Irrigation agronomy. Associated Publishing
Company . Pages : 237

6. Saroj, P.L, B. Varshishta, D.G. Dhander. 2004. In Book. Advances in Arid

Horticulture. International Book distributing CO. Pages: 628

7. Jat, M.L. P. Singh, S.R. Bhakar, S.K. Sharma. In Book : Drought management.
2010. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. Pages : 428

8. Suresh, R. 2019. In Book. Soil and water conservation engineering. Standard

Publisher Distributors. Pages :1089

9. Arvind,M Dhope. 2002. In Book Agrotechnology for dry land farming.

Scientific Publishers. Pages : 651

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 Dryland Horticulture

Course Name Dryland Horticulture

Watershed development, soil and water
Lesson 5
conservation methods – terraces, contour bunds etc.
Content Creator V.P.SANTHI
University Name Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Course Reviewer SANGRAM SAHEBRAO DHUMAL

University Name Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth,Rahuri

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 Dryland Horticulture

Glossary of terms
- A watershed is the area of land where all of the
1. 1
Watershed water that drains off of it goes into the same
.
place—a river, stream or lake.
2. 2 - Storage of rainfall in soil at the place where it falls
Insitu conservation
. is termed as "insitu" soil moisture conservation
3. 3 Exsitu - The runoff is diverted and stored in a natural or
. conservation artificial reservoir for later use.
4. 4 Agrostological -
Grasses are grown to check the soil erosion.
. method
- Strip cropping is a practice of growing field crops
in narrow strips either at right angles to the
5. 5
Strip cropping direction of the prevailing wind , or following the
.
natural contours of the terrain to prevent wind
and water erosion of the soil.

a.Watershed definition:
Watershed is an area of land and water bounded by a drainage divide with in
which, the surface runoff collects and flows out of the area through single outlet
into a river or other body of water. It is referred as catchment or drainage basin.
Watershed is also defined as a hydrological unit wherein all the water is collected
and drained in a common outlet. Watershed is defined as a geohydrological unit
draining to a common point by a system of drains. All lands on earth are part of
one watershed or other. Watershed is thus the land and water area, which
contributes runoff to a common point.

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 Dryland Horticulture

Depending upon the operational feasibility they are classified major watershed or
basin micro-watershed. Major watershed is more than 1000 ha. Micro-watershed
is between 100-1000 ha. Presently it is 500 ha ± 10%.
 Micro – watershed: 500 ha ± 10%
 Major – watershed: > 1000 ha
b.TYPES OF WATERSHED
Watersheds is classified depending upon the size, drainage, shape and land use
pattern.
 Macro watershed (> 50,000 Hect)
 Sub-watershed (10,000 to 50,000 Hect)
 Milli-watershed (1000 to10000 Hect)
 Micro watershed (100 to 1000 Hect)

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 Dryland Horticulture

 Mini watershed (1-100 Hect)

c.Concept :
Development on watershed basis in hilly and mountain ecosystems is relatively
more relevant where high erosion rates and wide spread land degradation are
major concerns. Recently, erosion rates of the order of 600-700 t /ha per annum
have been observed in the over-exploited small watershed of shiwaliks.
d. objectives
 Effective and efficient utilization of rain water for agricultural production by
improving infiltration of water, reuse of drainage and runoff water and
tapping the percolated water in deep tube wells for the productive use in
dry farming.
e. Specific objectives
 Improving land productivity though SMC
 Sustaining and augmentation of the resource base
 Comprehensive development – holistic development
I.Watershed development:
Watershed development refers to the conservation; regeneration and the
judicious use of all the natural resources particularly land, water, vegetation and
animals and human development within the watershed. Watershed development
approach is based on participatory planning following a bottom-up approach for
developing a context appropriate plan for execution; empowerment and
employment of people through establishment and strengthening of local level
institution; conservation and appropriate management of watershed9s natural
resources through holistic development of the watershed; sustainability through
people9s participation in the process of development, voluntary contribution and
formulation and adoption of a withdrawal strategy for post-project sustainability
of the project.

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 Dryland Horticulture

A. Growth of watershed programmes

Harvesting of rain water from the watershed and its storage in Talabs (Tanks) of
Jaisalmer, Johads of Alwar, Chaals (small reservoirs) of Himalayas, Khuls of Ghuhls
(diversion channels) of Spiti, Kuis (percolation wells) dug inside the ponds, virdas
made by nomadics of Gujarat are frequently mentioned in Kautilayas Arthasastra
(321-297B.C.). Many ancient archaeological evidences are available about
traditional systems in the excavation of old civilizations. However organized
governmental development efforts were initiated in 1930s under the banner of
dry farming research, which had substantial component of watershed
management.
B. Watershed Development Programme
Watershed development as a means for increasing agricultural production in
rainfed, semi-arid areas. There are nearly 85 million hectares of land as rainfed
area in the country. These areas were bypassed by the Green Revolution and so
experienced little or no growth in agricultural production for several decades. By
capturing the Water Resources Management and improving the management of
soil and vegetation, Watershed Development aims to create conditions conducive
to higher agricultural productivity while conserving natural resources.
C. Objectives
 To mitigate the adverse effects of drought on crops and livestock.
 To control desertification.
 To encourage restoration of ecological balance and
 To promote economic development of village community.
Water shed development originally managed by national wasteland development
board under Ministry of Environment and forest .It is now placed under Ministry
of Rural Development and Department of Land Resources. The main objective of
this programme for development of waste lands in non-forest areas, checking of
land degradation, putting such waste land into sustainable use and increasing bio
mass, availability of fuel wood, fodder and restoration ecology etc.Thus concept
of watershed development is a integrated nurture with multi-disciplinary
activities in the area. At present Ministry of Rural Development and Department
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 Dryland Horticulture

of Land Resources, Government of India funding watershed development

programmes under D.P.A.P., D.D.P., and Integrated Wasteland Development Plan
(I.W.D.P.) etc. This programme is intended to be taken up in rain-fed and drought-
prone areas especially predominated by SC/ST population and preponderance of
wasteland. There are six major projects/programmes in watershed development
programme namely,

 National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA)

 Watershed Development in Shifting Cultivation Areas (WDSCA)
 Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP)
 Desert Development Programme (DDP)
 Integrated Wasteland Development Project (IWDP)
 Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS)
These six projects/ programmes also account for about 70 percent of funds and
area under watershed programmes in the country.
Through various watershed development programmes, about 30 million ha. of
land has so far been developed at an expenditure of Rs.9343 crores, including
external funding up to the end of IX Five Year Plan. During X Five Year Plan about
11.4 million ha is proposed to be developed at an outlay of Rs.7440 crore. Besides,
an area of 1.24 million ha is likely to be treated under watershed programmes at
a cost of Rs.1872 crore through ongoing externally aided projects.
d. Components of watershed programme
1. Soil and water conservation
2. Water harvesting
3. Crop management
e.Soil and water conservation methods :
Soil conservation refers to protection of soil against erosion or deterioration. Soil
conservation is a set of management strategies for prevention of soil being
eroded from the earth9s surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse,
acidification, salinization or other chemical soil contamination

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 Dryland Horticulture

f.Methods of conservation :
 Exsitu conservation
 Insitu conservation
g.Exsitu method
1. Brush dams
Brushwood check dams are constructed with the help of locally available wooden
poles and brushwood. Wooden poles are driven into the ground in a single or
double row and brushwood is packed on the upstream face of the check dam
It is suitable to stabilize small gullies of 1.2 to 2 m deep. Cheap and easy to
construct with brush and hay. It does not require any skilled labour. Make use of
materials at the location.
i) Single row post brush dam
ii) Double row post brush dam.

2. Loose rock dams

These types of check dams are used for checking runoff velocity in steep and
broad gullies where good size of stones is available in abundance. Loose rock
check dams have longer life and usually require less maintenance as compared to
brushwood check dam. Loose stones of fairly good size are used. Woven wire
netting provide stability to the dam.

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 Dryland Horticulture

3. Plank or slab dams

Plank dams construction is rare with the increase in the cost of timber. North
eastern region of the country plank dams are in use because there is not much
scarcity of timber. Requires Less labour, More expensive. It is used for relatively
large drainage areas

4. Log dams
The use of these types of check dams should be restricted only to the places
where no other material such as stones, brick etc. is available and the wooden
logs are available in abundance. White ants are the greatest enemy of this type of
structures and accordingly the required measures should be taken before hand.
Water tight construction is not possible. Construction of log dam is almost similar
to that of plank dam.

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 Dryland Horticulture

5. Gabion check dams

A gabion is semi permeable barrier, made of boulders in a mesh of steel wires and
anchored to the stream bank, to slow but not stop, the flow of storm water in a
small watercourse so to favour water infiltration to groundwater and help prevent
soil erosion. Expected velocity of water is very high. Rectangular shaped cage
made of galvanized wire and filled with locally available stones. Stones-shapes
and sizes - unsuitable for loose stone dams. Just after construction, they are
permeable reducing the velocity of water, deposition of soil particles and finally
complete filling up behind the gabion check dams.

I. INSITU MOISTURE CONSERVATION METHODS

a.Definition of insitu
Storage of rainfall in soil at the place where it falls is termed as "insitu" soil
moisture conservation. It aims at increasing infiltration of rainfall into the soil and
reducing runoff loss of rainwater.
Insitu soil moisture conservation can be accomplished through.

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 Dryland Horticulture

 Cultural /agronomic methods

 Mechanical methods
 Agrostological / biological methods
The extent of soil moisture storage from rainfall is influenced quantity and
intensity of rainfall, slope, soil properties such as texture, structure, depth,
surface characters, presence of sub soil hard pans, rate of infiltration and
permeability, water holding capacity, vegetative cover etc
b.Insitu Moisture Conservation
Cultural/agronomical Mechanical Agrostological
1.Addition of organic Basin listing, Pasture,
matter Subsoiling, Strip cropping
2.Summer ploughing, Compartmental with grasses,
3.Contour farming, Bunding, Ley farming,
cover crops Ridges and furrows, Vegetative
mulching, Broad bed furrow, barriers
strip cropping, Contour bunding,
cropping systems, graded bunding,
Tillage practices Bench terracing

C.Methods of soil conservation

 Biological measures or Agronomic measures – Through crops or vegetation
and agronomical practices for lands with slope less than 2%
 Engineering measures- for land slopes greater than 2%
 Agronomic measures are also adopted in conjunction with engineering
measures
1. Cultural /Agronomical methods
i) Addition of organic matter:
By improving soil physical properties and water holding capacity.

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 Dryland Horticulture

ii) Off season/summer tillage:

Plough furrows can hold water in the depressions and thereby increase the
infiltration. When done across the slope, the plough furrows check runoff, reduce
the velocity of runoff water and improve storage. Summer tillage is a traditional
practice helps in the storage of pre-sowing rainfall. When ploughing is done along
contour, it is termed as contour ploughing and is more helpful for in situ moisture
conservation. Summer ploughing also helps in control of perennial weeds, pest
control and enables early sowing with onset of rains.

iii) Contour farming:

Ploughing along the contour and sowing reduce soil erosion and reduce runoff.
For e.g., Jowar sown in the black soils on contour line restricts the run off to 13.7%
of the total rainfall and soil loss to 2.4 t/ha/year. The soil conservation method
proves efficient in slope territories and suggests planting species along the
contour. Rows up and down the slope provoke soil erosion due to water currents
while rows along the contour restrain it. An impact of terracing is similar, it also
helps to conserve soil and reduce its degradation processes. Contour cultivation
reduces the velocity of overland flow and retards soil erosion. Ridge and furrow
system on contour offers greater resistance to surface runoff. Crops like maize,
sorghum and pearl millet grown in row are ideally suited for contour cultivation.

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 Dryland Horticulture

iv) Cover crops:

A cover crop is any crop grown to provide soil cover, regardless of whether it is
later incorporated. Cover crops are grown primarily to prevent soil erosion by
wind and water. Cover crops can be annual, biennial, or perennial herbaceous
plants grown in a pure or mixed stand during all or part of the year. In addition to
providing ground cover and, in the case of a legume, fixing nitrogen, they also
help suppress weeds and reduce insect pests and diseases. When cover crops are
planted to reduce nutrient leaching following a main crop, they are often termed
<catch crops.=Rice - Rice – Blackgram in Cauvery Delta Zone of Tamil Nadu
Erosion will be reduced if the land surface is fully covered with foliage. e.g., black
gram, green gram, groundnut and fodder grasses like Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus
glaucus, dinanath grass, marvel grass. Both contour cropping and cover cropping
can be practiced when the slope is less than 2 per cent.

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 Dryland Horticulture

Advantages of cover crops :

1. By reducing soil erosion, cover crops often reduce both the rate and
quantity of water that drains off the field, which would normally pose
environmental risks to waterways and ecosystems downstream.
2. Cover crop biomass acts as a physical barrier between rainfall and the soil
surface, allowing raindrops to steadily trickle down through the soil profile.
3. Root growth results in the formation of soil pores, which in addition to
enhancing soil macro fauna habitat provides pathways for water to filter
through the soil profile rather than draining off the field as surface flow.
With increased water infiltration, the potential for soil water storage and
the recharging of aquifers can be improved.
v) Mixed cropping :
Mixed cropping, including intercropping, is the oldest form of systemized
agricultural production and involves the growing of two or more species or
cultivars of the same species simultaneously in the same field

vi) Inter cropping :

Intercropping is the practice of growing two or more crops in proximity. The most
common goal of intercropping is to produce a greater yield on a given piece of
land by making use of resources that would otherwise not be utilized by a single
crop.

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 Dryland Horticulture

vii) Mulching :
Mulching is a soil and water conserving and weed management practice through
soil solarisation also in which any suitable material is used to spread over the
ground between rows of crops or around the tree trunks. This practice helps to
retain soil moisture, prevents weed growth and enhances soil structure. Types of
mulching includes
A. Surface mulching
Organic mulching, Chemical mulching, Soil mulching / Dust mulching, Pebble
mulching
B. Vertical mulching
c. Vegetative barrier

viii) Strip cropping:

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 Dryland Horticulture

Strip intercropping involves erosion resistant crops and erosion permitting crops
in alternate strips of 2–3 m width across slope and along the contour. Erosion
resistant crops include grasses and legumes with rapid canopy development. For
example, Cenchrus glaucus + Stylosanthes hamata. In this case, farmers combine
high-growing crops with low-growing ones for the sake of wind protection, like
when corn grows in strips with forage crops. The strip cropping practice works
even better when high-growing crops are intensified in the sides where winds
blow most frequently. An extra benefit is the organic matter material from the
low crops.

Types of strip cropping

 Contour strip cropping
 Field strip cropping
 Buffer strip cropping
 Wind strip cropping

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 Dryland Horticulture

1. Contour strip cropping

In contour strip cropping, the crops are planted in strips along the contour at right
angles to the direction of natural land slope. The growing of crops in strips are in
a definite rotational sequence. Although, it is not strictly essential that all the
crops must be in the rotation in the same field and in the same year, but as far as
possible it should be maintained to keep the soil in proper order. Contour strip
cropping is adopted on the level land across the slope instead of up and down hill,
for checking the flow of surface water. From field studies, it has been observed
that the strip cropping on the contour plays a key role in conserving the soil and
water, when combined with terracing. The width of strips depends on the
topographical features of the area.
2. Field Strip Cropping:
It is modified form of contour strip cropping, in which crop strips are laid parallel,
across the land slope, but not always exactly on the contour; may be changed
depending on the land situation. This type of strip cropping is suitably used where
the topography is either too irregular or undulating, as they make accurate layout
of contour strip cropping, impractical. The depressed areas should be avoided for
field strip cropping; they can be left for establishing the grassed waterways.
3. Buffer Strip Cropping:
In buffer strip cropping, the strips of grasses or legume crops are laid between
contour strip crops in regular rotation. The width of these strips may or may not
be uniform. The buffer strips are usually 2 to 4 m wide, and are placed at 10 to 20
m intervals. They can also be placed on critical slopes of the field. The main

16
 Dryland Horticulture

purpose of buffer strip cropping is to provide protection to the land from soil
erosion.
4. Wind Strip Cropping:
In wind strip cropping system, the strip crops of uniform width are laid at right
angles to the direction of prevailing winds, without regard of the contour. The
main objective of this system is to control the wind erosion rather water erosion.
This cropping is recommended for level or nearly level topography, where wind
erosion is more effective.

(ix) Conservation Tillage

The conservation tillage aims at addressing wind and water erosion by covering
the earth with vegetation (either crops or their residues) and limiting the number
of tilling operations. Another significant aspect is to choose the proper time for
field operations, depending on the soil types. For example, clay ones are better
to till after harvesting while other types are better to plough before seeding. Also,
handling wet soils leads to their compaction. Minimum tillage – preparation of
seed bed with minimum soil disturbance. The practice consists of opening the
land just to plant the seed and use of chemical herbicides to control the weeds.
Strip or zone tillage- seed bed is prepared by cultivating the soil in a narrow strip.
The area in between the rows is either left untilled or tilled in a different manner.

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 Dryland Horticulture

MULCH TILLAGE - A tillage operation that will leave a substantial part of the
residual vegetative materials of the previous crop on or near the surface as a
protective cover is known as mulch tillage. This is also called as stubble mulching.

No-till farming assists in soil conservation as well since it implies no or minimum

disturbance and planting seeds into the crop residue. The basic idea is not to leave
soil bare, as bare areas are highly prone to erosion, and plants keep it in place
with their root systems. Additionally, vegetation accumulates moisture for future
crops.
(x) Windbreaks
As the name suggests, this soil conservation practice is used to reduce the power
of winds and its disruptive effect on soil. These are trees or bushes to shelter crops
from snow and winds planted in several rows. Depending on the number of rows,
we can distinguish windbreaks properly (up to five rows) and shelterbelts (six and

18
 Dryland Horticulture

more). Windbreak vegetation also provides a living environment for wildlife and
eliminates soil abrasion on crops due to strong wind blows.

(xi) Crop Rotation

Crop rotation vs. monocropping farming suggests changing agro species instead
of planting one and the same for many subsequent seasons. Crop rotation helps
them improve the earth structure with diverse root systems, to mitigate pest
establishments, and to add nitrogen to the land with legumes known as nitrogen-
fixing plants.

(xii) Cropping Systems

Cropping system refers to a sequence of crops grown on a given area over a period
of time for prevention or control of soil erosion, building up of soil fertility,
building up of organic matter and control of weeds. Crop rotation is chosen in
such a way that during rainy periods there is a vegetative cover over the soil
surface. Vegetative cover controls splash erosion by intercepting the rain drops,
and absorbing their energy. It also helps in maintaining the infiltration rate of the
soil as on a bare soil beating action of rainfall breaks down the clods and forms a
tight layer

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 Dryland Horticulture

Mechanical methods
The basic principle are:
(i) Shaping the land surface manually or with implements in such a way as to
reduce the velocity of runoff
(ii) To allow more time for rainfall to stand on soil surface, and
(iii) To facilitate more infiltration of rainfall into soil layers.
Choice of any particular method under a given situation is influenced by rainfall
characters, soil type, crops, sowing methods and slope of land.
(i) Basin listing:
Formation of small depressions (basins) of 10–15 cm depth and 10–15 cm width
at regular intervals using an implement called basin lister. The small basins collect
rainfall and improve its storage. It is usually done before sowing. It is suitable for
all soil types and crops.

(ii) Bunding:
Formation of narrow based or broad based bunds across slope at suitable
intervals depending on slope of field. The bunds check the free flow of runoff
water, impound the rainwater in the inter-bund space, increase its infiltration and
improve soil moisture storage. Leveling of inter-bund space is essential to ensure
uniform spread of water and avoid water stagnation in patches.

20
 Dryland Horticulture

It can be classified into three types:

(a) Contour bunding:

Bunds of 1 m basal width, 0.5 m top width and 0.5 m height are formed along the
contour. The distance between two contour bunds depends on slope. The
interbund surface is leveled and used for cropping. It is suitable for deep red soils
with slope less than 1%. It is not suitable for heavy black soils with low infiltration
where bunds tend to develop cracks on drying. Contour bunds are permanent
structures and require technical assistance and heavy investment.

(b) Graded/field bunding:

Bunds of 30-45 cm basal width, and 15-20 cm height are formed across slope at
suitable intervals of 20-30 m depending on slope. The inter-bund area is leveled
and cropped. It is suitable for medium deep-to-deep red soils with slopes up to
1%. It is not suitable for black soils due to susceptibility to cracking and breaching.
Bunds can be maintained for 2-3 seasons with reshaping as and when required.

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 Dryland Horticulture

(c) Compartmental bunding:

Small bunds of 15 cm width and 15 cm height are formed in both directions (along
and across slope) to divide the field into small basins or compartments of 40 sq.
m. size (8 × 5 m). It is suitable for red soils and black soils with a slope of 0.5-1%.
The bunds can be formed before sowing or immediately after sowing with local
wooden plough. It is highly suitable for broadcast sown crops. CRIDA has
recommended this method as the best in situ soil moisture conservation measure
for Kovilpatti region of Tamil Nadu. Maize, sunflower, sorghum performs well in
this type of bunding.

(d) Ridges and furrows:

Furrows of 30-45 cm width and 15-20 cm height are formed across slope. The
furrows guide runoff water safely when rainfall intensity is high and avoid water
stagnation. They collect and store water when rainfall intensity is less. It is suitable
for medium deep-todeep black soils and deep red soils. It can be practiced in wide
row spaced crops like cotton, maize, chillies, tomato etc. It is not suitable for
shallow red soils, shallow black soils and sandy/ gravelly soils. It is not suitable for
broadcast sown crops and for crops sown at closer row spacing less than 30 cm.
Since furrows are formed usually before sowing, sowing by dibbling or planting
alone is possible. Tie ridging is a modification of the above system of ridges and
furrows where in the ridges are connected or tied by a small bund at 2–3 m
interval along the furrows. Random tie ridging is another modification where
discontinuous furrows of 20–25 cm width, 45–60 cm length and 15 cm depth are
formed between clumps or hills of crops at the time of weeding. Yet another
modification of ridges and furrows method is the practice of sowing in lines on

22
 Dryland Horticulture

flat beds and formation of furrows between crop rows at 25–30 DAS. This enables
sowing behind plough or through seed drill.

(e) Broad Bed Furrow (BBF):

Here beds of 1.5 m width, 15 cm height and convenient length are formed,
separated by furrows of 30 cm width and 15 cm depth. Crops are sown on the
beds at required intervals. It is suitable for heavy black soils and deep red soils.
The furrows have a gradient of 0.6%. Broad bed furrow has many advantages over
other methods.
• It can accommodate a wide range of crop geometry i.e., close as well as wide
row spacing.
• It is suitable for both sole cropping and intercropping systems.
• Furrows serve to safely guide runoff water in the early part of rainy season and
store rainwater in the later stages.
• Sowing can be done with seed drills.
• It can be formed by bullock drawn or tractor drawn implements. Bed former
cum seed drill enables BBF formation and sowing simultaneously, thus reducing
the delay between rainfall receipts and sowing.

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 Dryland Horticulture

(f) Dead furrow

At the time of sowing or immediately after sowing, deep furrows of 20 cm depth
are formed at intervals of 6–8 rows of crops. No crop is raised in the furrow.
Sowing and furrowing are done across slope. It can be done with wooden plough
in both black and red soils.

(g) Bench terracing/ terrace bunding

It consist of step-like or benches along contours by cut and fill method to reduce
length and degree of slope. It helps in promoting uniform distribution of soil
moisture, irrigation water and controlling soil erosion. It is recommended for 16
to 33 % slope

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 Dryland Horticulture

(h) Subsoiling
This method consists in breaking with a sub soiler the hard and impermeable
subsoil to conserve more rain-water by improving the physical conditions of a soil.
This operation, which does not involve soil inversion and promotes greater
moisture penetration into the soil, reduces both run-off and soil erosion. The sub
soiler is worked through the soil at a depth of 30-60 cm at a spacing of 90-180 cm.

Mechanical Soil type Rainfall (mm) Slope %

structures
Contour bund High soil <600 >1.5
Graded bund All soil >600 1.5-6.0
Bench terraces Deep soil >1000 6 - 30
Graded border Deep Alfisols >800 >1.5
strips and related red
soils

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 Dryland Horticulture

Agrostological methods
The use of grasses to control soil erosion, reduce run off and improve soil
moisture storage constitutes the agrostological method. Grasses with their close
canopy cover over soil surface and profuse root system, which binds soil particles,
provide excellent protection against runoff and erosion. The following are the
various agrostological methods of in situ moisture conservation.
(i) Pastures/grass lands:
Raising perennial grasses to establish pastures or grass lands is recommended for
shallow gravelly, eroded, degraded soils. Grass canopy intercepts rainfall, reduces
splash erosion, checks runoff and improves soil moisture storage from rainfall.

(ii) Strip cropping with grasses:

Alternate strips of grasses and annual field crops arranged across slope check
runoff and erosion and help in increasing moisture storage in soil.
(iii) Ley farming:
It is the practice of growing fodder grasses and legumes and annual crops in
rotation. Grasses and legumes like Cenchrus, stylo are grown for 3–5 years and
followed by annual crops like sorghum for 2 year. When the field is under grasses
or legumes, soil moisture conservation is improved.

26
 Dryland Horticulture

(iv) Vegetative barriers:

Vegetative barrier consists of one or two rows of perennial grasses established at
suitable interval across the slope and along the contour. It serves as a block to
free runoff and soil transport. Vetiver, Cenchrus etc., are suitable grasses. Vetiver
can be planted in rows at intervals of 40 m in 0.5% slope. Plough furrows are
opened with disc plough first before commencement of monsoon. 5–8 cm deep
holes are formed at 20 cm interval and two slips per hole are planted in the
beginning of rainy season. The soil around the roots is compacted. Vetiver barriers
check runoff and prevent soil erosion. While they retain the soil, they allow excess
runoff to flow through their canopy without soil loss. It is adapted to drought and
requires less care for maintenance. It does not exhibit any border effect on crops
in adjacent rows. It allows uniform spread of water to lower area in the field
resulting in uniform plant stand thus increasing yield of a crop by 10–15%. It
facilitates better storage of soil moisture. If fodder grasses like Cenchrus glaucus
or marvel grass are used, fodder can also be harvested and given to the animal.
Vegetative barriers are best suited for black soil. Unlike contour bunding, which
gives way due to development of crack in summer in black soils, vegetative
barriers do not allow such phenomenon in black soil. Hence, the vegetative
barriers can be effectively maintained in black soil for 4–5 years. After 4–5 years,
replanting material can also be had from the old barrier by 8quartering9.

27
 Dryland Horticulture

References

1. Lenka,D.2005. In Book : Irrigation and drainage. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi

- 110 002 . Pages- 327
2. F.A. Banday and M. K Sharma. 2018. In Book: Advances in Temperate Fruit
Production. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. pages: 387
3. Bimal Chandra Mal. 2013. In Book: Introduction to Soil and water
conservation engineering surveying, Irrigation, Drainage and Soil
Conservation. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. 429 pages
4. V.V.N. Murthy and Madan K. Jha. 2013. In Book. Land and water management
engineering. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002.pages: 604
5. Ganesaraj,V, V.K. Paul Pandi, R. Balasubramanian., T. Myrtle Grace and K.
Balakrishnan. 2010. In Book : Irrigation agronomy. Associated Publishing
Company . Pages : 237
6. Saroj, P.L, B. Varshishta, D.G. Dhander. 2004. In Book. Advances in Arid
Horticulture. International Book distributing CO. Pages: 628
7. Jat, M.L. P. Singh, S.R. Bhakar, S.K. Sharma. In Book : Drought management.
2010. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. Pages : 428
8. Suresh, R. 2019. In Book. Soil and water conservation engineering. Standard
Publisher Distributors. Pages :1089

28
 Dryland Horticulture

Course Name Dryland Horticulture

Methods Of Control And Impounding Of Run-Off
Lesson 6
Water –Farm Ponds, Trenches, Macro Catch Pit.
Content Creator V.P.SANTHI
University Name Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Course Reviewer SANGRAM SAHEBRAO DHUMAL

University Name Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth,Rahuri

1
 Dryland Horticulture

Objectives of the lecture:

 Agro-climatic features in rain shadow areas, scarse water resources, high
temperature, soil erosion, run-off losses etc.


Glossary of terms
- It is a patch of land that has been forced to
1. Rain Shadow become a desert because all plant-growing, rainy
weather has been blocked by mountain ranges
- Is a situation occurring in any area where the
2. Drought
annual rainfall is less than 75% of normal rainfall.
3. Constraints - something that limits or restricts
4. Pre-monsoon - Before a monsoon
5. Post - monsoon - After a monsoon

Methods Of Control And Impounding Of Run-Off Water – Farm Ponds, Trenches,

Macro Catch Pit

I. Methods Of Controlling Runoff

A. Mechanical Methods:

1. Contour bunding
2. Graded bunding
3. Biological Bunding or live Bunds or vegetative bunding; or Vegetative
barriers
4. Watershed management- inter bund management
5. Broad bed furrow
6. Vertical mulching

2
 Dryland Horticulture

B. Agronomical practices

1. Strip cropping
2. Mulching
3. Contour cultivation
4. Planting of grasses for stabilizing bunds.
5. Intercropping
6. Sequence cropping
7. Relay cropping

i.Vertical mulching

This is the practice followed in dry farming areas for moisture conservation. The
infiltration rate to black soils of dry lands is very low. In the event of high intensity
rainfall much more water is lost as runoff instead of infiltrating into the soil
profile. This process still accelerated under sloppy lands. Under these conditions
the technique of vertical mulch has been found useful in Dryland farming.

This technique consists of digging suitable trenches across the slope and thus
making more surface area available for absorption. The open trenches are filled
with organic farm wastes like straw stubbles the stalks etc. which is called as filter.
The filter should be resistant to decomposition and provide service for 3 – 4 years.
The upper portion of filter should be 15 – 20 cm above the soil surface.

The trenches should be of 20 cm width in between two crop rows. The trench
depth of 60 to 90 cm is optimum. The interval between trenches should be 4 m.
the runoff water is trapped by the filter and allowed to percolate in the trenches
the stored water in the trenches recharge the soil profile by lateral movement of
water.

ii.Vegetative or Biological bunding

The bushes like Subabul shevri of the grasses like vetiver i.e. thus grass are planted
in between the bunds in the fields across the slope or along the average contours.
The system is called as vegetative bunding or biological bunding. The grasses or

3
 Dryland Horticulture

the bushes are cut close to the ground periodically leaving 20 to 30 cm top portion
above the ground. This above ground portion helps to arrest the surface flow of
excess water. The water halts temporarily along the vegetative bunds and helps
in silting of soil particles. During this time water gets some time to infiltrate into
the soil. Then partially clear excess water goes up to the field bunds with non-
erosive velocity which is further drained into field drains. The interval between
two vegetative bunds will depend on the slope of the field. However, 10 – 12 m
interval between two bunds is convenient for carrying out field operations.

The bushes like Subabul or shevri can also be planted at 15 – 20 m intervals across
the wind direction in the fields which acts as wind breaks and useful for checking
soil erosion and moisture conservation.

Iii.Effective rainfall

From crop production point of view, it is the portion of rainfall which contributes
to the crop water needs is the effective rainfall. In other wounds the and of in tall
watch becomes the part of consumptive use of water of a crop. An actual farmer
considers that the effective rainfall which9s that total rainfall which is useful in
raising crops planted on his soil. Water which moves out of his field by surface
runoff is the portion of total rainfall which is ineffective. Also, the water that
moves below root zone as deep percolation is ineffective. Any rainfall received
after the soil has attained the field capacity up to root zone depth is ineffective.

iv.Farm Ponds

Farm ponds are small tank or reservoir like constructions, are constructed for the
purpose of storing the surface runoff, generated from the catchment area. The
farm ponds are the water harvesting structures, solve several purposes of farm
needs such as supply of water for irrigation, cattle feed, fish production etc.
Farm ponds also play a key role in flood control by constructing them in large
numbers in the area. In addition, the farm ponds are also used for storing the
monsoon water, which is used for irrigation of crops, and several other purposes,
according to the need. A farm pond also has significant role in rainfed farming.

4
 Dryland Horticulture

iv.a.Types of Farm Pond

In broad sense, the farm ponds are divided in following two general categories:
1. Embankment type, and
2. Excavated or dug out type
1. Embankment Type:
Embankment type farm ponds are generally constructed across the stream or
water course. Such ponds consist of an earthen embankment, which dimensions
are fixed on the basis of volume of water to be stored, mainly. These farm ponds
are usually constructed in that area where land slope ranges from gentle to
moderately steep; and also, where stream valleys are sufficiently depressed to
permit a maximum storage volume with least amount of earthwork.

2. Excavated or Dug Out Type:

Dug out type farm ponds are constructed by excavating the soil from the ground,
relatively in flat areas. The depth of pond is decided on the basis of its desired
capacity, which is obtained almost by excavation. The use of this type of pond is
suitable, particularly where a small supply of water is required.
Apart from above two types, the farm ponds are also of two more types, i.e., the
spring or crack fed and off-stream storage pond, depending on the sources of
water available for feeding them.
The spring or crack fed ponds are generally found is hilly areas, where natural
cracks or springs are available to supply the water. Since, the source of water
supply to these ponds is the crack or spring, therefore, they are named as spring
or crack fed pond.
Off-stream storage ponds are constructed on the side of ephemeral streams, in
which water flows seasonally. This seasonal water is stored in these ponds. This
type of ponds are provided with a suitable arrangement for safe conveyance of
flow into the pond and supply of water to channels.
8Seepage9 is counted as one of the main factors for pond design, e.g., in the areas
of high gypsum the seepage loss is much more, causing construction of farm pond
impractical. Although, everywhere there is seepage due to ponding of water but
it should be under favourable limit.
5
 Dryland Horticulture

Normally, it is advised to allow the seepage loss at the rate of 1m depth of water
per year, when estimating minimum storage. The depth of farm pond also varies
as per climatic condition.
Typical values of average pond depth are given in Table 17.1.

iv.a.Components of Farm Pond:

A farm pond essentially consists of following components:
1. Pondage or storage area
2. Earthen embankment
3. Mechanical and emergency spillways.
The mechanical spillway is used for letting out the stored water from the pond. In
other words, mechanical spillway acts as an outlet for safe disposal of water from
the storage area of the pond. On the other hand, the emergency spillway is used
as safeguard for earthen dam against overtopping, when volume of inflow
becomes greater than the pondage capacity of the farm pond.

V.Macro catchment pits

Macro catchment Water Harvesting (Macro WH) systems usually consist of four
components: the catchment area, the runoff conveyance system, the storage
system and the application area. In the catchment area, rainwater runoff is
collected from compacted surfaces, including hillsides, roads, rocky areas, open
range lands, cultivated and uncultivated land and natural slopes. Most Macro WH
practices have a catchment area of less than 2 ha, in some cases however runoff
is collected from catchments as large as 200 ha. The runoff is conveyed through
overland, rill, gully or channel flow and either diverted onto cultivated fields
(where water is stored in the soil) or into specifically designed storage facilities.
Where concentrated runoff is directly diverted to fields, the application area is
6
 Dryland Horticulture

identical with the storage area, as plants can directly use the accumulated soil
water. The application or cropping area is either terraced or located in flat terrain.
The ratio of the catchment to the application area (usually cultivated) varies
between 10:1 and 100:1. In the second case, a great variety of designed storage
systems keep the water until it is used either adjacent to the storage facilities or
further away (involving a conveyance system). The classification of technologies
into Flood WH or Macro WH is not always straightforward. It depends on the
catchment size (Flood WH > Macro WH), the size of rainfall event (Flood WH >
Macro WH) and concentration/size of runoff which is tapped (Flood WH harvest
from the channel flow, Macro WH collects sheet and rill flow and short-distance
channel flow). The harvested water is mainly used for crop and livestock
production but also for domestic use, depending on the quantity and quality.

vi.Trench with recharge well

 In areas where the surface soil is impervious and large quantities of roof
water or surface runoff is available within a very short period of heavy
rainfall, the use of trench/ pits is made to store the water in a filter media
and subsequently recharge to ground water through specially constructed
recharge wells.
 This technique is ideally suited for area where permeable horizon is within
3m below ground level.
 Recharge well of 100-300 diameter is constructed to a depth of at least 3 to
5 m below the water level. Based on the lithology of the area, well assembly
is designed with slotted pipe against the shallow and deeper aquifer.
 A lateral trench of 1.5 to 3m width and 10 to 30 m length, depending upon
the availability of water is constructed with the recharge well in the centre.
 The number of recharge wells in the trench can be decided on the basis of
water availability and local vertical permeability of the rocks.
 The trench is backfilled with boulders, gravels and coarse sand to act as a
filter media for the recharge wells.

7
 Dryland Horticulture

If the aquifer is available at greater depth say more than 20 m, a shallow shaft of
2 to 5 m diameter and 3-5 metres deep may be constructed depending upon
availability of runoff. Inside the shaft a recharge well of 100-300 mm dia is
constructed for recharging the available water to the deeper aquifers. At the
bottom of the shaft a filter media is provided to avoid choking of recharge well.

References

1. Lenka,D.2005. In Book : Irrigation and drainage. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi

- 110 002 . Pages- 327
2. F.A. Banday and M. K Sharma. 2018. In Book: Advances in Temperate Fruit
Production. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. pages: 387
3. Bimal Chandra Mal. 2013. In Book: Introduction to Soil and water
conservation engineering surveying, Irrigation, Drainage and Soil
Conservation. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. 429 pages
4. V.V.N. Murthy and Madan K. Jha. 2013. In Book. Land and water management
engineering. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002.pages: 604
5. Ganesaraj,V, V.K. Paul Pandi, R. Balasubramanian., T. Myrtle Grace and K.
Balakrishnan. 2010. In Book : Irrigation agronomy. Associated Publishing
Company . Pages : 237
6. Saroj, P.L, B. Varshishta, D.G. Dhander. 2004. In Book. Advances in Arid
Horticulture. International Book distributing CO. Pages: 628
7. Jat, M.L. P. Singh, S.R. Bhakar, S.K. Sharma. In Book : Drought management.
2010. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. Pages : 428
8. Suresh, R. 2019. In Book. Soil and water conservation engineering. Standard
Publisher Distributors. Pages :1089

8
 Dryland Horticulture

Course Name Dryland Horticulture

In-situ water harvesting methods, micro-catchment,
Lesson 7
different types of tree basins, etc.,
Content Creator V.P.SANTHI
University Name Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Course Reviewer SANGRAM SAHEBRAO DHUMAL

University Name Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth,Rahuri

1
 Dryland Horticulture

Objectives of the lecture:

To learn about the in-situ water harvesting methods , micro-

catchment,different types of tree basins, etc.,

Glossary of terms
- Conserve the rain water where it falls for
In-situ water
1. increasing soil water storage or reducing run off
harvesting
and soil loss and enhancing the crop productivity.
- In a closely planted crop, the small v-shaped
2. Corrugation
furrows, are drawn, are referred as corrugations
- A method of farming whereby <steps= known as
3. Terrace farming terraces are built onto the slopes of hills and
mountains.
4. Trench - Trench is a long cut in the ground
- It is one of the direct water harvesting system
5. Micro-catchment where small structures are constructed across
land slopes which captures surface runoff water.

IN SITU WATER HARVESTING METHODS

Technologically all rainfall harvesting systems have three components: a

collection area, a conveyance system, and a storage area. In this application,
collection and storage is provided within the landscape. Topographic
depressions represent ideal collection and storage areas. In many situations
such areas are impermeable, being uncertain by clay soils that minimize
infiltration. The in situ water harvesting methods are those which conserve the
rain water where it falls for increasing soil water storage or reducing run off
and soil loss and enhancing the crop productivity. These techniques include the
following:

2
 Dryland Horticulture

1. Land treatment
2. Engineering measures
3. Cropping system and cultivation

1. LAND TREATMENT TECHNIQUES

(i) General smoothening of land

In this case, prior to bunding, small gullies are formed all over the land to
spread the flow of water. At the time of bunding these are flattened for better
conservation of water over the land surface. The gullies which are not suitable
for grass waterways are also smoothened and leveled. This will help in
conservation of water in situ.

(ii) Zigzage Terracing:

Under contour bunding the runoff water is not well distributed and gets
concentrated near the bunds leading to stagnation and damage to crops. To
avoid this hazard, a practice of leveling the lower one third portion of the land
between contour bunds is leveled to help spreading of runoff water in the
larger area of interbunded area and ensure availability of more water to crop.

(iii)Compartmental Bunding:

It means the entire field is divided into small compartments with

predetermined size to retain the rain water where it falls and arrest soil
erosion. The size of the bunds depends upon slope of the land. Compartmental
bunds provide more opportunity time for water to infiltrate into the soil and
help in conserving soil moisture.

SALIENT FEATURES

 Compartmental bunding is an effective moisture conservation measure in

dryland.
 It is suitable for lesser rainfall areas and the slope is less than 1 percent.
 The lands are divided into small compartments with the dimension of 8x5m2
3
 Dryland Horticulture

 It increases the water holding capacity of the soil.

 It can be formed while ploughing itself or before early sowing.
 Reduces the formation of cracks.
 It will overcome the disadvantages of contour bunding.

It is commonly followed practice in deep black soils. A rain received during

monsoon is collected and help in compartments to percolate down for surface
storage and raising crop production.

Tied ridging:

In this case well harrowed field is converted into ridges and furrows and
tied separately to make the rain water collect in the furrows for water
conservation. Important features are:

 The ridges are vertically tied at shorter interval to create rectangular

water harvesting structures. During heavy rainy season it facilitates to
infiltrate water to the soil.
 The slight sloppiness in the tied ridges facilitates drainage of excess
water infiltrate into the soil.
 Summer ploughing, broad bed and furrows ridges and furrows, random
tie ridging, compartmental bunding etc. are the various in situ water
harvesting method for black and red soils cause an increase of up to 15
percent in crop yields.
 It conserves soil and moisture in red soils.

Another variable in the tied contour ridging system, contour ridges are small
earthen ridges 15-20 cm high, with an upslope furrow which accommodates
run off from a catchment strip between the ridges. The ridges may be 1.5
to 10.0 m apart, but, as this is a micro-catchment system and catchment is
a function of distance between ridges, the precise distance should be
calculated for the expected rainfall. The tied contour ridging system is used
for tree planting (with a wider distance between ridges) and crop
production. Crops are planted on ridges as well as furrows. It is also referred

4
 Dryland Horticulture

as basin listing. It is more successful when carefully designed and

constructed. . It is suitable on level ground and when the amount of water
which can be stored in basin plus the quantity infiltrating during the storm
is more than the worst storm likely to occur. It is more successful on
permeable than shallow soils. To prevent failure, tied ridges are constructed
on grade with ties lower than the ridges so that the failure and run off will
be along each ridge and not down the slope.

Scooping:

In addition to explanation provided elsewhere, scooping is another method

of improving in situ water harvesting in dryland areas. It is quite similar to
range pitting method practiced in grasslands. It provides more time for
water to infiltrate into the soil that would otherwise be lost as runoff. It
helps in increasing the crop yield also up to the range of 20 per cent.

Ridge and Furrow system:

Ridge and furrow is an archeological pattern of ridges and thoughts created

by a system of ploughing, typical of the open field system. It is also known
as Rig (or Rigg) and Furrow mostly created to increase the surface area to
help drainage as well as conservation of water. Cultivation of crops under
ridge and furrow systems across the land slope with a gradient of 0.2 to 0.4
percent and inland having 2-4 percent slope will greatly help in in situ
moisture conservation. A length of 60-90 m is optimum. Under this method,
depending upon soil and climate conditions variations have been
suggested.

(i) Interrow water harvesting:

In this case crop is sown in narrow strips between wide intervals that
are ridged as artificial miniature watersheds. Later on these are
compacted to increase run off to the crop rows. It is more practical as
no land is sacrificed for harvesting water. It is practiced in arid areas
with light soil where annual rainfall does not exceed 400-500 mm.

5
 Dryland Horticulture

(ii) Inter-plot or micro plot water harvesting system:

In this case water is harvested in furrows between the plots when
rainfall is comparatively more. Runoff from sloping area supplements
rainfall for raising crop on level land.
(iii) Raised-sunken bed:
It is a combination of raised and sunken beds alternatively where soil
dugout from area makes sunken bed and place where it is spread
makes the raised bed for raising crop. The sunken bed is mainly for
drainage and water harvesting. It is commonly adopted in arid and
semi arid region. This technology has proved useful for both kharif
and Rabi crops. In this case 6m wide and 30-35 cm high beds are made
which provide drainage to the upland crops, keeps the part of runoff
water stored in sunken beds which facilitates the profile recharge and
tends to stabilize root zone moisture during the periods of long dry
spells.

Broad bed and Furrow system (BBF):

In this system broad beds are separated by sunken furrows. It is a raised

land configuration, helps the soil to preserve the water level for a longer period
by holding moisture intact. The bed stimulates crops growth. This system would
not only help in water conservation for better crop yield but also help adapt to
the ever changing climate. The crops will respond better to fickle rain duration
and survive longer.

The system consists of broad beds about 100 cm wide separated by sunken
furrows about 50 cm wide. The preferred slope along the furrow is between 0.4
and 0.8 percent on vertisols. Thus, three or four rows of crops can be raised on
the broad bed, and the bed width and cop geometry can be varied to suit the
cultivation and planting equipment. This system is commonly used on vertisols
(heavy black soils)

6
 Dryland Horticulture

THE BASIC OBJECTIVES OF THIS SYSTEM ARE

 To encourage moisture storage in soil profile

 To dispose safely of surplus surface runoff without causing erosion.
 To provide a better drained and more easily cultivated soil in the bed.
 The possibility of the re-use of runoff stored in small tanks.

Once formed, they should be retained for some seasons for use by working on
beds only.

Bedding system:

In this system of land configuration, a furrow is drawn after a few rows of

crops across the slope on a grade of 0.2 to 0.4 percent. The bed width could be
3 to 6m and can vary based on crop and type of equipments for field
preparation. This is suitable for narrow spaced row crops. In this method there
is no water stagnation near the bund and therefore, the system acts both as
disposal and conservation method. It provides better rainwater management
at the times of low as well as high intensity of rain. This system provides both
in situ moisture conservation during lower rainfall periods and safe disposal of
excess run off during higher rainfall periods.

Ridge and Furrow and bedding system:

It is a combination of ridge and furrow and bedding system where the field
is prepared in ridge and furrows for the plantation of crop on ridges and then
furrows are drawn at a specified interval to conserve the water and reduce the
run off generally after two seed drill width (i.e.3m interval). This system is
useful for widely spaced crops at 60 to 90 cm between rows on a gradient of
0.3 to 0.4 percent.

A comparative evaluation of different land configuration viz. Flat bed

system, broad bed and furrow bed and furrow (BBF), narrow bed and furrow

7
 Dryland Horticulture

(NBF) and raised and sunken bed system (BSB). BBF is better followed by RSB
and FB in black soil region (vertisol).

Corrugation:

In a closely planted crop, the small v-shaped furrows, are drawn, are
referred as corrugations. Here the water gets soaked in the corrugation and
spreads outside ways into the areas between them. Corrugations are generally
smaller than furrows used in irrigating cultivated row crops. They also become
site for in situ conservation of water. This can be done by the use of ridger.

2.ENGINEERING MEASURES

Terracing:

Terrace is an earthen embankment, ridge or ridge-and-channel built across

a slope to intercept runoff water and reduce erosion. They are usually built in
a series parallel to one another with each terrace collecting excess of water
from the area above. Terraces can be designed to channel excess water into
grass water ways or direct it underground to drainage tile and a stable outlet.
There are three main types of terraces: Broad-based terraces, grassed back-
slope terraces and narrow based terraces.

They are created for following usefulness

(i) Reduce soil erosion by breaking slope

(ii) Protect water quality by intercepting agricultural runoff.
(iii) Help prevent gully formation by directing run off to stable outlets.
(iv) Make it easier to form steep slope
(v) Improve soil quality and productivity by improving moisture retention and
reducing soil erosion.

8
 Dryland Horticulture

Conservation terraces:

Conservation terracing is mainly done to establish the vegetation and

thereby reduce surface run off from these areas and improve conservation of
soil moisture and reduce soil erosion.

Bench Terracing:

Bench terraces are a soil and water conservation measure used on sloping
land with relatively deep soils to retain water and control erosion. They are
normally constructed by cutting and filling to produce a series of level steps or
benches along contours cut into hill/slope in a step like fashion. These
platforms are separated at regular intervals by vertical drops or by steep sides
and protected by vegetation and sometimes by packed stone retaining walls.
Thus bench terraces convert the long un-intercepted slope into several small
strops and make protected platform available for crop cultivation.

In hilly areas bench terracing has been employed for the purpose of converting
hill slopes to suit agriculture. Depending on the climatic condition and resource
availability they can be put to use for potato, coffee etc. There areas are also
used for converting sloping lands to irrigated fields or for orchard plantations.
Generally bench terracing is recommended for 16 to 30 percent slope range.

Types of Bench terraces

Based on the purpose for which to be utilized, bench terraces have been
classified into the following types:

(i) Hill type bench terraces: It is used for hilly areas with a reverse grade
towards the hill.
(ii) Irrigated bench terraces: Level benches are adopted under irrigated
conditions.
(iii) Orchard bench terraces: Narrow width terrace (about 1 m ) for individual
terrains.

9
 Dryland Horticulture

Bench terraces have also been typed based on the type of surface slope as

(i) bench terraces slopping outward

(ii) bench terraces slopping inward, and
(iii) Bench terraces with level top.

I. Bench terraces slopping outward:

They are used in low rainfall areas with permeable soils. These terraces
require a shoulder bund. The shoulder bund helps to conserve the rainfall coming
over the area as it provides more time for moisture soaking into the soil. Bench
terraces with narrow width are sometimes constructed for orchards and also
referred as orchard bench terraces. These terraces are recommended to reduce
existing steep slope to mild slope (say from 8 to 4%).

II. Bench terraces slopping inwards:

These terraces are recommended for heavy rainfall areas where a major
portion of the rainfall is to be drained as surface run off. Thus, each of these
terraces is provided a drain for runoff and therefore, they are made slopping
inwards. Hey require a suitable outlet to drain out runoff safely. These are also
referred as hill type bench terraces.

III. Bench terraces with level tops:

Suitable for areas with medium rainfall, evenly distributed well drained
permeable soils. Due to this reason no slope is provided to the benches with the
expectations that most of the rainfall coming over the area is absorbed and very
little water will go out as runoff. These types of terraces are also made in areas
with provision of irrigation facilities as referred to be as irrigated bench terraces.
These terraces are recommended for slopes steeper than 6 to7 percent.

IV. Contour terracing:

In this, physical barriers (store bunds) are created along the contours to
retain rain water and make it infiltrate into the soil and to minimize soil erosion.
10
 Dryland Horticulture

Fairly flat strips of land develop between barriers which are made into terraces
where crops are grown.

V. Contour trenching:

Contour trenching means excavating trenches along the contour or along

the contour or along the uniform level or construction of trenches on slope
contours to detain water and sediment transported by water or gravity down
slope generally constructed with light equipments. These are also known as
contour terraces or contour furrowing, lined with geotextiles and filled with rock
stacked to placed to form an erosion resistant structure.

Purpose:

Contour trenches are used to break up the slope surface, to slow runoff and
allow infiltration and to trap sediments. Rills are stopped by the trenches.
Trenches or terraces are often used in conjunction with seeding. Width and depth
varies with design storm, spacing, soil type and slope. Threshes trap sediment and
interrupt water flow, slowing runoff velocity. They work best on coarse granitic
soils.

Types of Trenches: They may be classified as follows:

(i) Continuous trenches

(ii) Interrupted viz., staggered and in line

I. Continuous trenches:

As the name implies they are continuous along the contour, used for
moisture conservation in low rainfall areas and require careful layout.

11
 Dryland Horticulture

II. Interrupted trenches:

These are constructed in series in a staggered manner. They are adopted in

high rainfall areas so that excess of water form top can move downwards and help
accumulation and conservation of water.

The optimal distance between two trenches depends upon the slope of the field,
where steeper grounds require less distance shown in table below:

Hill slope Distance between trenches

0-4% 10-12 m
4-8% 8m
8-15 % 6m
15-33% 4m

Field trenches suit most soil and rainfall conditions. Their design may be adapted
to different rainfall conditions. While continuous trenches are good for dry
regions, interrupted bunds can be helpful for water harvesting in regions with
higher rainfall.

Advantages

 Applicable to all soil and rainfall conditions.

 Prevent soil degradation and erosion.
 Enhance surface water infiltration and soil moisture.
 Help to reduce flood hazards.
 Comparably simple construction, requiring only basic construction material.

Disadvantages

 Intense labour is needed for maintenance.

 Less land is available for cultivation.
 May create temporary water logging in dense soil.

12
 Dryland Horticulture

Stone terracing:

In agriculture, a terrace is a piece of slopped plane that has been cut into a
series of successively receding flat surfaces or platforms, which resemble steps,
for the purpose of more effective farming. Graduated terrace steps are commonly
used to form on hilly and mountain terrain. In stone terracing small embankments
constructed with stones across the hill sloped. These are recommended on any
slope where stones are available in plenty at the spot. These stone terraces help
in retarding the soil loss and conserving soil and moisture. By intercepting the
surface runoff, the stone terraces also help in removing the stones that lie
scattered on the field and otherwise hinder agricultural operation like ploughing,
inter-culturing etc.

Contour Bunding:

Contour bunding or contour farming or contour ploughing is the farming

practice of ploughing and/or planting across a slope following its contour lines.
These contour lines create a water break which reduces the formation of rills and
gullies during times of heavy water runoff, which is a major cause of soil erosion.
The water break also allows more time for the water to settle into the soil. In
contour ploughing, the ruts made by the plough run perpendicular rather than
parallel to sloped, generally resulting in furrows that curve around the land and
are level. This method is also known for preventing tillage erosion. Tillage erosion
is the soil movement and erosion by tilling a given plot of land. In the similar
practice of contour bunding, stones are placed around the contours of slopes. So
it is the practice of construction earthen embankment on contour, which arrest
the runoff from the field, thereby store profile is increased and resulting into
higher productivity and water productivity.

Soil erosion prevention practices such as this can drastically decrease

negative effects associated with soil erosion such as reduced crop productivity,
worsened water quality, lower effective reservoir farming is considered an active
form of sustainable agriculture.

13
 Dryland Horticulture

Contour bunding is a proven sustainable land management practice for

marginal, sloping and hilly land where the soil productivity is very low.

References

1. Lenka,D.2005. In Book : Irrigation and drainage. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi

- 110 002 . Pages- 327

2. F.A. Banday and M. K Sharma. 2018. In Book: Advances in Temperate Fruit

Production. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. pages: 387

3. Bimal Chandra Mal. 2013. In Book: Introduction to Soil and water

conservation engineering surveying, Irrigation, Drainage and Soil
Conservation. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. 429 pages

4. V.V.N. Murthy and Madan K. Jha. 2013. In Book. Land and water management
engineering. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002.pages: 604

5. Ganesaraj,V, V.K. Paul Pandi, R. Balasubramanian., T. Myrtle Grace and K.

Balakrishnan. 2010. In Book : Irrigation agronomy. Associated Publishing
Company . Pages : 237

6. Saroj, P.L, B. Varshishta, D.G. Dhander. 2004. In Book. Advances in Arid

Horticulture. International Book distributing CO. Pages: 628

7. Jat, M.L. P. Singh, S.R. Bhakar, S.K. Sharma. In Book : Drought management.
2010. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. Pages : 428

8. Suresh, R. 2019. In Book. Soil and water conservation engineering. Standard

Publisher Distributors. Pages :1089

9. Arvind,M Dhope. 2002. In Book Agrotechnology for dry land farming.

Scientific Publishers. Pages : 651

14
 Dryland Horticulture

Course Name Dryland Horticulture

Methods of reducing evapotranspiration, use of
Lesson 8 shelter belts, mulches, antitranspirant, growth
regulators etc.
Content Creator V.P.SANTHI
University Name Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Course Reviewer SANGRAM SAHEBRAO DHUMAL

University Name Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth,Rahuri

1
 Dryland Horticulture

Objectives of the lecture:

To learn about the different methods of reducing evapotranspiration, uses of

shelterbelts, mulching, PGRs, antitranspirants,etc.,

Glossary of terms
- The combination of two separate processes
whereby water is lost on the one hand from the
1. Evapotranspiration
soil surface by evaporation and on the other hand
from the crop by transpiration
- Antitranspirants are compounds applied to the
2. Antitranspirants
leaves of plants to reduce transpiration.
- A layer of material applied to the surface of soil to
3. Mulch
check evaporation and improve soil water.
Rainfed - Describes horticultural practices that rely on
4.
horticulture rainfall water
- Process of a substance in a liquid state changing
5. Evaporation to gaseous state due to increase in temperature
and pressure.

I. REDUCING EVAPORATION LOSSES:

Soil moisture is the most limiting factor in dryland agriculture. It is lost as

evaporation from the soil surface and as transpiration from the plant surfaces.
Evaporation has to be arrested as it is not directly related to productivity whereas

2
 Dryland Horticulture

transpiration can be reduced to some extent without affecting productivity of

plants. The evaporation losses can be reduced by:

1. Mulches
2. Antitranspirants
3. Wind breaks
4. Weed control

1. Mulches

About 60 to 75 per cent of the rainfall is lost through evaporation. These

evaporation losses can be reduced by applying mulches. Mulch is any material
applied on the soil surface to check evaporation and improve soil water.
Application of mulches results in additional benefits like soil conservation,
moderation of temperature, reduction in soil salinity, weed control and
improvement of soil structure.

Types of mulches
i)Soil mulch or dust mulch:

If the surface of the soil is loosened, it acts as a mulch for reducing evaporation.
This loose surface soil is called soil mulch or dust mulch. Intercultivation
creates soil mulch in a growing crop.

ii)Stubble mulch

Crop residues like wheat straw or cotton stalks etc., are left on the soil surface
as a stubble mulch. The advantages of stubble mulch farming are protection of
soil from erosion and reduction of evaporation losses.

iii)Straw mulch

If straw is used as mulch, it is called as straw mulch.

iv)Plastic mulch

Plastic materials like polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride are also used as mulching
materials

3
 Dryland Horticulture

v)Vertical mulching

To improve infiltration and storage of rainwater in these soils, vertical mulches

are formed. It consists of digging narrow trenches across the slope at intervals
and placing the straw or crop residues in these trenches. The pruned plant
material is placed in contour trenches formed between rows or in trenches
around the plants in concentric circles each year in one circle.

2.Antitranspirants

About 99 per cent of the water absorbed by the plants is lost in transpiration. If
transpiration is controlled, it may help in maintenance of favourable water
balance.

Antitranspirant is any material applied to transpiring plant surfaces for reducing

water loss from the plant. These are of four types:

1. Stomatal Closing
2. Film forming
3. Reflective
4. Growth retardant

Stomatal Closing type

Most of the transpiration occurs through the stomata on the leaf surface.

1. Fungicides like phenyl mercuric acetate (PMA) and herbicides like atrazine
in low concentrations serve as antitranspirants by inducing stomatal
closing.

These might reduce the photosynthesis also simultaneously. PMA was found to
decrease transpiration to a greater degree than photosynthesis in a number of
plants.

Film Forming Type

Plastic and waxy materials which form a thin film on the leaf surface retard the
escape of water due to formation of physical barrier.
Mobileaf, hexadeconol, silicone are some of the film forming type of
4
 Dryland Horticulture

antitranspirants. The success of these chemicals is limited since they also reduce
photosynthesis.

1. The desirable characteristics of film forming type of antitranspirants are:

2. They should form a thin layer,
3. They should be more resistant to the passage of water vapour than carbon
dioxide and the film should maintain continuity and should not break

Reflectant Type

These are white materials which form a coating on the leaves and increase the
leaf reflectance (albedo). By reflecting the radiation, they reduce leaf
temperatures and vapour pressure gradient from leaf to atmosphere and thus
reduce transpiration.

1. Application of 5 per cent kaolin spray reduces transpiration losses.

2. A diatomaceous earth product (celite) also increases reflection of solar
radiation from crop canopy

Growth Retardant

These chemicals reduce shoot growth and increase root growth and thus enable
the plants to resist drought. They may also, induce stomatal closure.

1. Cycocel is one such chemical useful for improving water status of the plant

Antitranspirants generally reduce photosynthesis. Therefore, their use is limited

to save the crop from death under severe moisture stress. If crop survives, it can
utilise the rainfall that is received subsequently. Antitranspirants are also useful
for reducing the transplantation shock of nursery plants. They have some practical
use in nurseries and horticultural crops.

3.WIND BREAKS AND SHELTERBELTS

Wind breaks are any structures that obstruct wind flow and reduce wind speed
while shelterbelts are rows of trees planted for protection of crops against wind.
The direction from which wind is blowing is called windward side and direction to
which wind is blowing is called leeward side.

5
 Dryland Horticulture

Shelterbelts are planted across the direction of wind. They do not obstruct the
wind flow completely. Depending upon their porosity, certain amount of wind
passes through the shelterbelts while the rest deflects and crosses over the
shelterbelts. It thus reduces wind speed without causing turbulence. The
protection offered by the shelterbelts is dependent on the height of central tree
row in the shelterbelts. Generally, shelterbelts give protection from desiccating
winds to the extent of 5 to 10 times their height on windward side and up to 30
times on leeward side. Due to reduction in wind speed, evaporation losses are
reduced and more water is available for plants. The beneficial effect of
shelterbelts is seen more clearly in drought years. In addition, shelterbelts reduce
wind erosion.

4.WEED CONTROL

1. Promptweed control eliminates the competition of weeds with crops for

limited soil moisture.
2. Transpiration rate from weeds is more compared to crops.
3. Effective weed control in dryland agriculture leads to increasing availability
of soil moisture to crops.

This is the most useful measure to reduce transpiration losses.

Spraying nutrient solution

Nutrient solution spray is recommended in the event of revival of rain and

release of moisture stress.

Urea or DAP spray (2% solution) is useful for quicker regeneration of crops like
legumes and castor after rain

References

1. Lenka,D.2005. In Book : Irrigation and drainage. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi

- 110 002 . Pages- 327
2. F.A. Banday and M. K Sharma. 2018. In Book: Advances in Temperate Fruit
Production. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. pages: 387

6
 Dryland Horticulture

Course Name Dryland Horticulture

Water use efficiency – need based , economic &
Lesson 9
conjunctive use of water , micro system of irrigation
Content Creator V.P.SANTHI
University Name Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Course Reviewer SANGRAM SAHEBRAO DHUMAL

University Name Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth,Rahuri

1
 Dryland Horticulture

Objectives of the lecture:

To learn about the WUE, need based ,micro system of irrigation like drip,sprinkler
,etc

Glossary of terms
Water use - The ratio of water used in plant metabolism to
1.
efficiency water lost by the plant through transpiration.
- It is a system in which water is applied slowly
2. Sub surface system
below the land surface through emitters
Conjunctive use of - Coordinated use of surface water and
3.
water groundwater
- The loss of water from a pipe or canal that is
4. Conveyance loss caused by leakage, seepage, evaporation, or
evapotranspiration
- Process of a substance in a liquid state changing
5. Evaporation to gaseous state due to increase in temperature
and pressure.

1.WATER USE EFFICIENCY – NEED BASED

Water use efficiency is defined as the yield of marketable crop produced per unit
of
water used in evapotranspiration. It is expressed as WUE=Y/ET
Where WUE is water use efficiency (Kg/ha-mm); Y the marketable yield( kg/ha)
and ET is evapotranspiration (mm).
Factors affecting WUE
I. Nature of the plant
II. Climatic conditions
III. Soil moisture content
IV. Fertilizers
V. Plant population
Methods to improve economic use of water for irrigation:
1. Unlimited water supply conditions
2
 Dryland Horticulture

a. Conservation of water
1. Reduce conveyance losses by lining channels or preferably by using closed
conduits.
2. Reduce direct evaporation during irrigation by avoiding mid day sprinkling and
minimize foliar interception by under canopy by overhead sprinkling.
3. Reduce run-off and percolation losses due to over irrigation.
4. Reduce evaporation from bare soil by mulching and by keeping inter – row
strips dry.
5. Reduce transpiration by weeds, keeping the inter-row strips dry and applying
weed control measures where ever needed.
b. Enhancement of crop growth
1. Select most suitable and marketable crops for the region.
2. Use optimal timing for tillage, planting and harvesting
3. Use appropriate insect, parasite and disease control
4. Effective fertilization
5. Conserving soil and avoiding progressive salinization for long-term
sustainability
6. Irrigating at high frequency and at amount required
Irrigation is practiced to achieve maximum yield per unit of land and ultimately
the profit. When water is becoming scarce maximum yield per unit of water
utilized is the concern. A grower is usually concerned about maximizing profit.
When water is plentiful and inexpensive this is nearly the same as irrigation for
maximum yield. However as irrigation rates approach those needed for maximum
yields, water use efficiency declines. If water is scarce or very expensive the
interest shifts toward obtaining maximum yield per unit of water applied. This
shift usually involves deficit irrigations and the duration of stress, the marketable
plant product and the stage of growth when stress occurs. One must consider the
economics of deficit irrigation by comparing the savings that result from reducing
deficit irrigation to achieve the reductions and the value of crop yield lost that
may accompany reduced irrigation.
2. Limited water supply conditions
The following points may be considered for managing limited or deficit water
supply for getting maximum yield and profit.
3
 Dryland Horticulture

a. Deep soils that have moderately high water holding capacities are suited to
deficit irrigation.
b. Drought resistant crops
c. Crop growth stage at which irrigation deficits are imposed
d. Pre-plant irrigation is needed or not, conveyance and application efficiency,
water infiltration rates and runoff, thus reducing required application amounts
e. Precipitation need to be considered for crop water requirements
f. Cultural practices need to be modified to reduce the ET.
a. Deep soils that have moderately high water holding capacities
The amount of water stored in the soil profile and available to a crop to
supplement low irrigation rates during high water use periods is an important
factor in limited irrigation. Moderate to high amounts of stored water allow water
deficits to develop gradually and thus improve the plants9 ability to stand water
stress. Small amounts of water allow rapid development of stress within the plant
and increase the risk of yield reduction. Low storage may be due to shallow root
restricting layers, coarse textures or subsoil depleted of available water. A soil
with a coarse surface texture but under laid by fine material may store enough
profile water to be productive under deficit
irrigation.
b. Use of drought resistant crops
Drought resistance is the ability of a crop to grow satisfactorily in areas subject to
deficit water. Mechanisms or adaptations have evolved in higher plants that
favour survival and growth with inadequate or irregular water supplies. These
mechanisms have been classified as drought escape, avoidance and tolerance.
c. Growth stages of the crop
Water is essential for the growth of plants from germination through physiological
maturity but the sensitivity to water deficit changes during the growing season.
Increased water-use efficiency can be achieved though selection of the crops to
be grown according to the expected water supplies (rain and irrigation) and by
consideration of the stage of plant growth at which water stress is imposed. Crop
production should be timed so that the most sensitive stages of plant
development will be completed when deficient water is least likely. A major factor
is the marketable plant product, whether vegetative growth, a seed, or a fruit.
4
 Dryland Horticulture

Because of the great variation among species in the harvested plant part and in
the sensitivity to water stress at various growth stages, it is appropriate to discuss
crops in general groups.
i) Crops grown for seed or grain
Growth stages for this group can be classified roughly as early vegetative,
reproductive and seed fill. The decrease in yield and quality of seed due to water
stress is markedly influenced by the growth stage at which the stress occurs. It is
generally accepted that water stress causes the most crop injury and yield
reduction when it occurs during reproduction, especially during pollination.
Excess water stress at this time can irreversibly damage crops to such an extent
that yields are reduced, regardless of later water regimes. Flowering and
pollination are usually associated with high rates of wateruse so internal water
stress can develop rapidly if soil water is deficient. The early vegetative and seed
maturation stages of development are only slightly sensitive to water stress.
ii) Vegetable crops
Vegetable crops are sensitive to water stress because the marketable product is
usually a fresh fruit, tuber or vegetative growth. In these crop products the water
content at harvest is an important quality item. They are more sensitive to water
deficits than crops grown for dry matter. These crops can tolerate mild stress and
then resume near normal growth when the stress is alleviated. Potatoes are
considered to be high water users and the marketable product is the tubers.
Deficit irrigation during tuber development will cause small tubers and reduce
yields. Both total yield and quality (marketable yield) are affected by water stress
and this effect varies greatly with the cultivar. Tomato production is sensitive to
water deficits in the flowering stage. Stress at this time can cause shedding of
young fruits.
iii) Fruit trees
Irrigation requirements for fruit trees differ from those of field crops in several
important aspects: (1) several years usually are required from planting until a
marketable yield is produced (2) water is major component of the commercial
product, the fleshy part of the reproductive organ (3) there is a long-term
cumulative response of fruit trees to water regime and (4) the crop is relatively
high-valued compared to the cost of irrigation. Proper irrigation according to
5
 Dryland Horticulture

specific requirements of the tree under specific climatic and soil conditions will
have a marked effect on the yield and quality of product. When an orchard is first
established, transpiration is very low because of the small crop canopy. Most
water is lost from the soil by evaporation and the transpiration is minimum from
the trees. Considerable savings in irrigation water can be achieved by eliminating
this superfluous ET. One way to do this is by using drip irrigation. With drip
irrigation only a small volume of soil near the tree is kept wet, eliminating any
application between trees. Roots are effectively restricted to the wetted volume
and this has caused apple trees to set fruit one or two years earlier than when
sprinkler irrigation was used. After a full canopy had developed, differences in
irrigation water requirements due to the method of application were small.
A successful flowering and pollination period is essential to a fruit crop. With
deciduous trees, this stage of growth occurs before leaf development, while ET is
low and there usually is soil water available from winter precipitation. Water
stress during blossoming and fruit setting is less likely than during fruit
development and maturation. A recent development in fruit production is the
manipulation of the root/shoot ratio through use of regulated deficit irrigation.
By withholding or reducing irrigation during the early season, when fruit growth
is slow, excessive vegetative growth is controlled. Resumption of full irrigation
when the fruit grows rapidly assures a high quality fruit. The period of deficit
irrigation stimulates later fruit growth with the result of more fruit on a smaller
tree, compared with full season irrigation.
It is essential that soil water be easily available during the time of rapid fruit
growth and maturation. Fruits that mature under a water deficit are small with
low water content and high soluble solids. This negative effect of water stress on
fruit size and water content may be more important in the market place than the
total yield.
An evergreen fruit crop such as citrus requires water throughout the year. They
are also grown widely in arid and semiarid regions so that more consideration
must be given to an adequate soil water supply during blossoming and fruit
setting than with deciduous trees. Water requirements for citrus vary widely both
among species and with differences among locations. The cumulative response of
citrus to wet and dry irrigation regimes was demonstrated in Israel for a young
6
 Dryland Horticulture

grove. Yields at all irrigation levels increased each year but the rate of increase
was much higher with adequate than with inadequate irrigation.
d. Preplant irrigation
Pre-plant irrigation accomplishes several objectives. Three are important (i)
Storing water in the soil profile for later crop use (ii) Germinating weed seeds so
the seedlings are killed in the preparatory tillage before planting and (iii) Providing
adequate seed zone water for germination, emergence and early crop
development.
e. Precipitation needs to be considered for crop water requirements
The precipitation is to be taken into account in working out water needs of crops.
The contribution of precipitation in reducing the irrigation requirement is
achieved by using it for stand establishment, partial wetting of the profile for
intake of rain water, reducing runoff due to precipitation and withholding
irrigation at the time of precipitation and timely withdrawal of irrigation at the
end of growing season.
f. Cultural practices need to be modified to reduce the ET
Conservation tillage, residue management, moderate plant densities, flexible
planting dates, short duration crops and use of fallow are some of the cultural
practices considered under limiting irrigated situations to reduce the ET.
Water use for maximum profit of garden/orchard ecosystem:
The returns for the water applied can be calculated as rupees per ha-cm of water
applied. A higher level of return is possible by enhancing the profit and reducing
the water utilized. This may be achieved by the following way.
_ Selection of high value crop and high yielding varieties
_ Optimum plant population
_ Optimum production packages for higher yield
_ Minimizing water loss during irrigation
_ Suitable method of irrigation for minimizing irrigation water requirement
_ Scheduling of irrigation by following scientific principles
_ Reducing cost of production
2. ECONOMIC & CONJUNCTIVE USE OF WATER:

7
 Dryland Horticulture

Any approach to water resources management that takes the linkages within the
water cycle systematically into account may be called 8Conjunctive Water
Management9.
Conjunctive Water Management is an approach to water resources management
in which surface water, groundwater and other components of the water cycle
are considered as one single resource, and therefore are managed in closest
possible coordination, in order to maximize overall benefits from water at the
short and at the long term
The new concept of <Conjunctive Use of Water= is a wise use of water resources
in an integrated manner. New water resource development is increasingly costly
and often environmentally prohibited. Two types of conjunctive use of water will
be discussed: conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater; and wastewater
reclamation/reuse.
It is obvious; however, that wastewater contains pathogenic microorganisms and
toxic substance. Therefore, once the contaminated water is reclaimed and used
for several purposes such as irrigation, non-potable urban use, industrial use, or
groundwater recharge, it may cause the outbreak of waterborne diseases. The
health protection from the use of reclaimed water is one of the most critical
objectives in any water reuse project. The potential health risks associate with
wastewater reclamation and reuse are related to the extent of direct exposure to
pathogenic organisms and chemicals in reclaimed water. The procedures for
protecting public health is summarized in the Guidelines for Water Reuse by
United States Environmental Protection Agency as follows; (1) reducing
concentrations of pathogenic bacteria, parasites, and enteric viruses in the
reclaimed water, (2) controlling chemical constituents in reclaimed water, and/or
(3) limiting public exposure (contact, inhalation, ingestion) to the reclaimed water
Conjunctive Use of Surface Water and Groundwater
Groundwater and Surface Water, and Their Interaction
 The hydrologic cycle has three basic parts: the atmosphere, the surface
water, and the groundwater.

8
 Dryland Horticulture

 To understand the hydrologic cycle, the concept of flow and stock of water
is important. It is said that the amount of water stored in the atmosphere is
5.6 percent of the total surface water and is 0.0009 percent of the sum of
global water in the global water budged.
 Water flows through the atmosphere are the precipitation and evaporation.
 The balance between these two flows controls the water resource in a
region.
 The variation of precipitation and evaporation is significant and seasonal.
 The fluctuation of precipitation results in variation of flow in surface water
network. In order to withdraw constant amount of water from surface
water flow, it is essential to compensate variation of flow rate in surface
water.
 This operation is storing water in reservoir.
 The groundwater moves much more slowly than the surface water, and
flow rate often measured in meters per year.
 The residence times for a groundwater system may range from months to
hundred years. Notably, the movement of groundwater is dependent on
the media of aquifer.There is an interaction between surface water and
groundwater.
 If the water table stands higher than the river stage, groundwater may enter
the stream as base-flow. Normally, groundwater discharge can make up
most of the stream flow during dry months.
 Many perennial streams recharge the subsurface formation in some
portion upstream of their reach, while groundwater discharge appears in
the streams farther downstream
Conjunctive Use of Surface Water and Groundwater
Most conjunctive use of surface and groundwater systems has developed for
one of those two reasons: (1) Water resource of either surface water or
groundwater could not meet the water demand or (2) the quality of
groundwater was poor and mixing of groundwater with surface water was
required to improve the water quality.

9
 Dryland Horticulture

In the viewpoint of the watershed, there are two parallel stocks and flows: one
is the surface watershed and the other is the underlying groundwater
watershed. The surface watershed has quick-response characteristics (surface
runoff).
The groundwater system response slowly (groundwater movement), but it has
large storage capacity. The capacity of underground aquifer as a reservoir and
the difference in response characteristics are utilized for wise use of water
resource.
Supposing the following watershed;
• In this region, there are two seasons; dry and wet season.
• Unfortunately, this watershed does not have enough capacity for surface
water storage.
• In dry season, stored water in the reservoir cannot meet the water demand.
• Due to the slow response character of groundwater system, enough water
cannot penetrate into groundwater system in wet season. In dry season,
groundwater system cannot support surface water well. The introduction of
the conjunctive concept to the watershed;
• Use excess water for recharging groundwater in the wet season.
• Use the large storage capacity of groundwater system,
• Withdraw water stored in the groundwater system in dry season. This
concept is applicable also to the yearly variation of precipitation. The basin is
directly or indirectly recharged in years of above-average precipitation so that
groundwater could be extracted in years of below-average precipitation when
surface water supplies are below normal.
3. MICRO SYSTEM OF IRRIGATION:
The micro irrigation system can be classified in respect to variety of
parameters. The micro irrigation system can be classified in respect to variety

10
 Dryland Horticulture

of parameters. The micro irrigation encompasses several ways of water

application to plants: Drip, spray, subsurface and bubbler irrigation.
Drip Irrigation
Drip or trickle irrigation is the newest of all commercial methods of water
application. It is described as the frequent, slow application of water to soils
through mechanical devices called emitters or applicators located at selected
points along the delivery lines. The emitters dissipate the pressure from the
distribution system by means of orifices, vortexes and tortuous or long flow
paths, thus allowing a limited volume of water to discharge. Most emitters are
placed on the ground, bu they can also be buried. The emitted water moves
within the soil system largely by unsaturated flow. The wet soil area for widely
spaced emitters will be normally elliptical in shape. Since the area wetted by
each emitter is a function of the soil hydraulic properties, one or more
emission points per plant may be necessary.
Spray Irrigation
Spray irrigation is a form of irrigation in which pressurized water is sprayed
over plants to provide them with water. This type of irrigation is also
sometimes called sprinkler irrigation, and it is very widely used all over the
world. The spray irrigation sizes can be designed for all size of farms, ranging
from a home sprinkler to keep a lawn green to industrial sized sprinklers used
to irrigate crops.
The application of water by a small spray or mist to the soil surface, water
travel through the air becomes instrumental in the distribution of water. In
this category two types of equipment are in use viz., micro-sprayers and micro-
sprinklers. Micro-sprayers and static micro jets are non-rotating type with flow
rates ranging from 20 to 150 litre/hour, where as, micro-sprinklers are rotating
type with flow rates ranging from 100 to 300 litre/ Hour.
This system is similar to the way one may water lawn at home- stand there
with a hose and spray the water in all directions. The system can simply bel
long hoses with sprinklers along the length or a center-pivot system that

11
 Dryland Horticulture

transverses a circle in the fields. With a spray irrigation system, the irrigation
sprinklers may be fixed in place, or located on movable frames. Some sprinkler
heads will only spray in one direction, requiring careful placement, while
others will rotate as they spray, and delivering water across a broader area.
Rotating heads are often preferred because it allows for the installation of
single sprinkler array to cover a big area.
The center-pivot system have a number of metal frames ( on rolling wheels)
that hold the water tube out into the fields. Electric motors move each frame
in a big circle around the fields ( the tube is fixed at the water source at the
center of circle), squirting water. The depth of water applied determined by
the rate of travel of the system. Single units are ordinarily about 1,250 to 1300
feet long and irrigate about a 130 - acre circular area. In high-pressure systems,
there can be very big water guns along the tube.
A more < modern= alternative to the high-pressure water guns is the low -
pressure sprinkler system. Here, water is gently sprayed downward onto
plants instead of being shot high in the air. Low pressure systems are more
efficient in that much less water evaporates or is blown off the fields, if there
is a strong wind present.
Sources of water for spray irrigation vary. The utilization of treated
wastewater should be encouraged. This is an environmentally friendly choice
which reduces the demand for fresh water, nourishes the plants, and reduces
wastewater runoff into waterways. Treated wastewater can be used on
ornamental crops and landscaping, but it may be banned for use on crops. The
source of water can be from wells, reservoirs, rivers, lakes and streams.
Sub - Surface System
It is a system in which water is applied slowly below the land surface through
emitters. Such systems are generally preferred in semi permanent/
permanent installations.
Subsurface drip irrigation ( SDI) is a low - pressure high efficiency irrigation
system that uses buried drip tubes or drip tape to meet crop water needs. SDI

12
 Dryland Horticulture

technologies have been a part of irrigated agriculture since the 1960s; with
the technology advancing rapidly in the last two decades. A SDI system is a
flexible and can provide frequent light irrigation. This is especially suitable for
arid, semi-arid, hot, and windy areas with limited water supply. Farm
operations also become free of impediments that normally exist above ground
with any other pressurized irrigation system. Since the water is applied below
the soil surface, the effect of surface infiltration characteristics, such as
crusting, saturated condition of pounding water, and potential surface runoff
( including soil erosion) are eliminated during irrigation. With an appropriately
sized and well-maintained SDI system, water application is highly uniform and
efficient. Wetting occurs around the tube and water moves out in all
directions. Subsurface irrigation saves water and improves yields by
eliminating surface water evaporation and reducing the incidence of disease
and weeds. Water is applied directly to the root zone of the crop and not to
the soil surface where most weed weeds winter over. As a result, germination
of annual weed seed is greatly reduced, and lowers weed pressure on
beneficial crops. In addition, some crops may benefit from the additional heat
provided by dry surface conditions , producing more crop biomass, provided
water is sufficient in the root zone. When managed properly, water and
fertilizer application efficiencies are enhanced, and labor needs are reduced.
Field operations are also possible, even when irrigation is applied.
Bubbler System
In this system the water is applied to the soil surface in a small stream or
fountain. The discharge rate for point source bubbler emitters is greater than
the drip or subsurface emitters but generally less than 225 litre/ hour. Since
the emitter discharge rate generally exceeds the infiltration rate of the soil, a
small basin in usually required to contain or control the water. Bubbler
systems do not require elaborate filtration systems. These are suitable in
situations where large amount of water need to be applied in a short period of
time and suitable for irrigating trees with wide root zones and high water
requirements.

13
 Dryland Horticulture

Course Name Dryland Horticulture

Lesson 10
Selection Of Plants Having Drought Resistance
Content Creator V.P.SANTHI
University Name Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Course Reviewer SANGRAM SAHEBRAO DHUMAL

University Name Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth,Rahuri

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 Dryland Horticulture

Objectives of the lecture:

 To learn about the plant selection having drought resistance

Glossary of terms
- The area where annual rainfall or precipitation
counter-balance the evapotranspiration and
1. Dryland
provides limited length of growth period for
growing crops
- A prolonged dry period in the natural climate
2. Drought
cycle that can occur anywhere in the world
3. Soil salinity - The amount of dissolved salts in the soil solution
- A micro catchment is a specially contoured area
with slopes and berms designed to increase
4. Micro catchments runoff from rain and concentrate it in a planting
basin where it infiltrates and is effectively
<stored= in the soil profile.
- Antitranspirants are compounds applied to the
5. Antitranspirants
leaves of plants to reduce transpiration.

The flora of a locality is the result of matching of its climate with climatic
requirement of the plants and plants come up in places where their heat unit and
humidity requirements are met. Therefore, the flora of a climatic zone is
characteristic to the climate of that place. Thus the distribution of horticultural
crops is determined almost entirely by climatic factors, the most important of
which is temperature. In the hot arid zone of India, temperature and humidity
conditions are ideally suited for growing of fruits of high quality like date, ber,
grave, fig, olive, pomegranate, citrus, papaya, grapes etc. However, there are
hardly any orchards in this region in spite of great potential. It is therefore,
necessary to analyze the limitations and look for crops which can stand these
limitations and provide sustained income to prospective growers.

2
 Dryland Horticulture

1.LIMITATIONS OF DRYLANDS
There are a number of limitations in dry land conditions which hinder
successful cultivation of horticultural crops. These problems relate to soil and its
types and moisture and its quality.
I. Land use capability classes:
Soil types available in dry land situations are of very low capability. Most
of the soils are of class VI, IV, II in that order.
II. Cultivation of annual crops is very risky and fit only for pastures. With
meticulous management they can be advantageously utilized for high
value fruit crops.
III. Saline soil and saline irrigation water:

The dryland soils are largely saline with pH ranging from 8 to 9. The
underground water is scarce and highly saline. This limits the fruit culture
to only salinity tolerant fruit crops.
IV. Intense radiation:
In dry lands, radiation is very intense ranging between 500 to 600 cal/cm2
days during summer. At times it may adversely affect photosynthesis due
to limitation of CO2. At the same time transpiration both stomatal and
cuticular and leaf temperature aggravating the problem of limited
moisture. This also creates problem of sun burning in developing fruits.
Besides these limitations, dusty winds are common in summer months which
would hinder fruit setting and development and increase transpiration and cause
mechanical injury to trees. Therefore, choice of the fruit crops for drylands is very
important demanding careful selection for successful cultivation.
2.SELECTION OF TREE CROPS FOR DRYLANDS
In the strategy of development of horticulture in dry lands of India, correct
selection of fruit crops is of prime significance. The crops should have following
attributes.

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 Dryland Horticulture

1. In dry land areas the crop selected must be such that its maximum growth
period synchronizes with the period of maximum water availability and low
vapours pressure deficit in the atmosphere. Ideally the period from
flowering to fruiting, it must also fall during this period and fruit ripening
must be completed well before the onset of summers. In brief the crop
should be able to complete maximum vegetative growth and reproductive
phase during the period of maximum water availability. During the
monsoon up to September starting from May in South India and from July
in North India the soil and atmospheric moisture stress is low. The fruits
such as ber, custard apple, phalsa, Cordia myxa (Gonda / Lehsua) conform
to this condition. Otherwise the crops selected should be such that their
reproductive cycle can be monitored to synchronize with maximum
moisture availability periods e.g. the crops like guava, pomegranate, acid
lime which bear fruits in distinct bahars and the bahar (flush) which
coincides with rainy season (Mrig bahar) can only be encouraged.
2. Since the water is a limiting factor in dryland areas, the crops selected for
such areas should have drought tolerance mechanism like (a) deep root
system to draw water from deeper soil profile like ber, mango, walnut etc.
(b) leaf shedding in summer to conserve moisture like ber and gonad
(Cordia myxa), (c) water binding mechanism as in fig and (d) other xeric
characters like wax coating, hairiness, sunken and covered stomata on
leaves to minimize the loss of water through transpiration as in fig, phalsa,
ber and gonad ( Cordia myxa) and reduced leaf area (as in aonla).
3. Crops for dry lands should have tolerance to salinity and saline water and
alkalinity which are common features of these areas. Fruits like aonla, grape
and ber have great tolerance to pH and can row in the range of 9.2 to 10.5
and their tolerance limit to salt is being depicted in Table below.
Salt tolerance limit
Plants ECe pH/ESP
Aonla 15 40ESP
Ber 14 30ESP
Grape 7 9.0pH

4
 Dryland Horticulture

Guava 8 9.0pH
Karonda - 10.0pH
Mulberry - 9.5pH

4. Dry atmosphere and high heat accumulation is the hall mark of majority of
Indian drylands. The crops requiring these type of climates or adaptable to
these climates may be chosen like date palm, grapes and papaya. Similarly
intense radiation is another important feature of climate in drylands. The
crops with good canopy to shade fruits and protect them from sun burning
could be chosen like 8Kinnow= mandarin which has tolerance against
drought as well as bears fruits inside well formed canopy.
5. Dry lands are characterized by shallow, rocky, gravelly and undulating
wasteland soils and the crops adaptable to such conditions like aonla,
pomegranate, cashew could be chosen. In high rainfall areas crop selection
is based on the resistance to diseases and pests owing to high humidity
conditions and adaptability to water stagnation e.g. mango, jackfruit,
tamarind, mahua, persimmon, avocado, Kokum, palmyra palm etc.
6. Variety selected or evolved for dryland conditions should be short duration
i.e. early varieties, so that they can complete their fruiting period in shortest
possible time to evade drought conditions. Varietal requirements for dry
farming:
 Short stemmed varieties with limited leaf surface minimize transpiration.
 Deep, prolific root system enhances moisture utilization.
 Quick maturing varieties are important in order that the crop may develop
prior to the hottest and driest part of the year and mature before moisture
supplies are completely exhausted.
3.Special Techniques for orchard management in dry farming areas
While analyzing the special features of crops suitable for dry farming
situations, it has been visualized that the potential of fruit culture in such areas is
immense. To make this venture more successful and economically viable, it is
desirable to overcome some of the impediments which are inherent in dry land
region through management skills and use of common sense. It is known that

5
 Dryland Horticulture

availability of water and quality of underground water are the most important
impediments in the cultivation of horticultural crops in this area. Similarly adverse
weather, soil salinity and shallow, rocky-and gravelly soils are other limitations.
To modify or remove these limitations a number of special techniques have been
developed through experimentation and experience.
3.a.SOME OF THESE TECHNIQUES ARE AS UNDER
1. For water use efficiency
a) Provision of micro catchments around the trees:
In dryland areas, average annual precipitation is very low which
makes horticulture difficult. Since dryland soils have high infiltration rate as
well as runoff losses due to concentrated rains, the idea here is to develop
catchment areas for each tree, the size of which is determined by the slope
of the land, water requirement for optimum production, runoff coefficient
and the canopy of the fruit tree (feeding zone). A fruit like fig, almond,
peach, grapes etc are being successfully grown in such micro catchments in
Israel. Fruits like grape, fig, and pistachio are being raised similarly in the
USA. In grapes ,10 units of catchment for every one unit of cultivated area
has been found optimum; similarly the linear catchment area determined
for fig, pistachio and olive are respectively 3:1, 4:1 and 5:1 which are
estimated to provide 80 percent of water requirements.
b) Crescent bunding and opening of catch pits:
Crescent shaped or semi circular bunds with a diameter of 6 to 13
meters (depending on the space requirements of individual fruit trees) are
prepared and catch pits are also dug at the same time on the upper side of
the slope. The trees are planted at the center of the crescent. While the
crescent bunds help collect rainwater, the catch pits conserve the same.
New pits are opened as the old ones get filled with silt or organic matter.
c) Planting on terraces:
In hilly areas depending on the spacing requirement and slope of the
land broad terraces are recommended to be prepared with the slope
towards the higher elevation and trees be planted. Such terraces help in
conservation of moisture and support plant growth.

6
 Dryland Horticulture

d) Trench planting:
Deep trenches (0.5 to 1.0 m) are dug across the contours and fruit
spp. such as ber, aonla, anonas and custard apple are planted. The trenches
collect rain water along with silt and organic matter and thus promote tree
growth. Planting of pineapple in trenches is common under dry conditions.
e) Windbreak and shelterbelts:
Under dry lands fruit crops undergo heavy damage by frequent winds
in the form of water loss through evapotranspiration and dust deposition,
mechanical damage to plants and soil erosion. S single row of plantation of
Acacia tortillas for arid tract in North India has been found useful. Along
with these wind-breaks an inward row of any fruit crop can also be planted
like Cordia myxa, tamarind, jamun, jackfruit etc., depending upon the
location. These will effectively reduce the wind velocity and maintain
humidity, thus ensure water saving and provide micro-climate favorable for
good growth.
f) Mulching:
Mulch is a loose layer of extraneous material, such as hay, straw, cut
grass, dry leaves, plastic etc., on soil surface to minimize the evaporation of
water from soil especially in dry lands. Besides conserving moisture, it also
suppresses weed growth, prevents soil erosion and adds organic matter to
the soil.
g) Use of antitranspirants:
Antitranspirants are chemicals, which when sprayed on plants form a
film which increases the diffusion resistance of water from stomata and
thus reduces transpiration losses of water. Several antitranspirants have
been successfully utilized on fruit trees like Acropyl in grape vines, polycot
(Tag) in banana, Kaolinite (3-8%) in several fruit species. Their uses can be
extended to dryland fruit species to overcome water stress.
h) Use of drip irrigation:
Drip irrigation is a method of watering plants at a rate equivalent to
its consumptive use so that plants would not suffer any moisture stress
throughout their life cycle. It is not only an efficient mode of water use but
also important in management of soils irrigated by saline water for irrigation
7
 Dryland Horticulture

without allowing accumulation of salts in root zone. In long run it is

economical and efficient but boon for dry lands for high value crops like fruit
cops.
2. Fruit crops for shallow soils:
Usually dry land soils are shallow and have hardpan in subsoil which
cannot subsist perennial crops. However, for such situations the fruit
species selected should be able to thrive like pomegranate and custard
apple. On the other hand crop9s roots of which can penetrate through hard
pan should be selected e.g. ber (zyazyphus mauritiana) kair (Capparis
decidua) and Lehsua (Cordia myxa).
3. Salinity problem:
Wide occurrence of salinity and saline underground water are common
features of dry farming areas of India. They affect plants by changing
osmotic potential and specific ion effect. Such problems could be tackled by
following approach.
a) Use of salinity tolerant crops:
There is wide variation in salt tolerance of fruit crops. If potential salinity problem
is indicated, suitable crops can be chosen. Datepalm, ber, aonla, pomegranate,
fig, guava, kair, pilu have great tolerance to such conditions. However, most of
the crops are relatively sensitive during early stage of growth. When the plants
are well established they can tolerate high concentration of salt.
Table: Relative tolerance of fruit crops to salinity.
Tolerant Moderately tolerant Sensitive
(8mmhos) (6 to 3mmhos) (3 to 1.5mmhos)
Date palm Fig Peach
Ber Orange Apricot
Pomegranate Lemon Avocado
Phalsa Mango Almond
Aonla Grapefruit Plum
Custard apple Grape
Kair

8
 Dryland Horticulture

Pilu
Guava

b) Planting techniques:
Soil working techniques should be such that the rain water is utilized to the
maximum extent possible and the salt concentration in root zone is kept to the
minimum level through leaching. Micro catchment of 4 to 6 percent additional
runoff water in root zone and help in leaching of accumulated salts.
Pits prepared for planting could either be located in better patches or the pits can
be filled with imported soils and separated from original soils by providing a
polythene lining in between so that young plants can establish well. Thereafter,
the tolerant plant species may not be injured. In 8alkali soils, deep pits with the
addition of gypsum @ 5kg and FYM@ 20 kg give better results.
c) Irrigation management:
Schedule irrigation with saline water 4 to5 days prior to normal irrigation
schedule and provide additional depth of irrigation water to meet the leaching
requirement (0.3 leaching fraction), maintains adequate water supply to the plant
and low salinity in soil. Use of drip method is still a better option to manage saline
irrigation water and salinity problem.
d) Use of salt tolerant root stock:
To extend the scope of fruit cultivation in saline situations of drylands, salt
tolerant root stock can be utilized like bordi (Ziziphus mauritiana var. rotundifolia)
for ber, ramphal (Annona reticulate) for custard apple and Rangpur lime,
Cleopetra mandarin, Tryer and Jallandhri Khatti for various citrus species such as
sweet orange and mandarins.
4. Selection of suitable cultivars for dry farming situations:
Since water is a limiting factor in dry land areas, selection of early cultivars
provide distinct advantage over late cultivars in this region in escaping drought.

9
 Dryland Horticulture

Suitable cultivars have been identified Fruits, Vegetables, Medical and Aromatic,
Spices.
To epitomize, it can be brought out that by selecting suitable fruit species and
their cultivars and adopting modern techniques of soil and water management,
fruit cultivation in dry land can become a reality. It will not only help develop dry
wastelands but also add to quality of life of people living in this region of the
country.
References

1. Lenka,D.2005. In Book : Irrigation and drainage. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi

- 110 002 . Pages- 327
2. F.A. Banday and M. K Sharma. 2018. In Book: Advances in Temperate Fruit
Production. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. pages: 387
3. Bimal Chandra Mal. 2013. In Book: Introduction to Soil and water
conservation engineering surveying, Irrigation, Drainage and Soil
Conservation. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. 429 pages
4. V.V.N. Murthy and Madan K. Jha. 2013. In Book. Land and water management
engineering. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002.pages: 604
5. Ganesaraj,V, V.K. Paul Pandi, R. Balasubramanian., T. Myrtle Grace and K.
Balakrishnan. 2010. In Book : Irrigation agronomy. Associated Publishing
Company . Pages : 237
6. Saroj, P.L, B. Varshishta, D.G. Dhander. 2004. In Book. Advances in Arid
Horticulture. International Book distributing CO. Pages: 628
7. Jat, M.L. P. Singh, S.R. Bhakar, S.K. Sharma. In Book : Drought management.
2010. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002. Pages : 428
8. Suresh, R. 2019. In Book. Soil and water conservation engineering. Standard
Publisher Distributors. Pages :1089

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 Dryland Horticulture

Course Name Dryland Horticulture

Special techniques, planting & after care use of
Lesson 11
seedling races.
Content Creator V.P.SANTHI
University Name Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Course Reviewer SANGRAM SAHEBRAO DHUMAL

University Name Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth,Rahuri

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 Dryland Horticulture

Objectives of the lecture:

To learn about the Special techniques, planting & after care use of seedling races,
rootstocks , insitu grafting , deep pitting / planting, Canopy management.
Glossary of terms
- The combination of two separate processes
whereby water is lost on the one hand from the
1. Evapotranspiration
soil surface by evaporation and on the other hand
from the crop by transpiration
- Antitranspirants are compounds applied to the
2. Antitranspirants
leaves of plants to reduce transpiration.
3. Mulch - A layer of material applied to the surface of soil
Rainfed - Describes horticultural practices that rely on
4.
horticulture rainfall water
- Process of a substance in a liquid state changing
5. Evaporation to gaseous state due to increase in temperature
and pressure.

DRYLAND TECHNOLOGIES

A..TECHNIQUES TO REDUCE EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION LOSS

A.a.REDUCING EVAPORATION LOSSES

Soil moisture is the most limiting factor in dryland agriculture. It is lost as

evaporation from the soil surface and as transpiration from the plant surfaces.
Evaporation has to be arrested as it is not directly related to productivity whereas
transpiration can be reduced to some extent without affecting productivity of
plants. The evaporation losses can be reduced by:

2
 Dryland Horticulture

1. Mulches
2. Antitranspirants
3. Wind breaks
4. Weed control

1.Mulches

About 60 to 75 per cent of the rainfall is lost through evaporation. These

evaporation losses can be reduced by applying mulches. Mulch is any material
applied on the soil surface to check evaporation and improve soil water.
Application of mulches results in additional benefits like soil conservation,
moderation of temperature, reduction in soil salinity, weed control and
improvement of soil structure.

Types of mulches
i.Soil mulch or dust mulch:

If the surface of the soil is loosened, it acts as a mulch for reducing evaporation.
This loose surface soil is called soil mulch or dust mulch. Intercultivation creates
soil mulch in a growing crop.

ii.Stubble mulch

Crop residues like wheat straw or cotton stalks etc., are left on the soil surface as
a stubble mulch. The advantages of stubble mulch farming are protection of soil
from erosion and reduction of evaporation losses.

iii.Straw mulch

If straw is used as mulch, it is called as straw mulch.

iv.Plastic mulch

Plastic materials like polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride are also used as mulching
materials.

3
 Dryland Horticulture

v.Vertical mulching

To improve infiltration and storage of rainwater in these soils, vertical mulches

are formed. It consists of digging narrow trenches across the slope at intervals
and placing the straw or crop residues in these trenches. The pruned plant
material is placed in contour trenches formed between rows or in trenches
around the plants in concentric circles each year in one circle.

A.b.REDUCING TRANSPIRATION LOSSES

A.b.1.Antitranspirants

About 99 per cent of the water absorbed by the plants is lost in transpiration. If
transpiration is controlled, it may help in maintenance of favourable water
balance.

Antitranspirant is any material applied to transpiring plant surfaces for reducing

water loss from the plant. These are of four types:

1. Stomatal Closing
2. Film forming
3. Reflective
4. Growth retardant

i.Stomatal Closing type

Most of the transpiration occurs through the stomata on the leaf surface.

1. Fungicides like Phenyl Mercuric Acetate (PMA) and herbicides like atrazine
in low concentrations serve as antitranspirants by inducing stomatal
closing.

These might reduce the photosynthesis also simultaneously. PMA was found to
decrease transpiration to a greater degree than photosynthesis in a number of
plants.

4
 Dryland Horticulture

ii.Film Forming Type

Plastic and waxy materials which form a thin film on the leaf surface retard the
escape of water due to formation of physical barrier.
Mobileaf, hexadeconol, silicone are some of the film forming type of
antitranspirants. The success of these chemicals is limited since they also reduce
photosynthesis.

The desirable characteristics of film forming type of antitranspirants are:

1. They should form a thin layer,

2. They should be more resistant to the passage of water vapour than carbon
dioxide and the film should maintain continuity and should not break

iii.Reflectant Type

These are white materials which form a coating on the leaves and increase the
leaf reflectance (albedo). By reflecting the radiation, they reduce leaf
temperatures and vapour pressure gradient from leaf to atmosphere and thus
reduce transpiration.

1. Application of 5 per cent kaolin spray reduces transpiration losses.

2. A diatomaceous earth product (celite) also increases reflection of solar
radiation from crop canopy

iv.Growth Retardant

These chemicals reduce shoot growth and increase root growth and thus enable
the plants to resist drought. They may also, induce stomatal closure.

1. Cycocel is one such chemical useful for improving water status of the plant

Antitranspirants generally reduce photosynthesis. Therefore, their use is limited

to save the crop from death under severe moisture stress. If crop survives, it can
utilise the rainfall that is received subsequently. Antitranspirants are also useful

5
 Dryland Horticulture

for reducing the transplantation shock of nursery plants. They have some practical
use in nurseries and horticultural crops.

A.b.2.WIND BREAKS AND SHELTERBELTS

Wind breaks are any structures that obstruct wind flow and reduce wind speed
while shelterbelts are rows of trees planted for protection of crops against wind.
The direction from which wind is blowing is called windward side and direction to
which wind is blowing is called leeward side.

Shelterbelts are planted across the direction of wind. They do not obstruct the
wind flow completely. Depending upon their porosity, certain amount of wind
passes through the shelterbelts while the rest deflects and crosses over the
shelterbelts. It thus reduces wind speed without causing turbulence. The
protection offered by the shelterbelts is dependent on the height of central tree
row in the shelterbelts. Generally, shelterbelts give protection from desiccating
winds to the extent of 5 to 10 times their height on windward side and up to 30
times on leeward side. Due to reduction in wind speed, evaporation losses are
reduced and more water is available for plants. The beneficial effect of
shelterbelts is seen more clearly in drought years. In addition, shelterbelts reduce
wind erosion.

A.b.3.WEED CONTROL

1. Prompt weed control eliminates the competition of weeds with crops for
limited soil moisture.
2. Transpiration rate from weeds is more compared to crops.
3. Effective weed control in dryland agriculture leads to increasing availability
of soil moisture to crops.

This is the most useful measure to reduce transpiration losses.

6
 Dryland Horticulture

A.b.4.Spraying nutrient solution

Nutrient solution spray is recommended in the event of revival of rain and

release of moisture stress.

o Urea or DAP spray (2% solution) is useful for quicker regeneration of

crops like legumes and castor after rain.

B. Plant selection

 Select and identified the crop which is suitable for dry land farming and also
which has more demand in that particular area. The main features of plants
are followed below.
 Deep root characteristic features (E.g. Ber, Mango, Custard, Jamun etc.)
 Grease coated surface leave / wax coated leaf plants (Eg: Ber)
 Disease and pest resistance variety.
 Flowering and fruiting period should be adjusted to rainy and winter
seasons receptivity (Eg: Guava, Amla and Custard)
 Adopted in less water / scarcity of water.
 Shedding of leaves when there is no fruits (Eg: Custard, Tamarind, Bur and
Guava) are selected.

i.Fruits crops grown in dry land are categorized into different types and are
followed below

1. Originality: Fruits growing in drought condition area: The various fruits trees
are (Bow, Banana, Jamoon, Drumstick, Custard apple etc.) grown in these
area.
2. Fruit crops should utilize available water from soil, when ever supplied

7
 Dryland Horticulture

 Several fruit trees like: Fig, Pomegranate, Guava, Amla and Custard apple
grows in less moisture area and all the metabolic activities initiates when
moisture is available.
 More yields can be obtained if water supply is available for 3-4 times. Water
conservation methods can also be adopted.
 If the availability of water is more in dry land farming then fruit crop like
lemon, papaya are cultivated.
 Usually it cannot be grown in dry land. The dry land fruit crops can be
cultivated if water structure like wells are constructed.

ii.Rain fed horticulture crop farming methods

 Few fruit, vegetables, medicinal and fragrance crop can be grown

successfully in dry land conditions.
 Deep rooted and perennial fruit crops are ideal in dry land farming.
 Traditionally rigid and drought resistance crop like Tamarind, Rose, Mango,
Chikku, Guava, Custard, Soursop, Ber, Pomegranate, Fig, Jack fruit etc. are
grown in dry land as commercial crop.
 In Karnataka, weather and soil condition are divided into three major parts.
List of area with suitable crop grown is given below.

Ground area: Mango, Chikku, Guava, Jackfruit, Cashew, Custard, Bur etc.

Coastal area: Rubber, early harvest variety Mango, Sapota, Soursop, Cashew, Jack
fruit, Guava, Coffee etc.

 Irrigating the dry land fruit crop during initial / first years continuously is
very essential.
 Advantage of growing fruits in dry land agriculture are, if there is loss in
annual crop then small amount fruit crop yield is obtained and dry land
horticultural crop are also cultivated in land where less income of food
crops is generated.


8
 Dryland Horticulture

iii.Dry land horticulture crop plantation and their management

 Cropping is adopted by considering slope of land, following soil and

moisture conservation methods and then transplantation is carried out.
 The suitable pits dimension for planting is 3 feet and 2 feet depth.
 Grow asexual and healthy grafted plants for transplantation each time.

 Grafted node is selected from 4-3 feet above the ground level and plants
are transplanted.
 Once the seedlings are transplanted they are tied to supporting structure to
avoid wind blow damage.
 After this, the ideal irrigation is required during summer season for one
year.
 Plants are protected from termites and suitable measures should be taken
care.
 Remove weeds, prepare pits, covered it for moisture conservation.
 Remove the lower leaves which emerge from grafted seedling / stock.
 Maintaining plants slope, removal of branches and twigs are necessary.
 Give recommend dose of fertilizer during rainy season and adopt
conservation methods.
 Alternate extra income is generated from mixed/mid farming.

iv.Water conservation methods in dry land horticulture:

1. Modification of micro water shed area: Each plant is provided with seed
bed, which mainly helps in absorbing of rain water. The criteria for
construction of micro water shed are selection slope area/land, water
requirement by crop, flow speed and plant canopy.
2. Constructing bunds in half moon slope: About 18-45 feet diameter of half
moon shape bunds are constructed to avoid water flow rate and run off.
Transplant the plants in mid portion of pit.

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 Dryland Horticulture

3. Leveled bunds (Stairs / terraces bunds): Depending up on the slop of land,

terraces/ stairs like structures are built with suitable width and height.
These stairs helps in water retention and absorption uniformly in all areas.
4. Depression pits: Dig open the deep canals (1.5-3 ft.) opposite to slope area
and transplant fruit crop like Ber, Amla, Custard apple etc. which grows well
by utilizing water collected in canals.
5. Farm ponds: Construct the farm pond near valley area. Initial months, the
collected water are used for irrigating. Construct the rim of bund with more
height than land surface.
6. Avoid wind blow: Grow tall trees in North-South direction to avoid wind
blow damage. The tree species also helps in retaining moisture is the field
(avoid evaporation). Best results are observed when the trees are planted
in triangular shape.
7. Coverage: Dry grass, dried leaves are covered on soil to avoid water
evaporation, weeds growth and soil erosion. Now a day black polythene
sheets are used for coverage.
8. Use of non evaporating materials: Some chemical materials sprayed on
leaves mainly slow down in evaporation process by formation thin sheet
layer. Various materials are in use presently. E.g.:, Acropol is used in grapes,
Polycarp is used in Banana crops etc.
9. Drip irrigation: In this irrigation system about 30-50% of water is conserved.
The well developed drip irrigation system, the equal amount of water of 5-
10 liters is supplied to each tree crop at same interval of time from small
drips closed with cotton.

V.Plantation methods

 In dry land horticulture, farmers can grow crop depending on his

requirement and circumstances. Once crop is grown the crop management
is easier.
 But in case of mixed farming, the income is generated by supplement crop
and also main crop.
 Pomegranate and Mango etc can be grown as main crop in mixed farming.

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 Dryland Horticulture

Mixed and distance farming: Mixed and distance farming methods and
combination are listed below.

Groundland area

 Mango + Custard + Pomegranate / Legumes / Oil seeds / Vegetable crops

 Sapota + Guava / Oil seed / Vegetable crops
 Custard / Bow + legume / grain crops / vegetable
 Tamarind / Jack fruit + legume / oil seeds / vegetable crops

Western Ghats region

Cashew + fodder crops

Rubber + Coffee + Fodder crop

Sapota / Mango + Fodder crops

Costal area

Cashew + Black pepper + Fodder crops

Rubber + Fodder crops

Sapota / Mango + Fodder crops

vi.Soil and water management

 To make dry land cultivation of horticultural crop successful, it is very

necessary to make use of natural resources available in conserved way
without any wastage.
 For example, construct pounds to harvest rain water, ground coverage,
establishment of side canals. In addition to this, open small ditch / trenches
and streepages. With all these implied measurements in field conditions,
deep rooted crops like Ber, Custard apple and Pomegranate are
recommended to cultivate.

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 Dryland Horticulture

 The process of irrigating planted seedling near the roots, supply water drop
wise slowly during course of water requirement from the plant, in equal
interval of time, at basal rate is called as drip irrigation.
 Drip irrigation technology 40-70% of water is economically used, and
available water is also supplied to 2-3% more area comparing to drainage
system of irrigation. The yield obtained is approximately more than 20%.
There are various methods of irrigating land.

1. Earthen vessel burial (Picher): porous pot vessels are placed near the root
of plant and filled with water, water is supplied slowly through porous at
required interval of time.
2. Drip irrigation / trough pipes

 More intensives are given by the government for cultivation practice in dry
land to conserve water and moisture content in land.
 It effect on the initial growth of plant during 1-2 years. It is constructed in
small water shed area depending upon soil type, level/sloppy land, rainfall
water, water size of bund etc. The development of small water sheds helps
in retaining water even if there is less rainfall near plants and farm land.
Proper measurements should be taken care to conserve water by
constructing bunds to avoid erosion losses by heavy rain fall.

A) Basin -shaped bed, B) V -shaped bed, C) Half moon -shaped bed, D) Inward
slope bed, E) Two -pit method, F) Button line - lying reefs and other methods

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Dryland Horticulture

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 Dryland Horticulture

C.AFTERCARE OPERATIONS

I.SOIL COVER

 In the dry zone soil is frequently dried up.

 Therefore you have to save water in the land by covering the land You can
use paddy straw.
 Lay paddy straw 6 away from the plant as a circle
 If you can lay paddy straw in whole cultivation field, that can be better.
 This will reduce the weed growth and add organic matter to the soil.

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 Dryland Horticulture

 It will alos ensure proper drainage.

II.WATERING

 Water is frequently use by the plant for their growth and production of foods.
 Therefore we have to supply water to fill their needs
 Avoid supplying excess water as well as avoid no water supply. That is we
called adequate water .
 Irrigation through drains
 If you have a cannel near the field you can practice cannel irrigation through
pumps or without pumps.
 You can pump water and allow to flow over the field.
 If you have drains in the field you can fill water in to the drains. Then plants
get water from it.
 In the first month you should supply water once a day in afternoon.

 After 1 month to 3 months use two days interval.

 3 months to 6 months 3-4 days interval.
 6 months to 12 months 5 days interval.

III.FERTILIZATION

i.Chemical fertilizers

 Chemical fertilizers contain chemicals , Urea, Triple super phosphate(TSP),

Muriate of Potash (MOP) are the 3 components
 Fertilizer mixtures vary according to the climatic zone.

 After first month of cultivating, add the mixture 1/ away from the plant as a
circle.

 After first month of cultivating, add the mixture 1/ away from the plant as a
circle.

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 Dryland Horticulture

 After 3 months of cultivating , add the mixture 2/ away from the plant as a
circle.

 After 3 months to 12 months, add the mixture 2/ away from the plant as a
circle within two months interval.

ii.Organic fertilizers

 Organic fertilizers are prepared by natural components.

 They are compost, cow dung, poultry manure or goat manure.
 You can prepare compost by your self as mentioned earlier.
 You should apply 5Kg for one bush in 3 months intervals

IV.BUSH MANAGEMENT

 If there are large numbers of plants around the mother plant you can’t get
high yield, due to lack of nutrients.
 You should destroy all suckers emerge until 4 months.
 After 4 months, you can maintain one sward sucker in the direction of
sunlight.
 When fruiting, you can maintain another healthy sward sucker in the
direction of sunlight.
 After 7-8 months from cultivating you can see fruiting of plants.

V.BRACT REMOVING

 Banana flower is an inflorescence.That means a bunch of flower. There are

rows of flower and they are covered with bract.
 In certain time bract is not opened for fertile
 Then you have to remove the bract after opening the bunch completely.

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 Dryland Horticulture

 The bract should be removed 15 cm below from the last hand.

 You also have to remove 1st hand of the bunch.
 Then you can ensure proper growth of other hands.

VI.BUNCH COVERING

 When 1st hand appears you have to cover the bunch using 2/ wide blue color
polythene bags with holes.
 You can increase bunch weight from 18%-23% by covering.
 Avoid thrips damage. Then there are not patches on the fruits.
 Tied the bag 6// above from the 1st bunch.

D.Insitu grafting:

In-situ patch budding for better establishment of bael in rainfed areas:

Bael (Aegle marmelos), is one of the very important indigenous fruit plant with
several medicinal uses. Because of its multifaceted uses, it may be more popular
in the time to come. Looking into the importance of this fruit, the demand for its
planting material is increasing day by day. To meet out the demand of genuine
planting material, the procedure of vegetative propagation was standardized for
generating quality planting material. From the studies of optimization of period
for in-situ patch budding, May and June (before onset of rain) is ideal time for
multiplication of bael genotypes under rainfed conditions of western India. The
technique of in-situ patch budding is being described in detail.
BAEL is naturally grown by seed in mixed dry deciduous forests of tropics and sub
- tropics of India. In the wasteland development and dryland horticulture, it
assumes great significance due to its multifarious uses and capacity to withstand
adverse climatic conditions. Bael exhibits a wide range of genetic diversity, yet
vegetative propagation techniques are required to conserve biodiversity and
reduce long juvenile phase in order to domesticate the crop at farmers’ fields.
Therefore in situ patch budding was attempted during 2011 and 2012 under semi-
arid tropics of western India. THE TECHNIQUE Sowing of Seeds The seeds of deshi
bael available at farm were extracted during April- May. They were sown in raised

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 Dryland Horticulture

nursery beds at 2-3 cm depth and watered. Seedlings were directly transplanted
in pits in the field at 3-5-leaf stage just after first rain. The seedlings became ready
after 8-12 for in-situ patch budding in the field condition. This method not only
saves time but also ensures higher success. Pits and Rootstock Planting Pits of 1
m × 1 m × 1 m size are prepared at 7m × 4 m spacing during March-April and they
are left open during summer for solarization. The pits are filled with a mixture of
top soil and 20-30 kg well-rotten farmyard manure. In order to ward off the
seedlings from the attack of termites, pit is drenched with chlorpyriphos (3ml /
liter water). With the onset of the monsoon season (midJune), the pit soil starts
settling down and the seedlings grown in nursery are planted in pits in June just
after first shower. Planting during drizzling rain is better for establishment of
rootstocks. After planting, soil around the seedlings is firmly pressed to avoid
formation of air pockets which ensures better survival of plant under rainfed
conditions. Patch budding Detopping and promotion of scion wood: For getting
vigorous and healthy scion shoots, the branches are detopped in April-May during
leaf less condition of the tree. The multiple axillary shoots arise below the cut
portion and attain the length of 50–60 cm in two months, and are vigorous and
healthy in growth, can be used as scion shoot with better success and survival
under rainfed conditions. Selection of bud wood: Bud wood becomes available
during the active growth from May onwards. The bud stick, 1-11/2 months old
having 20- 25 mm girth of current growth and recently matured buds (but still not
open) are collected. Over mature (basal portion of shoot) and immature and
undeveloped buds (upper part of the new shoots) are not used for bud selection.
Similarly, over mature and inactive buds should not be used. The active growth
period is indicated by easy and clear separation of the scion shoot from the wood
of scion sticks. After collection, bud wood stored for a while as it takes some time
in transportation. It has been observed that during this period, considerable loss
of survivability may take place. Bud woods retain good survival when kept under
ventilated shade and wrapped in moist jute cloth during storage and
transportation. In situ patch budding In this method, healthy buds are selected
from the axils of leaf. Leaf blade is removed with the help of a sharp knife leaving
petiole intact. The upper cut is given about 1 cm above bud which goes
downwards up to 1.0- 1.5 cm below the bud without wood portion and then lower
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 Dryland Horticulture

cut is given about 1.0 cm below the bud. The similar rectangular incision is made
on the rootstock by placing the bud on the rootstock so as to mark the exact size
of the bud on them and after removing the bark of rootstock, bud is placed at the
cut from where bark is removed. The bud is pressed by hand to remove airy space,
if any and tied tightly with white polythene strip (200-gauge thick and 2 cm wide)
leaving only the bud. In case, the cuts on rootstock are wider, it should be placed
in such a way that at least one side bark of scion and stock matches with the cut
surface. The rootstock is cut about 10-15 cm above the bud to facilitate bud to
sprout. The polythene strips should not be removed unless it is ensured that the
scion shoot has started sprouting and yielded growth. In bael, root system is very
vigorous. The root system is, therefore, disturbed during the process of planting
of grafts, which ultimately affects growth and establishment adversely in the field
conditions particularly under rainfed condition.
Standards for patch budding in bael under semi-arid ecosystem
 Type of rootstock - Straight and active growth stage
 Age of rootstock - 8–12 month old
 Diameter of rootstock - 0.70–1.00 cm
 Age of scion shoots - 1–11/2 month old
 Diameter of scion - 0.70–1.00 cm
 Girth of scion shoots - 2.00–3.00 cm
 Size of patch - 2 cm x 1 cm
 Budding height - 20-25 cm above the ground
 Bud union - Smooth
 Plant height - 50-60 cm
 Root type/architecture - Well developed root system without coiling
 Foliage - Healthy and green foliage having 2-3 branches
 Disease/pest incidence - Plant should be from insect, pests and diseases

Precautions Avoid splitting of bark during detopping, but invariably the cut
portion of the detopped branches should be pasted with copper fungicides. Scion
shoots should be selected from healthy plants so as to evade the infestation of
pests and diseases during the establishment of orchard Sprouts emerging from

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 Dryland Horticulture

the rootstock should be removed except budded on at periodical interval to

promote the growth of scion shoots. Size of bark patch containing bud should
properly be matched with the cut portion of the bark on the rootstocks for perfect
and quick union. Polythene strip should not be removed unless it is ensured that
scion shoots has properly esatablished and started growing. Mulching of basin soil
should be done regularly to avoid moisture loss through evaporation and also to
fill up the cracks developed in basin. Newly emerging shoots are often damaged
by leaf eating caterpillars and hence, the management of the pest should be done
using sprays of Dimethoate @1.5 ml/l twice at 15 days interval.20
I.New technology (in situ grafting) for faster production of walnut
(Juglans regia L.):
Technology regarding grafted walnut production is very complex and expensive
because it depends on a number of factors that directly influence grafting success.
Due to a long production period and a smaller number of first class plants
compared to other fruit species, young walnut trees are among the most
expensive. New in situ production technology of young walnut trees has led to
quicker production, shorter by 1 year, and increased the success of grafting,
allowing for large-scale production of grafted walnut. In order to increase the
production of quality planting material for walnut varieties, the possibility of
walnut grafting in the open, i.e. in situ, was examined herein. Based on the
average results for all of the varieties/selections, similar performance was
achieved with grafting (57.14%) and the number of first class plants (55.71%)
when compared to conventional grafting (54.46% and 53.39%, respectively), but
it was concluded that this method shortened the process of plant production for
1 vegetation. The greatest success with the application of in situ grafting was with
the Rasna selection, which had significantly the best grafting take (72.86%) in
comparison with the other walnut varieties examined during the research period.
By comparing the success of the indoor and in situ production methods and
examining the influence of certain factors on production success, it was
concluded that the in situ method proved to be a better option for a simpler, more
profitable, and faster mass production of high-quality walnut planting material.

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 Dryland Horticulture

II.Standardization of Period for Soft Wood Grafting in Custard Apple (Annona

squamosa) :
Custard apple is the most important dry land fruit crop. In different countries the
name custard apple is given to separate species of genus Annona. In India, the
custard apple is Annona squamosa, in the USA, A. reticulata or A. glabra.
According to Hayes (1966) the term custard apple may be applied to all Annonas
are mostly consumed as dessert fruits. Custard apple is very delicious fruit. The
important features of custard apple are its wide adoptability to soil and climatic
conditions and free from pest and diseases. Custard apple is mostly subtropical
fruit performing in warm climate with moderate winter and humidity for high
production. Custard apple is mostly consumed as table fruit. They are also used
in ice – creams and others milk products on a limited scale (Rao, 1975). The
immature fruits, seeds, leaves and roots are of considerable medicinal value both
in Ayurveda and Yunani systems of medicine (Kirtikar and Basu, 1933). Generally
the dry land fruit crops are propagated by seed. In this region attempt were made
by various workers to locate superior types through the survey in custard apple.
In recent year softwood grafting has become popular because of its added
advantages over other methods. This has been successfully tried in mango,
sapota, aonla (Amin, 1978). However, little information is available on the
softwood grafting in custard apple. Therefore an investigation was planned to
study the standardization of period for softwood grafting in custard apple.
Materials and Methods An experiment was conducted at the Central Nursery
Scheme, VNMKV, Parbhani. The experiment was laid out in Complete Randomized
Design (CRD) comprising of twelve treatments which were replicated thrice. The
treatment used were T1- Grafting on 1st December 2004, T2 - Grafting on 1st
January 2005, T3- Grafting on 1st February 2005,T4- Grafting on 1st March 2005,
T5-Grafting on 1 st April 2005, T6-Grafting on 1st May 2005,T7- Grafting on 1st
June 2005, T8- Grafting on 1st July 2005, T9- Grafting on 1st August 2005, T10-
Grafting on 1st September 2005, T11- Grafting on 1st October 2005 and T12-
Grafting on 1st November 2005. The seedlings were selected were about 7 to 10
months old, 40-50 cm in height and 0.3 -0.6 cm in diameter above ground level at
the time of grafting operation. Custard apple bud sticks were taken from current

21
 Dryland Horticulture

season growth of about 8-10 months, 15-25 cm in length with 8-10 buds with
brownish black in colour was used. The scion bud sticks were defoliated 8- 10 days
prior to grafting operation. Soft wood grafting in custard apple was done by as
reported in mango by Amin (1974). The rootstock seedling was deheaded 15-
20cm height above the ground level. A vertical slit of 2.5 to 3.0cm length was
given on the rootstock. On scion shoot similar matching cut was prepared in
slanting manner on both the surfaces in lower portion. It is inserted on rootstock
and wrapped by using polythene tape. The grafts in polythene bags were watered
on alternate day. The emerging shoots on the rootstocks were nipped off
whenever they appeared while watering the plants care was taken that tied strips
were not wetted. Five uniform grafts were selected in each treatment for
recording observations. The data were recorded on various parameters for two
years and pooled data was shown in Table 1 and 2. Results and Discussion Results
presented in Table 1 revealed that the significantly minimum numbers of days
were required for sprouting when grafted on 1 st February (16.06) and maximum
days were required when grafting was carried out on 1st December (33.50).
Significantly maximum initial percent success was observed when grafting was
carried out on 1 st February and March (100 %). These treatments were at par
with each other. Significantly final percent success (94.99 %) was obtained in case
of grafting carried out on 1st February. No success was obtained when grafting on
1st May and 1st July. Results presented in Table 2 revealed that maximum height
was obtained during 1st January. Significantly more diameter was produced when
grafting was carried out on 1 st December 2004, 2005 and 1st January 2005 (0.43
cm). When grafting was carried out on 1st July (0.32 cm) minimum diameter of
sprouted scion shoot was recorded. The maximum number of buds were recorded
when grafting was carried out on 1st February (6.02) followed by 1st January, 1st
December and 1st October (3.33) and at par with each other. Maximum buds
were found in the month of 1 st February. As temperature and humidity are
enough for sprouting of buds in the month of February. The maximum numbers
of leaves (22.01) were produced when grafting was carried when grafting was
carried out on 1st February followed by 1st December, 1st January (0.61) and 1st

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 Dryland Horticulture

March (0.59) were at par with each other. The minimum root: shoot ratio was
observed in 1st October.
E.Planting/Deep pitting:
 Cropping is adopted by considering slope of land, following soil and
moisture conservation methods and then transplantation is carried out.

 The suitable pits dimension for planting is 3 feet and 2 feet depth.

 Grow asexual and healthy grafted plants for transplantation each time.

 Grafted node is selected from 4-3 feet above the ground level and plants
are transplanted.

 Once the seedlings are transplanted they are tied to supporting structure to
avoid wind blow damage.

 After this, the ideal irrigation is required during summer season for one
year.

 Plants are protected from termites and suitable measures should be taken
care.

 Remove weeds, prepare pits, covered it for moisture conservation.

 Remove the lower leaves which emerge from grafted seedling / stock.

 Maintaining plants slope, removal of branches and twigs are necessary.

 Give recommend dose of fertilizer during rainy season and adopt

conservation methods.

 Alternate extra income is generated from mixed/mid farming.

 Appropriate pit preparation: Preparation of pit is be carried out

during the
 beginning of summer season. For planting main crops with bigger
size canopies,

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 Dryland Horticulture

 appropriate the pit size is 3ft x 3ft x 3ft in length, width and depth whereas
for filler
 crops with medium size canopies the appropriate pit size is 2ft x 2ft x 2ft in
length,
 width and depth. While digging the pit, the soil of the upper half is kept
separately
 from the soil from the lower half of the soil. The dug-up pits are left exposed
during
 the entire summer months in order to minimize the pest load in the pit. The
pit filling
 operation is carried out in the beginning of rainy season. While pit filling, 15
to 20 kg
 FYM, 1 kg karanj cake, 300g Single super phosphate is mixed with the with
upper
 soil of the pit and which is filled first into the pi
 Appropriate pit preparation: Preparation of pit is be carried out
during the
 beginning of summer season. For planting main crops with bigger
size canopies,
 appropriate the pit size is 3ft x 3ft x 3ft in length, width and depth whereas
for filler
 crops with medium size canopies the appropriate pit size is 2ft x 2ft x 2ft in
length,
 width and depth. While digging the pit, the soil of the upper half is kept
separately
 from the soil from the lower half of the soil. The dug-up pits are left exposed
during
 the entire summer months in order to minimize the pest load in the pit. The
pit filling
 operation is carried out in the beginning of rainy season. While pit filling, 15
to 20 kg
 FYM, 1 kg karanj cake, 300g Single super phosphate is mixed with the with
upper
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 Dryland Horticulture

 soil of the pit and which is filled first into the pi

 Appropriate pit preparation: Preparation of pit is be carried out during the
beginning of summer season. For planting main crops with bigger size
canopies, appropriate the pit size is 3ft x 3ft x 3ft in length, width and depth
whereas for filler crops with medium size canopies the appropriate pit size
is 2ft x 2ft x 2ft in length, width and depth. While digging the pit, the soil of
the upper half is kept separately from the soil from the lower half of the
soil. The dug-up pits are left exposed during the entire summer months in
order to minimize the pest load in the pit. The pit filling operation is carried
out in the beginning of rainy season. While pit filling, 15 to 20 kg FYM, 1 kg
karanj cake, 300g Single super phosphate is mixed with the with upper soil
of the pit and which is filled first into the pit.

F.Canopy Management:
Effective canopy management from initial stage helps in a healthy
framework of the canopy: In order to provide proper frame to the main
crop, training of the plants is done from the first year of planting. All the
branches emerging up to the height of 80 cm from the ground level are
removed for formation of the main trunk. At the end of first year of the
plant, heading back is done at a height of 80 cm at the beginning of rainy
season. All the shoots emerging after the heading back are removed
retaining three to four healthy shoots oriented towards four direction of the
main branch which form the main frame of the plant. During the next year,
3 healthy shoots emerging on each of the primary branches after the
heading back operation during the beginning of rainy season are retained
which form the secondary branches. The operation is repeated during the
third year also. Branches oriented towards the centre of the plants are
removed. In case of filler crops like guava the main trunk is kept at 30-40
cm from the ground level.

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 Dryland Horticulture

Course Name Dryland Horticulture

Lesson 12
Characters and special adaptation of crops
Content Creator V.P.SANTHI
University Name Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Course Reviewer SANGRAM SAHEBRAO DHUMAL

University Name Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth,Rahuri

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 Dryland Horticulture

Objectives of the lecture:

To learn about the characters and special adaptation of different drought

tolerant crops

Glossary of terms
- The area where annual rainfall or precipitation
counter-balance the evapotranspiration and
1. Dryland
provides limited length of growth period for
growing crops
- the act of changing something for a purpose, or
2. Adaptation
the result of something that has been changed.
- a species of plant that has adaptations to survive
3. Xerophytes
in an environment with little liquid water
- state of reduced metabolic activity adopted by
4. Dormancy many organisms under conditions of
environmental stress
- is a chemical that shrinks or constricts body
5. Astringent
tissues.

CHARACTERS AND SPECIAL ADAPTATION OF CROPS

Adaptation of crop plants depends on many factors and is best considered
in relation to a set of conditions (environmental, edaphic and biotic) rather than
to a single factor. In many situations one factor (e.g. water availability in dry lands)
may dominate the prevailing conditions and the nature of the plant response then
largely reflects its adaptation to the existing level of that factor. More typically,
adaptation to the existing level of that factor. More typical, adaptation is
expressed as response to a combination. Success of a plant in a particular
environment rarely, depends on possession of a single adaptive character. Rather,
fitness or adaptation to an environment depends on possession of an optimum
combination of characters that minimize the deleterious effects and maximize the
advantageous effects.

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 Dryland Horticulture

Adaptation may be defined as any feature of an organism which has survival

value under the existing conditions of its habitat. Such a feature or features may
allow the plant to make fuller use of the nutrients, water, and temperature or
light, available or may give protection against adverse factors such as
temperature extremes, water stress, disease or insect pressures. The concept
adaptation can be difficult to define, as it is used in respect of both the
evolutionary origins of a character and its contribution to the fitness of the plant
to survive in its present environment. Adaptation is also heritable i.e., it is
determined by the genotype of a plant. Hence the definition can be refined to the
heritable modification to a plant which enable it to survive, reproduce or both in
a given environment.
The majority of Indian dry lands are characterized by moisture stress, poor
quality of soils, extreme temperatures and intense radiation. The features of tree
crops which have survival value under these conditions and capable for providing
economic production through adaptation to these conditions is valuable. They
will be examined for their special attributes which make them suitable for dry
lands to help in making choice of potential fruit crops based on the quality of dry
lands.

Ber
Botanical name: Ziziphus mauritiana
Family: Rhamnaceae
Native: India
Characters:
 It is spiny evergreen shrub.
 It has wide spreading drooping branches.
 The leaves are alternate, elliptic with rounded apex.
 The flowers are orange to brown with edible white pulp surrounding two
locular pyrene.

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 Dryland Horticulture

 The fruit is soft, juicy, drupe.

 The ripe fruit is sweet and sour in taste.
Adaption:
It is the most droughts hardy fruit tree known in Indian sub continent, which can
stand salinity and saline water for following important features inherent in it.
Its root system is extensive, tends to go deep and can penetrate hard pan and
draw moisture from deeper layers of soil. In this case flowering starts with the
onset of monsoon and the crop is harvested well in advance of onset of hot and
dry summer. The most interesting feature of this crop is that during hot summer
it will shed its leaves completely and thus conserve moisture by getting rid of
transpiration mechanism. At the same time the leaves have xerophytes characters
and the buds are scaly and thus stand intense summer heat with no damage. If
this crop is helped with supplementary irrigation and a development of micro
catchment around the tree to collect runoff water, shall help in raising
production. A large number of varieties are available in this crop and therefore,
early varieties like 8Gola9, 8Seb9 and 8Murdia” are suitable for dry farming
conditions because their bearing synchronizes with the period of maximum
natural moisture availability.

Aonla
Botanical name: Emblica officinalis
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Native: India
Characters:
 It has its beneficial role in cancer, diabetics, liver treatment.
 It is a tree of moderate size with greenish grey bark.
 The leaves are linear, pinnate.
 The flowers are greenish yellow borne in axillary fasciles.
 The fruits are capsular berries with a fleshy exocarp.
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 Dryland Horticulture

 The ripe fruits are astringent, extremely acidic.

Adaption:
Beside the ability of tolerance of drought this crop has great ability to tolerate
salinity, alkalinity and sodality prevalent in dry areas. About its ability to survive
in drought it can be stated as if physiology of this plant spp is turned for drought
conditions only. In aonla, flowering takes place in spring and after fruit set fruits
enter quiescence/ dormancy and remain so throughout summer. Therefore, trees
do not require irrigation in summer when most crops would need it. With the
onset of monsoon, the fruits come out of dormancy, begin to grow and mature
by December, the period when moisture stress is minimum. Therefore, this is the
most ideal crop for dry land crop for dry land conditions.

Annona
Botanical name: Annona squamosa
Family: Annonaceae
Native: Central America
Characters:
 It is a small, semi-deciduous, much branched small tree.
 The branches are light brown bark with leaf scars.
 The leaves are simple arranged in alternate manner.
 The flowers are solitary, greenish-yellow on the hairy slender long stalk.
 Aggregate and soft fruits form from the numerous and loosely united pistils
of the flower which become enlarged.

Adaption:
Custard apple is also a very hardy fruit crop, tolerant to drought, salinity
and saline irrigation water to some extent. It also grows well and shallow soils,
fruiting coincides with maximum moisture stress availability period with flowering
in June/ July and maturity by November/ December. It enters in dormancy due to
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 Dryland Horticulture

moisture stress and shed off leaves during hot and dry summer to evade moisture
to evade moisture loss from plant tissues by transpiration. Growth is under the
influence of temperature and moisture. In places where irrigation facilities are
available fruiting period can be pre-poned or postponed to get early or late crops
in tropics.

Jamun
Botanical name: Syzygium cumini
Family: Myrtaceae
Native: India
Characters:
 It is a rapidly growing tree with dense foliage.
 The wood is water resistant after being kiln dried.
 The leaves have an aroma similar to turpentine, pinkish when young, glossy
dark green with yellow midrib when mature.
 The flowers are fragrant and the fruit is oblong, ovoid has a sweet, mildly
sour and astringent flavor.

Adaption:
Once established, Jamun tree can face drought to a very great extent.
This has been attributed to its extensive root system and thick plant sap.
Flowering starts in spring and the final swell of fruits takes place in monsoon.
Jamun fruits ripe little later than mango. The colour of the fruit and the pulp is
purple and fruits are astringent even after ripening. Early and seedless varieties
are being developed looking to the demand for its role in sugar metabolism
(Diabetes).

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 Dryland Horticulture

Wood apple
Botanical name: Limonia acidissima
Family: Rutaceae
Native: India
Characters:
 It is a slow growing tree grows in dry and warm areas. It has rough spiny
bark. The spines are short, axillary on the zigzag twigs.
 The leaves are deciduous, alternate, and leathery.
 The fruit is round to oval, woody hard rind difficult to crack.
 The pulp is sticky, brown and aromatic.
Adaption :

It is a tree of family Rutacaeae and possesses great tolerance to drought

and salinity. Extensive root system and synchronization of its reproductive phase
with high moisture availability make it a suitable crop for dry lands. Fruits per se
hardly have any table value but the pulp is extensively used for chutney
preparation and being rich in pectin, it is an excellent adjunct in jelly preparation.
Wood apple is an excellent tree for waste-land.
Bael
Botanical name: Aegle marmelos
Family: Rutaceae
Native: India
Characters:

 It is a deciduous shrub with slender drooping branches, irregular crown.

 The bark is pale brown or greyish, smooth or finely fissured and flaking.
 The leaf is trifoliate, alternate, and ovate with tapering tip.
 The flowers are pale green or yellowish, sweetly scented borne in clusters
at the end of the twigs and leaf axils.

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 Dryland Horticulture

 The fruits are pear shaped with thick, hard rind and difficult to crack.

Adaption:
It is a drought and solidity tolerant plant in which flowering coincides
with the onset of monsoon and the fruits mature before the onset of hot summer.
It can stand swampy and alkaline soils also. It is these physiological attributes
which make this species suitable for dry land farming. A grown up tree yields
about 300 to 400 fruits per annum which as such hardly have any table value but
it makes excellent squash or RTS beverage. Bael is considered to have many
medicinal properties and is effective in treatment of dysentery.
Pomegranate
Botanical name: Punica granatum
Family: Lythraceae
Native: Iran
Characters:
 It is a shrub or small tree has multiple spiny branches.
 The leaves are opposite or subopposite, glossy, narrow oblong and broad.
 The flowers are bright red in color with prominent calyx.
 The fruits are red-purple in color with hard pericarp and inner spongy
mesocarp in which the seeds attach.
 The edible part is juicy arils.

Adaption :
This frit crop can tolerate salinity as well as saline irrigation water and grow
even in shallow soils. It can also tolerate drought as fruiting can be tailored to
synchronize with the period of maximum moisture availability of natural
moisture. Under normal conditions pomegranate plant flowers three times in a
year: Ambe bahar (spring flowering), Mrig bahar (rainy season flowering) and
Hastha bahar (post monsoon flowering). If we concentrate only on 8Mrig bahar9

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 Dryland Horticulture

and keep trees under stress during rest of the period, it will adjust its growth and
fruiting period of dry land situations and plants will even shed off leaves during
summer to evade water loss. Ability of plant to flower in three waves and ability
to evade transpiration or tolerate moisture stress by entering in dormancy and
shedding of leaves during water stress are the positive considerations of this plant
species for dry land conditions. However, this fruit crop is highly sensitive to soil
and atmospheric moisture fluctuation which result in cracking of fruits. But under
dry land conditions, extent of this problem is not so severe. Supplementary
irrigation and micro catchment around the tree to harvest rain water increases
productivity.
Carissa
Botanical name: Carissa spinarum
Family: Apocynaceae
Native: Africa
Characters:
 An erect thorny shrub with forked branches.
 The bark is very hard with thorns.
 The leaves are ovate, broad, and leathery with reticulate venation and
exuding white latex when plucked from the stem.
 The flowers are short stalked, sweet scented.
 It is very hardy and drought resistant and can grow on very poor and rocky
soils.

Adaption:
This plant is drought tolerant owing to its ability to synchronize
reproductive phase to the period of moisture abundance. Therefore, it9s highly
suitable for dry land horticulture. Fruits are small and acidic and highly prized for
their pickling value and excellent jelly.

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 Dryland Horticulture

Date palm
Botanical name: Phoenix dactylifera
Family: Arecaceae
Native: North Africa
Characters:
 Date tree reach up to 30m growing singly or forming a clump with several
stems from a single root system.
 The leaves are pinnate and the full span of the crown ranges 6-10m.
 The palm is dioecious.
 Date fruits are oval-cylindrical bright red in color.
Adaption :
This plant can tolerate salinity and saline irrigation water to a great extent.
The crop requires sufficient heat units by the end of June (before the onset of
monsoon) and high vapour pressure deficit (25 mb) during fruit development.
These conditions are required for faster fruit development and avoidance of
damage to fruits due to cracking and splitting which takes place due to high
humidity and rainfall for fruits being rich in sugar. Such climatic conditions are
available only in the arid regions of India especially in Thar deserts of Rajasthan
and Katcha district of Gujarat, the crop suits. Climatically the tree needs head in
fire and foot in water such situations exist in oasis. Early cultivars have belter
chance.
Phalsa
Botanical name: Grewia asiatica
Family: Malvaceae
Native: India
Characters:
 It is a small tree. It has long, slender, dropping branches.

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 Dryland Horticulture

 The leaves are heart shaped alternately arranged.

 The inflorescence is cymes borne in the leaf axils.
 The fruit is small and round in shape.
Adaption :
It is drought hardy and has very short reproductive phase. After the
harvest of crop in early summer, plants tend to lose foliage to evade stress of
severe hot summer. In this crop the flowering starts of severe hot summer. In this
crop the flowering starts in December fruits are ready in April. Fruits hardly gave
table value/ but utilized extensively for squash preparation. Short reproductive
phase, ability to become quiescent tin hot summer and extensive root system
lend in plants drought tolerance ability.

Fig
Botanical name: Ficus carica
Family: Moraceae
Native: Mediterranean region
Characters:
 It is called as poor man9s food. It contains significant amount of calcium,
potassium, phosphorous and iron.
 It is a bush or small tree with broad, rough, deciduous leaves.
 The leaves and stems exude white latex when broken.
 The fruits known as syconia are borne singly or in pairs above the scars of
fallen leaves or in axils of leaves of the present season.
 Fig wasp is important for pollination.

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 Dryland Horticulture

Adaption:
This plant can tolerate salinity and drought. Fruiting is monitor able to
synchronies with rainy season only so that crop is harvested in late winter and
plants will shed off leaves during summer and overcome the drought conditions.
West Indian cherry
Botanical name: Malpighia emarginata
Family: Malpighiaceae
Native: West Indies
Characters:
 Rich in vitamin C
 It is a low branching, prickly, bushy shrub reaches to a height to 2-3m.
 It can be pruned to any desired shape.
 The root system is shallow and plants can be toppled by wind.
 The leaves are dark to light green, glossy with minute hairs.
 Foliage will drop during water stress.
 The flowers are sessile, pink to white in color.
 Flowering can occur throughout the year.
 The fruits are round, bright red in color, juicy, sour in taste and with a
delicate flavor.

Adaption:
Also known as Acerola or Barbados cherry belongs to family
Malpighiaceae. It prefers tropical and humid climate. It tends to drop foliage
during water stress but recovers well with flush and flowering. Flowering can
occur throughout. The year, but is typically in cycles associated with rain. The
plant grows well on limestone, clay and other heavy soils as long as drains well
but water logging will cause death. It tolerates drought and flowering can be
regulated by water supply, this makes it suitable for rainfed horticulture.

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 Dryland Horticulture

Tamarind
Botanical name: Tamarindus indica
Family: Fabaceae
Native: Tropical Africa
Characters:
 It has multiple uses cultivated around the tropical and subtropical zones.
 Tamarind is a long lived, medium growth tree.
 The crown has an irregular, vase shaped outline of dense foliage.
 The evergreen leaves are alternately arranged and pinnately lobed.
 The timber consists of hard, dark, red heartwood and soft, yellow sapwood.
 The flowers are red and yellow, five petalled, borne in raceme.

Adaption:
 The tree grows well in full sun.
 It prefers clay, loam, sandy and acidic soil with a high resistance to drought
and aerosol salt.
 At night, the leaflets close up.
 It is frost sensitive.
 The pinnate leaves with opposite leaflets give a billowing effect in the wind.

Besides these, there are many high value crops like grape, sweet orange, papaya,
mango, 8Kinnow9 mandarin and Mulberry which require dry conditions during
flowering and fruiting for the development of high quality fruits. These fruit
species can adjust to dry farming situations with the provision of irrigation
through recycling of harvested runoff water. Nevertheless, within a fruit species
it would be advisable to select early varieties with short reproductive phase for
more successful and relevant horticulture.

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