Early Childhood Educ J (2013) 41:381–389

DOI 10.1007/s10643-013-0578-5

Interactive Read-Alouds—An Avenue for Enhancing Children’s

Language for Thinking and Understanding: A Review of Recent
Research
Sandra Lennox

Published online: 14 February 2013

 Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

Abstract Enhancing young children’s early literacy Introduction

achievement is a top priority in many countries. There is a
considerable body of research demonstrating young chil- Language enables children to express their thoughts, ideas and
dren’s language development as a critical factor in reading emotions. It helps them to establish their identity, to com-
and later academic success. Implementation of high quality municate with and understand others and their world, and to
literacy instruction has the potential to improve literacy take control of their lives. Young children’s language devel-
outcomes for all children, especially those ‘‘at risk’’. opment is a critical factor in reading and later school success.
However, a significant challenge has been to implement There is a growing body of literature that documents the
instruction that will support children’s language for benefits of preschool education and the ways quality programs
thinking and understanding, rather than narrowly focused can support early language and literacy learning. Research has
instruction on easily quantified code-related skills. This consistently indicated that children who have optimal literacy
article reviews some of the recent research on the value of foundational skills tend to thrive and grow academically,
interactive read-alouds as an avenue for enhancing early while those with significant limitations in language skills are
literacy learning for preschoolers. Although there is more likely to be left behind. Achievement gaps, especially in
abundant evidence supporting the practice, there are a terms of vocabulary, are well established before children enter
number of aspects that interact in dynamic ways to affect formal schooling and research indicates those gaps are likely
the efficacy of read-alouds. They include pedagogical to grow more discrepant with time. Implementation of high
knowledge, book selection, the quality of interactions quality instruction is of particular importance to children at
around books, and developing vocabulary and inferential risk, including those from low socioeconomic backgrounds
language skills. The way books are shared may open or and English language learners. A review of recent research
close learning opportunities and possibilities to use lan- reveals that interactive read-alouds are a significant way to
guage for an increasingly wider range of purposes. Skillful provide opportunities for rich, meaningful, and intentional
teachers can play a significant role in building, refining and instruction in ways that improve outcomes. However, this
extending literacy knowledge, skills and dispositions. research also highlights particular aspects of read-alouds
which deserve closer attention if we are to enhance children’s
Keywords Emergent literacy
Early literacy language for thinking and understanding. These aspects
development
Comprehension and young children
include: improving pedagogical knowledge, book selection,
Early reading
Reading to children
Shared reading quality of interactions, and developing vocabulary and infer-
ential language skills.

The Current State of Affairs: Increasing Pressure

S. Lennox (&)
University of Notre Dame Australia (Sydney Campus),
Sydney, NSW, Australia Seeking ways to address achievement gaps and improve
e-mail: [email protected] young children’s literacy outcomes are a concern for

123
382 Early Childhood Educ J (2013) 41:381–389

researchers, policy makers, educators, and parents. A com- change in the preschool years when children’s skills are
mon set of essential components have been identified as ‘‘relatively malleable’’ than in later years when these skills
precursors of later literacy achievement in a number of are more stable and require considerably more effort to
national reports from the UK, New Zealand, Australia change (Justice et al. 2008, p. 52). Researchers have begun
(Australian Government 2005) and most recently, in the US: to recognise the significance of developing linguistic pro-
Developing Early Literacy (National Early Literacy Panel cessing skills, especially vocabulary and comprehension,
2008). Components include alphabet knowledge, phono- prior to entering school (Dickinson et al. 2010; Gunn et al.
logical awareness, print concepts, reading fluency, and oral 2011; McKeown and Beck 2007; Powell and Diamond
language. However, increasing pressure has frequently led to 2012; van Kleek 2008). If we are to put every child on a
a narrow focus on easily quantifiable skills in the code- positive trajectory, we need to support learning in all areas
related domains like phonological awareness, alphabet of development that relate to both early and later literacy
knowledge and phonics. Paris and Paris (2003, p. 41) success. The benefits of interactive read-alouds have long
maintain that because decoding enables comprehension, it is been recognised as one avenue to achieve this (Cunning-
often taught first and thought to be a precursor to reading ham and Zibulsky 2011; Ezell and Justice 2005;
success. These skills not only dominate teaching and McKeown and Beck 2007; National Early Literacy Panel
assessment but also potentially reduce attention given to 2008; Wells 2009).
other aspects of literacy learning that have a more pervasive
and long-lasting effect (Dougherty Stahl 2011; Paciga et al.
2011). In addition, a narrow approach may not adequately Why Interactive Read-alouds?
serve those most in need of robust literacy practices. These
essential skills should be taught thoroughly and early, but The term interactive read-aloud is used in a broad sense to
they are not sufficient for enduring literacy success. Perfor- ‘‘describe the context in which a teacher genuinely shares,
mance on isolated skills does not necessarily result in the not abandons, authority with the children’’ (Smolkin and
ability or disposition to use reading, writing, and oral lan- Donovan 2002, p. 28). Before, during, and after reading,
guage in meaningful ways in the real world. Some studies adults may use opportunities to incorporate dialogic strat-
show that when students spend more time on isolated skills egies. These are strategies that actively engage children in
and extensive repetition, a likely outcome is disengagement reciprocal, conversational exchanges with participants
and frustration (Wiseman 2012). sharing ideas with each other and listening to alternative
Researchers draw attention to the difference between perspectives. Teachers intentionally build on their own and
constrained and unconstrained skills (Dickinson et al. the children’s ideas to keep the focus on the text and to
2010; Paratore et al. 2011; Paris 2005, 2011). Constrained expand on the content in ways that support and enhance
skills such as alphabetic awareness, concepts of print, and language and thinking skills. Read-alouds, especially when
phonological awareness are learned and mastered almost dialogic strategies are incorporated, are positively linked to
universally within a limited time frame, while uncon- children’s overall academic achievement, reading skills
strained skills—comprehension-related abilities such as and interest in reading and writing. Not only is it an
vocabulary, background knowledge and inferential lan- enjoyable and engaging experience, but it also enhances
guage skills—continue to develop throughout life and are oral language through exposure to new and interesting
not identical for all learners. The benefits of early attention words and grammatical structures that are quite different
to unconstrained skills may not be readily observable in the from everyday conversation. It provides opportunities for
first years of school, but increase in value in later years participation in sustained conversations, expansion of lan-
when lower-level reading processes are mastered (Dickin- guage use for a wider range of functions, and growth of
son and Porche 2011). conceptual knowledge. The basic skills of beginning
Despite several decades of studies, reports and inter- reading such as print awareness, phonological awareness,
ventions, there is little enduring change in levels of literacy and alphabet knowledge are also supported within a
achievement (Paratore et al. 2011). Limited language limits meaningful context.
children’s academic potential, their ability to navigate the Although there is abundant evidence of the efficacy of
social world and their ability to participate actively in read-alouds, they are not always a regular feature of pre-
society (Dickinson et al. 2009). If we are aiming for long- school and kindergarten classrooms (Pentimonti et al.
term impact on language learning and academic success, 2011). Even when read-alouds are included, researchers
more broad-based approaches focused on developing (Justice et al. 2008; Kindle 2011; Massey et al. 2008)
vocabulary, language knowledge, and comprehension are suggest that the quality varies significantly across class-
necessary at the time when young children are developing rooms on key dimensions. Volume and frequency of
code knowledge (Morrow et al. 2011). It is easier to effect reading are important; however, we can’t assume children

123
Early Childhood Educ J (2013) 41:381–389 383

will take on literacy behaviours simply because they hear children’’ (Darling-Hammond and Bransford cited Wasik
stories. Learning involves more than exposure to infor- 2010, p. 623). The adult, as mediator, plays a key role in
mation; there are other factors that impact on the effec- helping children to negotiate new understandings—there
tiveness of read-alouds in classrooms. What teachers know are many concepts that children cannot discover by them-
and understand about teaching and learning (their peda- selves. Wiseman (2011, 2012) advocates a proactive role
gogical knowledge), can enhance or limit learning for teachers; they model and scaffold comprehension
opportunities. strategies, textual features and extend children’s abilities as
language users. Children should be active participants; they
learn most effectively when adults are tuned-in and
Developing Pedagogical Knowledge: Optimizing responsive to their current level of understanding. Skillful
Opportunities for Learning teachers are able to use flexibly a continuum of support for
individual children (Blewitt et al. 2009; Pentimonti and
Developing and maintaining relevant pedagogical knowl- Justice 2010). When adults have insight into a child’s
edge and attention to instructional quality have a direct current needs, they can adjust their support and provide the
impact on children’s learning and achievement (Bradley right degree of challenge, just beyond their current level.
and Reinking 2011; Dickinson et al. 2009; Justice et al. Put simply, it is the ‘‘Goldilocks principle’’: not too easy,
2008; Wasik 2010; Young 2009). Results from the Effec- not too difficult, but just right. Initially skilled teachers
tive Provision of Pre-school Education (EPPE), an exten- model meaning-making, reasoning, and comprehension
sive longitudinal study undertaken in the UK to examine processes. Gradually the child assumes greater control. If
the impact of early education and care on children’s cog- this is to work, the level of teachers’ pedagogical knowl-
nitive and social behavioural outcomes, provided much- edge is a critical issue. Teachers will also draw on this
needed insight into specific pedagogical practices that were knowledge to make worthwhile selections of books that
associated with achieving ‘excellent’ outcomes (Siraj- will appeal to emerging readers. Thoughtful selection and
Blatchford 2010). There was wide variability in quality culturally responsive teaching, coupled with literature that
across settings. The most effective educators in settings reflects the cultural heritages of different ethnic groups in
deemed high-quality, demonstrated a sound grasp of ped- the class, and enable children to make links with their lived
agogical content knowledge; they not only knew their experiences, as well as promote connection and engage-
curriculum content, but also understood ‘‘what part of that ment (Conrad et al. 2004; Wiseman 2012).
content was most significant and relevant to the needs of
the children they were teaching’’ (p. 159). They also had a
repertoire of appropriate strategies from which to select, to Book Selection: Reading a Range of Quality Literature
suit particular content.
Data from the E4Kids study (Melbourne Graduate School Teachers have an influential role in choosing books.
of Education 2012) currently being undertaken in Australia Selecting the right book contributes towards successful
reveal the instructional support domain, especially in rela- read-alouds; the repertoire should include a variety of
tion to extending children’s conceptual knowledge and well-illustrated, quality literature: fiction, poetry and
thinking skills, is the area where improvements are desirable. information books. Type of text and book genre influence
An earlier New Zealand study (Mitchell and Cubey 2003) children’s responses (Moschovaki and Meadows 2005).
reported similar themes. First, although preschool class- Exposure to different genres helps children understand how
rooms were welcoming and staff-child interactions were various texts are organised and offers different learning
warm, support for literacy was not strong. Second, there was opportunities. For example, young children can learn both
often a gap between teachers’ stated beliefs about literacy specialized vocabulary and content from information
and their observed practices. Third, teachers in classrooms books. Although the primary purpose is to convey infor-
ranked highly for quality literacy resources, activities, and mation or explain phenomena in the natural and social
interactions took a broad view of literacy and believed it to world, information books also expose children to reading
be a life skill. In contrast, those in low ranking classrooms for different purposes and different ways to approach texts
had a narrow view and tended to see the value of literacy using language features such as a table of contents, glos-
development in terms of school readiness. sary, and labeled diagrams. Also information books lend
‘‘The value of the teacher as the expert who delivers and themselves to more cognitively challenging talk than nar-
mediates the curriculum content cannot be overstated. A rative texts (Anderson et al. 2012; Price et al. 2012). When
well-developed curriculum is important … However, it is used for authentic purposes, these books can stimulate
the quality and skill of the teacher who is implementing the curiosity and build conceptual knowledge as children
curriculum that will have the most significant impact on explore accurate and authoritative information. They also

123
384 Early Childhood Educ J (2013) 41:381–389

can be used as a springboard to seek further information elaboration. They observed that language interactions
about topics that capture children’s interest. relating to routine matters that involved low-level cognitive
Despite this, research reveals that teachers are most likely skills tended to prevail; these were frequently directive,
to limit their choices to narrative storybooks (Duke 2004, and failed to encourage complex language use or extended
2007; Pentimonti et al. 2010, 2011; Price et al. 2012; Yopp talk. The interaction in many early childhood classrooms
and Yopp 2006). Narratives are ‘‘standard fare’’ and teachers follows a common pattern of initiation, response, and then
neither use information texts on a regular basis, nor supple- evaluation (IRE) (i.e., the focus is on producing the correct
ment narrative choices with informational books (Yopp and answer). Justice et al. (2008) observed the quality of lan-
Yopp 2006, p. 47). Across the early years, it appears that guage instruction to be characteristically low, despite the
children are missing valuable opportunities to hear and learn use of scientifically based preschool language and literacy
about the language of exposition, which will help them curricula.
comprehend texts they will frequently encounter at school Rather than limiting speculative and exploratory talk,
(Yopp and Yopp 2006, 2012). These authors also suggest teachers and children need time to engage in sustained
that the impact of teachers’ choices extends beyond the read- shared thinking. Siraj-Blatchford (2010) describes this
aloud experience; children are more likely to select books concept as ‘‘an episode in which two or more individuals
that they have heard teachers read when they come to make ‘worked together’ in an intellectual way to solve a prob-
their own selections for independent reading. Although lem, clarify a concept, evaluate activities, extend a narra-
knowledgeable and appropriate book choices are essential, tive, etc.’’ (p. 157). Talk is promoted as a means of learning
the way books are used will also impact learning outcomes. to develop and extend thinking. When conversations are
limited and/or teachers maintain strict control (initiating
the topic, seeking pre-determined answers, neglecting to
Quality of Interactions and Book Reading Style: What build on children’s attempts at topic initiation), children
Makes the Difference? don’t hear or practice the kinds of extended structures
required to fuel language learning (Dickinson et al. 2012).
Many experts, including Bradley and Reinking (2011), Kindle (2011) illustrates the way particular interactional
Dickinson et al. (2009), Dickinson et al. (2011) and Para- styles make a difference; she noted how teacher dialogue
tore et al. (2011) argue that the way teachers use language and quantity and quality of interactions affect children’s
matters. ‘‘Teachers’ comments, the information they com- language participation outcomes. Four kindergarten
municate verbally, their responses to children’s comments teachers in the same school used the same text for an
and questions, and the questions they ask are all of central interactive read-aloud. She captured the difference in four
importance. The ability of teachers to draw children into vignettes, with titles reflecting the tenor of the experience.
sustained conversations that stretch children’s linguistic For example the vignette of Bree’s class (p. 19), titled ‘‘Do
and conceptual abilities, and to teach vocabulary that fos- you know what I know?’’ was a highly teacher-directed
ters conceptual growth become equally, if not more, experience. The few opportunities for interaction only
important than the activities they provide’’ (Dickinson required basic recall of factual information and verbal
et al. 2009, p. 329). Researchers (Cabell et al. 2008; Kindle display of knowledge. Kindle characterized it as having
2011; Justice et al. 2008; McKeown and Beck 2007; the feeling of an assessment. In contrast, the vignette of
Massey et al. 2008; Paratore et al. 2011) note that the kind Lisa’s class was titled ‘‘In the book and beyond the book’’
of interactions that take place during read-alouds can differ (pp. 20–21). Lisa integrated concepts about print as a
significantly. They reveal that the talk around books (extra- natural part of the discussion; her intention was to
textual talk), rather than behaviour-focused talk, is the co-construct meaning with the children. Although they had
crucial element for enhancing language development. a degree of agency and control, she drew their attention to
Justice et al. (2008) explain that read-aloud experiences are key concepts and words she wanted them to learn and they
virtually impossible to script; they involve responsive, were encouraged to think and wonder beyond the page.
dynamic, and purposeful exchanges that use open-ended Lisa adopted a much more analytical orientation towards
questions and extend children’s language and thinking. language; children were required to reflect on words and
Teachers in a study by Gjems (2011) seldom built on their meanings.
children’s responses to elaborate the subject; they were Vocabulary is a critical factor in school success; having
generally satisfied with whatever answer a child presented. a rich store of language to draw upon supports early
McKeown and Beck (2007) also report teachers often reading and writing and in later years, composing and
accepted children’s responses that were ‘‘on the road, but comprehending complex texts. Learning experiences that
not in the lane’’ (p. 286). They maintain that teachers need build conceptual knowledge and vocabulary as Lisa dem-
to follow up children’s responses with prompts for onstrated can have an enduring effect on language and

123
Early Childhood Educ J (2013) 41:381–389 385

comprehension abilities. Those that take a narrow focus on Neuman and Dwyer 2009). Hindman et al. (2012), Jalongo
code-related abilities may well result in many children who and Sobolak (2011), Massey (2013) and Silverman and
are decoders, but ‘‘cannot later map the words they uncover Crandell (2010) recognise that words are learned incre-
into the rich linguistic fabric that is text’’ (Dickinson et al. mentally. They suggest going beyond storytime and taking
2010, p. 308). opportunities to review and reinforce word meanings
and facilitate deeper understandings in other contexts
throughout the day. However, studies show that embedded,
Building Breadth and Depth of Vocabulary explicit, and extended focused teaching is not the norm in
preschools. For example, an analysis of ten commercially
Initially oral conversations are the way young children produced early literacy preschool curricula programs by
learn words; however, everyday talk is inadequate to sus- Neuman and Dwyer (2009) revealed that there were few
tain effective vocabulary development. Interactive read- attempts to teach vocabulary intentionally. Developmen-
alouds offer opportunities to enhance both vocabulary tally appropriate and meaningful strategies to introduce
breadth (volume of words known) and depth (how well new words and inspire children to use them were virtually
words are known). To really ‘know’ a word entails non-existent. In the light of what we know about the
knowing ‘‘what a word represents and to begin to under- vocabulary gap for students from differing backgrounds, it
stand the network of concepts that goes with it’’ (Neuman is crucial to focus systematically on vocabulary expansion
and Dwyer 2009, p. 384) as well as how a word’s meaning at a younger age (Beck and McKeown 2007; Harris et al.
can vary. When teachers read aloud, they can select liter- 2011; Jalongo and Sobolak 2011; Neuman and Dwyer
ature that is beyond children’s own independent reading 2009; Torr and Scott 2006).
level. Such books contain rich language that supports lit- Neuman (2011) calls for the placing of vocabulary
eracy. Nevertheless, McGee and Schickedanz (2007) report instruction at the ‘‘forefront of early literacy instruction’’
relatively few teachers are reading the more sophisticated (p. 358). She identifies three significant aspects of quality
stories or information books that have far greater potential vocabulary teaching. First is making decisions about the
for expanding vocabulary, enhancing comprehension, and words children will need for making meaning and devel-
allowing space for discussion and analysis. oping more sophisticated language. This language includes
Children need more than incidental exposure to rich words to talk about unfamiliar objects, events and ideas, as
language. Kucan (2012) describes classroom environments well as categorical terms to organise knowledge. Second, a
that support vocabulary development as places ‘‘in which combination of implicit and explicit instruction leads to
words are not only noticed and appreciated, but also savored enhanced vocabulary learning. Finally, depth of processing
and celebrated’’ (p. 361). Active engagement is required if is more likely when the daily curriculum includes mean-
children are to make worthwhile vocabulary gains and ingful play-based learning experiences and problem solv-
begin to understand that words may have multiple mean- ing tasks that provide practice for children to use target
ings. Teachers need to provide explicit focus on selected words and build interconnected knowledge of concepts.
appropriate words and the way they work. This includes Kindle (2012) identifies three different levels of
elaborating on word meanings, providing repeated exposure instruction. Although her research was with teachers in the
to those words, reinforcing pronunciation, building knowl- early years of primary school, these levels could be
edge of words’ semantic relationships, and engaging chil- incorporated during read-alouds with preschoolers. In
dren in conversations which will consolidate their implicit instruction, children hear more complex language
understanding as they use the words and receive feedback as books are read and teachers weave this language into
on their efforts. There are many ways to do this. For discussion; there is no attempt to teach word meanings. In
example, in an Australian study Torr and Scott (2006) embedded instruction attention is provided to target words.
identified six pedagogical strategies that differed in the Child-friendly definitions are inserted within the supportive
level of support for vocabulary development. They ranged context of the read-aloud, but with minimal disruption to
from those rooted in the ‘‘here and now’’ and connected to reading. Explicit focused instruction usually occurs before
the child’s world, e.g. ‘‘Relate the word to the child’s per- or after reading, when teachers identify and work with
sonal situation and use it in context’’ (p. 161), to much more target words that are critical for comprehension. This
complex requests/comments: ‘‘Ask for or provide a syno- allows for multiple opportunities to interact with target
nym that is more technical than the initial term’’ (p. 163). words outside the context of the book.
Periodic review of vocabulary and ongoing monitoring Research offers clear guidance about the kinds of
of development are also essential elements of effective activities to increase vocabulary and advice about words
instruction (Beck et al. 2008; Blewitt et al. 2009; Kindle upon which to focus. Many educators find Beck et al.’s
2010, 2012; Marulis and Neuman 2010; Neuman 2011; (2002, 2008) 3-Tier framework helpful. Tier 1 words are

123
386 Early Childhood Educ J (2013) 41:381–389

basic words from our everyday vocabulary. Children either beyond simple recall of events they have just heard. If
know these words or they can be readily understood supported, children can learn to keep to the topic and use
through context and/or illustrations. Tier 2 words are those more complex sentence structures as they elaborate and
employed by mature language users and are typically not link statements. With careful preparation, read-alouds can
part of young children’s oral vocabulary. They occur across be an ideal context for engaging children in sustained
a variety of contexts, may have multiple meanings, and conversations with an inferential focus. van Kleek (2008)
they represent the more sophisticated vocabulary or points out that generating literal and inferential questions
abstract ideas that are likely to appear in written texts. They beforehand removes the pressure of simultaneously man-
allow greater detail and precision of language. Tier 3 words aging behaviour, maintaining children’s attention, and
are low-frequency words or technical words often con- spontaneously devising appropriate questions. The role of
nected with a specific content area. Beck et al. maintain the adult is critical; ‘‘Children adjust their discourse to
that Tier 2 words will have the greatest impact on reading match the level of the adult’s conversation’’ (Zucker et al.
comprehension. They provide a menu of instructional 2010, p. 67). van Kleek et al. (2006) suggest that adults can
activities to support teachers’ use of more sophisticated model inferential thinking skills and scaffold children’s
language; many are appropriate for preschoolers. language, thus providing an apprenticeship in skills which
In addition to developing vocabulary, the ability to use children will later use independently. These authors explain
inferential language skills should be a focus, as there is a how to go beyond literal comprehension and draw on
close relationship between these two aspects of reading. background knowledge and reasoning skills by comment-
‘‘Participating in decontextualised language, forming ideas ing, elaborating, thinking aloud, and asking questions.
about what was in the book, and expressing them in ways Responding to questions assures active participation, and
that make sense to others are the ingredients of building spoken output ‘‘pushes learners to process language more
competence’’ (McKeown and Beck 2007, p. 284). deeply—with more mental effort—than does input’’
(Swain, cited, Zucker et al. 2010, p. 67).
Researchers have provided guidance on different kinds
Developing Inferential Language Skills of inferences children could make, e.g. providing

In the early years of school many young readers face dif- Table 1 Examples using Marion Blank’s levels of talk
ficulties with text level comprehension. A number of
Level of talk Examples
experts are now advocating a proactive approach in the
preschool years rather than providing intervention in the Level 1—is the most simple: Children might name actions or
middle years. There is substantial evidence that pre- comments or questions match a identify items, e.g., point to the
schoolers are capable of doing more than labeling or child’s direct experience – crest, wings or tail that they like
things they can see, touch, or best for Phoebe. Or ‘‘What else
describing concrete elements that can be easily perceived hear can you see in the forest?’’
(e.g. Blewitt et al. 2009; Massey et al. 2008; Sittner Bridges Level Two—comments or ‘‘First, Zelda gave Phoebe a
et al. 2012; van Kleek 2008; Zucker et al. 2010). However, questions that require recall or crest; what else did she suggest
van Kleek observes that inferencing is rarely considered in analysis of information to make her look beautiful?’’
interventions with preschoolers. If children are to be Or, ‘‘How did Phoebe try to get
noticed?’’
empowered to use language for thinking and understanding,
Level Three—requires reordering ‘‘Can you think of another bird or
they need to develop abilities to operate at an inferential
of experience and going beyond animal that is very colorful like
level. This requires readers or listeners to go beyond what is readily observed; Phoebe is now?’’ Or, there may
information directly presented in the text and illustrations. children can be encouraged to be discussion about what
Authors and speakers frequently leave some ideas or mes- make text-to-life or text-to-text Phoebe is feeling and thinking
connections and use more at various points in the story
sages implied or unvoiced. Background knowledge and
abstract language
reasoning skills are needed to predict, hypothesize, explain,
Level Four—requires reasoning, At the beginning of the story,
imagine, infer, problem solve, and evaluate. Using these problem solving skills and Phoebe is desperate to be
processes helps to fill in gaps, elaborate on information and explanation noticed. Children could be
better understand authors’ intentions. asked to predict some ways that
Phoebe could resolve her
Adults can help children build mental representations
problem. Or ‘‘Why do you
that will enable them to engage in these higher-order think Phoebe wanted to look
thinking processes. This kind of talk is much more complex like Zelda?’’ At the conclusion,
than shallow turn-taking (McKeown and Beck 2007). With they might consider what they
thought Phoebe had learned
skilled guidance and opportunity for practice, children are
capable of linking and integrating ideas and moving well Blank et al. 1978

123
Early Childhood Educ J (2013) 41:381–389 387

information, thinking about causal links, or making judg- References

ments and evaluations (van Kleek et al. 2006). Marion
Blank’s Levels of Talk (Blank et al. 1978) offers a useful Anderson, A., Anderson, J., Lynch, J., Shapiro, J., & Eun Kim, J. (2012).
Extra-textual talk in shared book reading: A focus on questioning.
4-Level framework to develop dialogue in ways that
Early Child Development and Care, 182(9), 1139–1154.
incrementally encourage children’s talking, thinking and Beck, I., & McKeown, M. (2007). Increasing young low-income
reasoning. Open-ended questions, for which there’s not one children’s oral vocabulary repertoires through rich and focused
right response are a key feature of the latter Levels. At instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 107(3), 251–271.
Beck, I., McKeown, M., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life—
Level 3 and 4 children are motivated to use more cogni-
Robust vocabulary instruction. New York, NY: The Guilford
tively complex language. Feathers for Phoebe (Clements Press.
2010) is an appropriate choice for a read-aloud with pre- Beck, I., McKeown, M., & Kucan, L. (2008). Creating robust
schoolers; many connections can be made with information vocabulary—Frequently asked questions and extended examples.
New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
texts. Table 1 provides examples that could be used with
Blank, M., Rose, S., & Berlin, L. (1978). The language of learning:
this delightful tale about Phoebe, a small non-descript grey The preschool years. New York, NY: Grune & Stratton.
bird who wants to be noticed. She seeks help from Zelda, a Blewitt, P., Rump, K., Shealy, S., & Cook, S. (2009). Shared book
talented beauty specialist to give her a new look. As the reading: When and how questions affect young children’s word
learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 294–304.
story unfolds and Phoebe’s transformation progresses,
Bradley, B., & Reinking, D. (2011). A formative experiment to
there are ample opportunities for exploration of the con- enhance teacher-child language interactions in a preschool
tents and themes of identity and appearance. classroom. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 11(3), 362–401.
The immediate challenge for teachers is to engage pre- Cabell, S., Justice, L., Vukelich, C., Buell, M., & Han, M. (2008).
Strategic and intentional shared storybook reading. In L. Justice
schoolers in more active participation that requires them to
& C. Vukelich (Eds.), Achieving excellence in preschool literacy
think and reason as they listen to and discuss books. The instruction (pp. 198–219). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
goal is to better develop comprehension related abilities Clement, R. (2010). Feathers for Phoebe. Sydney: HarperCollins
(unconstrained skills) that will support their learning now Publishers.
Conrad, N., Gong, Y., Sipp, L., & Wright, L. (2004). Using text talk
and as they move into the formal years of school.
as a gateway to culturally responsive teaching. Early Childhood
Education Journal, 31(3), 187–192.
Cunningham, A., & Zibulsky, A. (2011). Tell me a story: Examining
Conclusion the benefits of shared reading. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson
(Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (Vol. 3, pp. 396–
The preschool years are a critical time for language and 411). New York: The Guilford Press.
literacy learning and development. The adults who work Dickinson, D., Darrow, C., Ngo, S., & D’Souza, L. (2009). Changing
classroom conversations—Narrowing the gap between potential
with young children can play a significant role in building, and reality. In O. Barbarin & B. Wasik (Eds.), Handbook of child
refining, and extending the knowledge, skills, and dispo- development and early education (pp. 328–351). New York, NY:
sitions crucial for later learning and academic success. The Guilford Press.
There is little doubt about value of well-planned, engaging Dickinson, D., Freiberg, J., & Barnes, E. (2011). Why are so few
interventions really effective? A call for fine-grained research
interactive read-alouds as one of the key avenues for sup- methodology. In L. Morrow, L. Gambrell, & N. Duke (Eds.),
porting young children’s language for thinking and Best practices in literacy instruction (4th ed., pp. 337–357). New
understanding. This review highlights three significant York, NY: The Guilford Press.
messages for teachers. Dickinson, D., Golinkoff, R., & Hirsh-Pashek, K. (2010). Speaking
out for language: Why language is central to reading develop-
First, it appears that read alouds could be used more ment. Educational Researcher, 39(4), 305–310.
frequently and more effectively, especially for children ‘‘at Dickinson, D., Griffith, J., Golinkoff, R., & Hirsh-Pashek, K. (2012).
risk’’, to nourish vocabulary and higher-order thinking How reading books fosters language development around the
skills. Second, increasing teachers’ awareness of the vari- world. Child Development Research, 1–15. doi:10.1155/2012/
602807.
ety and range of quality literature, especially information Dickinson, D., & Porche, M. (2011). Relation between language
books, could broaden children’s conceptual knowledge and experiences in preschool classrooms and children’s kindergarten
offer greater opportunities for cognitively challenging and fourth-grade language and reading abilities. Child Develop-
discussion. Finally, a closer focus on the nature and quality ment, 82(3), 870–886.
Dougherty Stahl, K. (2011). Applying new visions of reading develop-
of interactions can lead to improved outcomes. The way ment in today’s classrooms. The Reading Teacher, 65(1), 52–56.
books are shared open or close learning opportunities and Duke, N. (2004). The case for informational text. Educational
possibilities to use language for an increasingly wider Leadership, 61(6), 40–44.
range of purposes. Instigating change and maintaining it Duke, N. (2007). Using nonfiction reference materials with young
children—Let’s look in a book. Young Children, 62(3), 12–16.
presents an enormous challenge, but it is one that must be Ezell, H., & Justice, L. (2005). Shared storybook reading—Building
addressed if we recognise that for children, the limits of young children’s language and emergent literacy skills. Balti-
their language mean the limit of their world. more, MD: Paul Brookes Publishing Co.

123
388 Early Childhood Educ J (2013) 41:381–389

Gjems, L. (2011). Why explanations matter: A study of co- Morrow, L., Tracey, D., & Renner Del Nero, J. (2011). Best practices
construction of explanations between teachers and children in in early literacy: Preschool, kindergarten and first grade. In L.
everyday conversations in kindergarten. European Early Child- Morrow, L. Gambrell, & N. Duke (Eds.), Best practices in
hood Education Research Journal, 19(4), 510–513. literacy instruction (4th ed., pp. 67–95). New York, NY: The
Government, Australian. (2005). Teaching reading—Report and Guilford Press.
recommendations. Canberra: Author. Moschovaki, E., & Meadows, S. (2005). Young children’s spontane-
Gunn, B., Vadasy, P., & Smolkowski, K. (2011). Instruction to help ous participation during classroom bookreading: Differences
young children develop language and literacy skills: The role of according to various types of books. Early Childhood Research
program design and instructional guidance. NHSA Dialog: A and Practice, 7(1). Retrieved from http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v7n1/
Research-to-practice Journal for the Early Childhood Field, moschovaki.html.
14(3), 157–173. National Early Literacy Panel. (2008). Developing early literacy:
Harris, J., Golinkoff, R., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2011). Lessons from the Report of the National Early Literacy Panel. Washington, DC:
crib for the classroom: How children really learn vocabulary. In National Institute for Early Literacy.
S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy Neuman, S. (2011). The challenge of teaching vocabulary in early
research (Vol. 3, pp. 49–65). New York, NY: The Guilford education. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of
Press. early literacy research (Vol. 3, pp. 358–372). New York, NY:
Hindman, A., Wasik, B., & Erhart, A. (2012). Shared book reading The Guilford Press.
and Head Start preschoolers’ vocabulary learning: The role of Neuman, S., & Dwyer, J. (2009). Missing in action: Vocabulary
book related discussion and curricular connections. Early instruction in Pre-K. The Reading Teacher, 62(5), 384–392.
Education and Development, 23(4), 451–474. Paciga, K., Hoffman, J., & Teale, W. (2011). The National Early
Jalongo, M., & Sobolak, M. (2011). Supporting young children’s Literacy Panel and preschool literacy instruction—Green lights,
vocabulary growth: The challenges, the benefits, and evidence- caution lights and red lights. Young Children, 66(6), 50–57.
based strategies. Early Childhood Education Journal, 38(6), Paratore, J., Cassano, C., & Schickedanz, J. (2011). Support early
421–429. (and later) literacy development at home and school: The long
Justice, L., Mashburn, A., Hamre, B., & Pianta, R. (2008). Quality of view. In M. Kamil, P. Pearson, E. Moje, & P. Afflerbach (Eds.),
language and literacy instruction in preschool classrooms serving Handbook of reading research (Vol. 4, pp. 107–135). New York,
at-risk pupils. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23(1), NY: Routledge.
51–68. Paris, S. (2005). Reinterpreting the development of reading skills.
Kindle, K. (2010). Vocabulary development during read-alouds: Reading Research Quarterly, 40(2), 184–202.
Examining the instructional sequence. Literacy Teaching and Paris, S. (2011). Developmental differences in early reading skills. In
Learning, 14(1&2), 65–88. L. Morrow, L. Gambrell, & N. Duke (Eds.), Best practices in
Kindle, K. (2011). Same book, different experience: A comparison of literacy instruction (4th ed., pp. 228–241). New York, NY: The
shared reading in preschool classrooms. Journal of Language Guilford Press.
and Literacy Education [Online], 7(1), 13–34. Paris, A., & Paris, S. (2003). Assessing narrative comprehension in
Kindle, K. (2012). Vocabulary development during read-alouds: young children. Reading Research Quarterly, 38(1), 36–76.
Primary practices. In R. Robinson, M. McKenna, & K. Conradi Pentimonti, J., & Justice, L. (2010). Teachers’ use of scaffolding
(Eds.), Issues and trends in literacy education (5th ed., strategies during read alouds in the preschool classroom. Early
pp. 101–113). Boston, MA: Pearson Education. Childhood Education Journal, 37(4), 241–248.
Kucan, L. (2012). What is most important to know about vocabulary? Pentimonti, J., Zucker, T., & Justice, L. (2011). What are preschool
The Reading Teacher, 65(6), 360–366. teachers reading in their classrooms? Reading Psychology, 32(3),
Marulis, L., & Neuman, S. (2010). The effects of vocabulary 197–236.
intervention on young children’s word learning: A meta- Pentimonti, J., Zucker, T., Justice, L., & Kaderavek, J. (2010).
analysis. Review of Educational Research, 80(3), 300–335. Informational text use in preschool classroom read-alouds. The
Massey, S. (2013). From the reading rug to the play center: Enhancing Reading Teacher, 63(8), 656–665.
vocabulary and comprehensive language skills by connecting Powell, D., & Diamond, K. (2012). Promoting early literacy and language
storybook reading and guided play. Early Childhood Education development. In R. Pianta (Ed.), Handbook of early childhood
Journal, 41(2), 125–131. doi:10.1007/s10643-012-0524-y. education (pp. 194–216). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Massey, S., Pence, K., Justice, L., & Bowles, R. (2008). Educators’ Price, L., Bradley, B., & Smith, J. (2012). A comparison of teachers’
use of cognitively challenging questions in economically disad- talk during storybook and information book read-alouds. Early
vantaged preschool classroom contexts. Early Education and Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(3), 426–440.
Development, 19(2), 340–360. Silverman, R., & Crandell, J. (2010). Vocabulary practices in
McGee, L., & Schickedanz, J. (2007). Repeated interactive read- prekindergarten and kindergarten classrooms. Reading Research
alouds in preschool and kindergarten. The Reading Teacher, Quarterly, 45(3), 318–340.
60(8), 742–751. Siraj-Blatchford, I. (2010). A focus on pedagogy. In K. Sylva, E.
McKeown, M., & Beck, I. (2007). Encouraging young children’s Melhuish, P. Sammons, I. Siraj-Blatchford, & B. Taggart (Eds.),
language interactions with stories. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson Early childhood matters—Evidence from the effective pre-school
(Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (Vol. 2, pp. 281–294). and primary education project (pp. 149–165). London, England:
New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Routledge.
Melbourne Graduate School of Education. (2012). E4Kids—Research Sittner Bridges, M., Justice, L., Hogan, T., & Gray, S. (2012). Promoting
Bulletin, (2), 1–6. Retrieved from http://web.education.unimelb. lower- and higher-level language skills in early education class-
edu.au/E4Kids/news/pdfs/E4Kids_Research_Bulletin_Issue2.pdf. rooms. In R. Pianta (Ed.), Handbook of early childhood education
Mitchell, L., & Cubey, P. (2003). Characteristics of professional (pp. 177–193). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
development linked to enhanced pedagogy and children’s Smolkin, L., & Donovan, C. (2002). Supporting comprehension
learning in early childhood settings: Best evidence synthesis. acquisition for emerging and struggling readers: The interactive
Wellington, England: Ministry of Education. information book read-aloud. Exceptionality, 11(1), 25–38.

123
Early Childhood Educ J (2013) 41:381–389 389

Torr, J., & Scott, C. (2006). Learning ‘special words’ technical Wiseman, A. (2011). Interactive read alouds: Teachers and students
vocabulary in the talk of adults and preschoolers during shared constructing knowledge and literacy together. Early Childhood
reading. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 4(2), 153–167. Education Journal, 38(6), 431–438.
van Kleek, A. (2008). Providing preschool foundations for later Wiseman, A. (2012). Resistance, engagement, and understanding: A
reading comprehension: The importance of and ideas for profile of a struggling emergent reader responding to read-alouds
targeting inferencing in book sharing interventions. Psychology in a kindergarten classroom. Reading and Writing Quarterly,
in the Schools, 45(7), 627–643. 28(3), 255–278.
Van Kleek, A., Vander Woude, J., & Hammett, L. (2006). Fostering Yopp, R., & Yopp, H. (2006). Informational texts as read-alouds at
literal and inferential language skills in Head Start preschoolers with school and home. Journal of Literacy Research, 38(1), 37–51.
language impairment using scripted book-sharing discussions. Yopp, R., & Yopp, H. (2012). Young children’s limited and narrow
American Journal of Speech Language Pathology, 15(1), 85–95. exposure to informational text. The Reading Teacher, 65(7),
Wasik, B. (2010). What can teachers do to promote preschoolers’ 480–490.
vocabulary development: Strategies from an effective language Young, J. (2009). Enhancing emergent literacy potential for young
and literacy professional development coaching model. The children. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 32(2),
Reading Teacher, 63(8), 621–633. 163–180.
Wells, G. (2009). The social context of language and literacy Zucker, T., Justice, L., Piasta, S., & Kaderavek, J. (2010). Preschool
development. In O. Barbarin & B. Wasik (Eds.), Handbook of teachers’ literal and inferential questions and children’s
child development and early education (pp. 271–303). New responses during whole-class shared reading. Early Childhood
York, NY: The Guilford Press. Research Quarterly, 25(1), 65–83.

123