Moving Charges and Magnetism

Introduction
 When current flows through a conductor, three effects can be observed:
o Heating effect (covered in previous chapters)
o Chemical effect (part of electrochemistry)
o Magnetic effect (focus of this chapter)
 The chapter is divided into two main parts:
o Part 1: Current-carrying conductors create magnetic fields. We will calculate the magnetic field's
design, shape, direction, and magnitude.
o Part 2: Behavior of current-carrying conductors in an external magnetic field.

Oersted's Experiment
 Hans Christian Oersted accidentally discovered that a current-carrying conductor produces a
magnetic field.
 When a compass is placed near a circuit, the compass needle deflects when the circuit is closed
and current flows.
 This demonstrates that electric current can produce magnetic effects.

Biot-Savart Law
 Biot-Savart Law calculates the magnetic field dB⃗dB produced by a small length
element dl⃗dl of a current-carrying conductor.
 The law states:dB⃗=μ04πIdl⃗×r^r2dB=4πμ0r2Idl×r^
o dB⃗dB is the magnetic field produced by the small length element.

o II is the current in the conductor.

o dl⃗dl is the length element vector (length element with direction of current).
o μ0μ0 is the permeability of free space (μ0=4π×10−7 T m/Aμ0=4π×10−7T m/A).
o rr is the distance from the length element to the point where the magnetic field is being
calculated.
o r^r^ is the unit vector in the direction from the length element to the point.
 The magnitude of the magnetic field is: dB=μ04πIdlsin⁡θr2dB=4πμ0r2Idlsinθ
o θθ is the angle between dl⃗dl and r⃗r.
 In vector form:dB⃗=μ04πI dl⃗×r⃗r3dB=4πμ0r3Idl×r
 The magnetic field dB⃗dB is perpendicular to both the length element dl⃗dl and the position
vector r⃗r.
 The unit of magnetic field is Tesla (T).

Magnetic Field at the Center of a Circular Loop

 To calculate the magnetic field at the center of a circular loop, integrate the Biot-Savart Law
around the loop.
 For a single circular loop of radius rr carrying current II, the magnetic field BB at the center
is:B=μ0I2rB=2rμ0I
 For NN turns:B=μ0NI2rB=2rμ0NI

Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Loop

 Consider a circular loop of radius rr with current II. We want to find the magnetic field at a
point on the axis of the loop, at a distance aa from the center.
 The magnetic field BB at the axial point is: B=μ0Ir22(r2+a2)3/2B=2(r2+a2)3/2μ0Ir2
 For NN turns:B=μ0NIr22(r2+a2)3/2B=2(r2+a2)3/2μ0NIr2
 At the center of the loop (a=0a=0), this formula reduces to B=μ0NI2rB=2rμ0NI, which is
consistent with the previous result.

Direction of Magnetic Field for a Circular Loop

 Right-Hand Thumb Rule: Wrap the fingers of your right hand in the direction of the current; the
thumb points in the direction of the magnetic field.
 Clock Rule: If the current appears clockwise, the face is a south pole; if it appears counter-
clockwise, the face is a north pole.

Ampere's Circuital Law

 Ampere's Law relates the integrated magnetic field around a closed loop to the current passing

The law states:∮B⃗⋅dl⃗=μ0Ienc∮B⋅dl=μ0Ienc

through the loop.

o The line integral of the magnetic field around a closed loop is equal to μ0μ0 times the net
current enclosed by the loop.
o IencIenc is the net current enclosed by the Amperian loop.
 Application of Ampere's Law: Magnetic Field of a
Straight Wire
 Using Ampere's Law, the magnetic field BB at a distance rr from a long, straight wire carrying
current II is:B=μ0I2πrB=2πrμ0I

Magnetic Field of a Solenoid

 A solenoid is a coil of wire wound into a tightly packed helix.
 The magnetic field inside a solenoid is uniform and parallel to the axis of the solenoid.
 The magnetic field BB inside a long solenoid with nn turns per unit length carrying
current II is:B=μ0nIB=μ0nI
 The magnetic field outside the solenoid is approximately zero.

Motion of a Charge in a Uniform Magnetic Field

 The force on a charge qq moving with velocity v⃗v in a magnetic
field B⃗B is:F⃗=q(v⃗×B⃗)F=q(v×B)
 The magnitude of the force is F=qvBsin⁡θF=qvBsinθ, where θθ is the angle
between v⃗v and B⃗B.
 If v⃗v is parallel to B⃗B (θ=0∘θ=0∘ or 180∘180∘), the force is zero.
 If v⃗v is perpendicular to B⃗B (θ=90∘θ=90∘), the charge moves in a circle. The magnetic force
only changes the direction of the velocity, not the magnitude. The magnetic force does no work
on the charge.
 If v⃗v has a component parallel to B⃗B and a component perpendicular to B⃗B, the charge moves
in a helix.

Circular Motion

 When a charge moves perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, it experiences a force that
causes it to move in a circle.
 The radius rr of the circular path is: r=mvqBr=qBmv
 The time period TT of the circular motion is: T=2πmqBT=qB2πm
o The time period is independent of the velocity vv.
 The frequency ff of the circular motion is: f=qB2πmf=2πmqB
 Kinetic energy remains constant.
 Helical Motion

 When a charge enters a magnetic field at an arbitrary angle θθ, its velocity can be resolved into
two components: vcos⁡θvcosθ (parallel to B⃗B) and vsin⁡θvsinθ (perpendicular to B⃗B).
 The parallel component causes the charge to move along the field lines, while the perpendicular
component causes it to move in a circle.
 The combination of these two motions results in a helical path.

Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic

Field
 A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force.
 The force on a straight conductor of length LL carrying current II in a magnetic
field B⃗B is:F⃗=I(L⃗×B⃗)F=I(L×B)
 The magnitude of the force is F=ILBsin⁡θF=ILBsinθ, where θθ is the angle
between L⃗L and B⃗B.

Force Between Two Parallel Wires

 Two parallel wires carrying current exert a force on each other.

 The force per unit length F/LF/L between two parallel wires separated by a distance dd,
carrying currents I1I1 and I2I2, is:FL=μ0I1I22πdLF=2πdμ0I1I2
 If the currents are in the same direction, the wires attract each other.
 If the currents are in opposite directions, the wires repel each other.
 1 Ampere is defined as the current that, when flowing in two infinitely long parallel wires 1
meter apart, produces a force of 2×10−7 N/m2×10−7N/m on each wire.

Torque on a Current Loop in a Uniform Magnetic Field

 A current loop placed in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque.
 The torque ττ on a current loop with NN turns, area AA, carrying current II in a magnetic
field BB is:τ=NIABsin⁡θτ=NIABsinθ
o θθ is the angle between the normal to the loop and the magnetic field.

Moving Coil Galvanometer

 A moving coil galvanometer is a device used to detect and measure small electric currents.
 Principle: A current-carrying loop placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque.
 Construction: It consists of a coil suspended in a magnetic field, a soft iron core, a pointer, and a
spring. Radial magnetic fields are used.
 Working: When current flows through the coil, it experiences a torque, causing it to rotate. The
rotation is opposed by the spring. The deflection of the pointer is proportional to the current.

Galvanometer Sensitivity

 Current Sensitivity: The deflection produced per unit current. CS=αI=NBAkCS=Iα=kNBA

 Voltage Sensitivity: The deflection produced per unit voltage. VS=αV=NBAkRVS=Vα
=kRNBA
 Where NN is the number of turns, BB is the magnetic field, AA is the area of the coil, kk is
the spring constant, and RR is the resistance.

Conversion of Galvanometer

 To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter, connect a small resistance (shunt) in parallel with
the galvanometer:S=IGRGI−IGS=I−IGIGRG
o SS is the shunt resistance.

o IGIG is the maximum current that can be measured by the galvanometer.

o RGRG is the resistance of the galvanometer.
o II is the range of current.
 To convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter, connect a large resistance in series with the
galvanometer:R=VIG−RGR=IGV−RG
o RR is the series resistance.

o VV is the desired voltage range.

o IGIG is the maximum current that can be measured by the galvanometer.
o RGRG is the resistance of the galvanometer.