SOCIAL SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY

LESSON 1: HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy - study of basic and important questions about life, knowledge,

values, reason, mind, and existence.
Philosophia – greek word which means “love of wisdom.”
Ancient philosophy
- earliest period of Western philosophy
- began in the 6th century BCE
- continued until around the 5th century CE
- It originated in Ancient Greece
- later influenced Roman thought.

Socrates (470-399 BCE)

- “Father of Western Philosophy”
- Famous for the Socratic Method – asking questions to stimulate critical
thinking
- Believed in the importance of self-knowledge and moral virtue
- Left no writings; known through the works of his student, Plato

Plato (427-347 BCE)

- Student of Socrates
- teacher of Aristotle
- Founded the Academy in Athens, the first higher learning institution
- Known for the Theory of Forms – the belief in a higher reality beyond the
physical world
- Believed philosopher-kings should rule society

Aristotle (384–322 BCE)

- Student of Plato
- tutor to Alexander the Great
- Focused on logic, science, ethics, and politics
- Believed knowledge comes from experience and observation
(empiricism)
- Wrote extensively on many subjects; called the “First Scientist”
The Medieval Period
- Middle Ages
- is the time in European history
- between the fall of the Western Roman Empire (around 476 AD) and
- the start of the Renaissance (around 1500 AD).

St. Augustine (354–430)

- Combined Neoplatonism with Christian beliefs
- Major works: Confessions, City of God, On Christian Doctrine
- Explored themes like God and the world, faith and reason, and truth
and evil
- Argued that the world was created without material “building blocks”

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

- Synthesized Aristotle’s philosophy with Christianity
- Major work: Summa Theologica
- Philosophy became the official doctrine of the Catholic Church
- Saw the State’s role as guiding people to understand divine truth

Aquinas’ Five Divine Qualities of God:

- Simplicity – God is not made of parts
- Perfection – God lacks nothing
- Infinity – God is unlimited
- Immutability – God is unchanging
- Unity – God’s essence is His existence

Modern Philosophy
- began around the 16th and continued into the 18th century.
- It marks a significant shift from medieval and classical philosophy
- focusing on new ways of understanding knowledge, reality, and human
existence in light of scientific developments and changing cultural contexts.
During this period, philosophers asked important questions like:
- What is knowledge?
- Where does truth come from?
- Can we trust what we see and feel?

René Descartes (1596–1650)

 - was a french mathematician, scientist, and philosopher
- "Father of Modern Philosophy"
- He is famous for his statement "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I
am).
- He questioned everything, even his senses, because sometimes our eyes
or feelings trick us.
- But he realized that if he was able to doubt or think, then he must exist.

John Locke (1632—1704)

- was a 17th-century English philosopher and physician
- He is known for his contributions to epistemology (the theory of
knowledge), political philosophy, and his concept of the mind as a "tabula
rasa" (blank slate) at birth.
- He believed that all knowledge comes through the senses, and we
build understanding slowly, through life experiences.

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)

- was a German philosopher whose work had a great impact on modern
thought.
- He is known for synthesizing rationalism and empiricism, emphasizing
human freedom and the power of reason.
- He said that we don’t just receive knowledge from the outside world,
our minds help process and organize it using concepts like space,
time, and cause-and-effect.
- So knowledge is a combination of experience and mental structure.

Contemporary philosophy
- modern philosophical thought
- emerged in the early 20th century and continues today
- It explores questions about existence, knowledge, language,
identity, and the human experience, often in relation to science,
society, and culture.

Existentialism
- is a philosophical movement that focuses on the individual’s
experience of freedom, choice, and responsibility.
- It explores the meaning of life, especially in a world without clear
answers.
- Key ideas: freedom, authenticity, anxiety, meaning, death
- Famous philosophers: Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Albert Camus
Analytic Philosophy
- is a style of philosophy that emphasizes clarity, logic, and rational
analysis
- It often focuses on the structure of language and logical reasoning to
solve philosophical problems.
- Key topics: language, truth, science, logic, mind
- Famous philosophers: Ludwig Wittgenstein, Bertrand Russell, G.E. Moore

Continental Philosophy
- refers to a broad group of philosophical traditions from continental
Europe that emphasize human experience, culture, history, and social
structures.
- Key themes: power, identity, meaning, existence, history
- Famous philosophers: Martin Heidegger, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida

LESSON 2: METAPHYSICS
Metaphysics
- is a major branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of
existence, reality, and the structure of the world.
- The word “metaphysics” comes from the Greek meta (beyond) and
physika (physical), meaning “beyond the physical.”
- It asks fundamental questions such as:
- 1. What exists?
- 2. What is the nature of reality?
- 3. What is the relationship between mind and body?
- 4. Do we have free will?

Nature of reality and Existence

Nature of Reality and Existence refers to the study of what is truly real and
what it means for something to exist
Philosophers like Plato argued that true reality lies in abstract, perfect Forms,
while Aristotle believed reality consists of individual, concrete things we
experience.
Key concepts of Nature of reality and Existence

• Ontology
The philosophical study of being. It examines the most general features of reality
and includes everything that exists.
• Idealism
The view that reality is fundamentally mental or spiritual. The material world
depends on the mind or consciousness.
• Realism
The belief that reality exists independently of our thoughts or perceptions.
The world remains the same whether observed or not.
• Anti-Realism
The idea that reality is shaped by our understanding, descriptions, or
interpretations.

Mind and body problem

A philosophical issue about how the mind (thoughts, consciousness) relates
to the body (brain, nervous system). It asks: Are the mind and body separate or
one and the same?
The mind (thinking substance) and body (extended substance) are
separate.

Key concepts of mind and body problem

•Dualism - The mind and body are separate. Descartes believed the mind is
non-physical, while the body is physical.
• Physicalism (Materialism) - The mind is not separate—it is the result of brain
activity.
• Emergentism - The mind arises from the brain’s complexity but is not a
separate substance.

Free will and determinism

Free Will and Determinism is a topic in philosophy that asks whether people really
have the power to choose their actions or if everything is already decided
by past events, nature, or environment. It explores how much control we have
over our lives and whether we are truly responsible for what we do.

Key concepts of Free will and determinism

Free Will – The idea that we can make choices freely and are responsible for
them.
• Determinism – The belief that everything happens because of past causes,
so free will doesn’t really exist.
• Compatibilism – Says free will can still exist even if the world is
determined, as long as we act by our own reasons.
• Libertarianism (in philosophy) – Believes people have true freedom and not
all actions are determined.

Identity and change

Identity and Change looks at how something or someone can stay the same
over time, even if changes happen. It asks what makes a person or object keep
its identity while growing, changing, or replacing parts.
It asks the question:
How can something change and still be the same thing?

Key concepts of identity and change

Numerical Identity – Being exactly the same person or thing at different
times.
Qualitative Identity – Two things that look the same or have the same
traits, but are not the same object.
Ship of Theseus – A thought puzzle asking if something that has all its
parts replaced is still the same.
Personal Identity – What makes someone the same person over time
Example: memory, mind, or body.