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Hands-On Machine
Learning with R
 Chapman & Hall/CRC
The R Series
Series Editors

John M. Chambers, Department of Statistics, Stanford University, California, USA

Torsten Hothorn, Division of Biostatistics, University of Zurich, Switzerland
Duncan Temple Lang, Department of Statistics, University of California, Davis, USA
Hadley Wickham, RStudio, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

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For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.crcpress.com/go/the-r-series

Hands-On Machine
Learning with R

Brad Boehmke
Brandon Greenwell
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Brad:

To Kate, Alivia, and Jules for making sure I have a life outside of
programming and to my mother who, undoubtedly, will try to read the pages
that follow.

Brandon:

To my parents for encouragement, to Thaddeus Tarpey for inspiration,

and to Julia, Lilly, and Jen for putting up with me while writing this book.
Contents

Preface xix

I Fundamentals 1

1 Introduction to Machine Learning 3

1.1 Supervised learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Regression problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2 Classification problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Unsupervised learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Roadmap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 The data sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Modeling Process 13
2.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Data splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.1 Simple random sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.2 Stratified sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.3 Class imbalances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Creating models in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.1 Many formula interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.2 Many engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Resampling methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.1 k-fold cross validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.2 Bootstrapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.3 Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

ix
x Contents

2.5 Bias variance trade-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.5.1 Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5.2 Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5.3 Hyperparameter tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6 Model evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6.1 Regression models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6.2 Classification models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.7 Putting the processes together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3 Feature & Target Engineering 41

3.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Target engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3 Dealing with missingness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.1 Visualizing missing values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.2 Imputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4 Feature filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.5 Numeric feature engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.5.1 Skewness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.5.2 Standardization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.6 Categorical feature engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.6.1 Lumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.6.2 One-hot & dummy encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.6.3 Label encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.6.4 Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.7 Dimension reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.8 Proper implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.8.1 Sequential steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.8.2 Data leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.8.3 Putting the process together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

II Supervised Learning 77
Contents xi

4 Linear Regression 79
4.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2 Simple linear regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2.1 Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2.2 Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3 Multiple linear regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.4 Assessing model accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.5 Model concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.6 Principal component regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.7 Partial least squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.8 Feature interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.9 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

5 Logistic Regression 105

5.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2 Why logistic regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3 Simple logistic regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.4 Multiple logistic regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.5 Assessing model accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.6 Model concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.7 Feature interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.8 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

6 Regularized Regression 121

6.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.2 Why regularize? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.2.1 Ridge penalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.2.2 Lasso penalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.2.3 Elastic nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.3 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.4 Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
xii Contents

6.5 Feature interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

6.6 Attrition data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.7 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

7 Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines 141

7.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.2 The basic idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.2.1 Multivariate adaptive regression splines . . . . . . . . 143
7.3 Fitting a basic MARS model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.4 Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.5 Feature interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.6 Attrition data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.7 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

8 K-Nearest Neighbors 157

8.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.2 Measuring similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.2.1 Distance measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.2.2 Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.3 Choosing 𝑘 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.4 MNIST example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.5 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

9 Decision Trees 175

9.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.2 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
9.3 Partitioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.4 How deep? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.4.1 Early stopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.4.2 Pruning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
9.5 Ames housing example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
9.6 Feature interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
9.7 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Contents xiii

10 Bagging 191
10.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
10.2 Why and when bagging works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.3 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
10.4 Easily parallelize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
10.5 Feature interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
10.6 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

11 Random Forests 203

11.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
11.2 Extending bagging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
11.3 Out-of-the-box performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11.4 Hyperparameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
11.4.1 Number of trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
11.4.2 𝑚u�u�u� . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
11.4.3 Tree complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
11.4.4 Sampling scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
11.4.5 Split rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
11.5 Tuning strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
11.6 Feature interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
11.7 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

12 Gradient Boosting 221

12.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
12.2 How boosting works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
12.2.1 A sequential ensemble approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
12.2.2 Gradient descent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
12.3 Basic GBM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
12.3.1 Hyperparameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
12.3.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
12.3.3 General tuning strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
xiv Contents

12.4 Stochastic GBMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

12.4.1 Stochastic hyperparameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
12.4.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
12.5 XGBoost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
12.5.1 XGBoost hyperparameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
12.5.2 Tuning strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
12.6 Feature interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
12.7 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

13 Deep Learning 247

13.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
13.2 Why deep learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
13.3 Feedforward DNNs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
13.4 Network architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
13.4.1 Layers and nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
13.4.2 Activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
13.5 Backpropagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
13.6 Model training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
13.7 Model tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
13.7.1 Model capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
13.7.2 Batch normalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
13.7.3 Regularization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
13.7.4 Adjust learning rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
13.8 Grid search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
13.9 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

14 Support Vector Machines 271

14.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
14.2 Optimal separating hyperplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
14.2.1 The hard margin classifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
14.2.2 The soft margin classifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Contents xv

14.3 The support vector machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

14.3.1 More than two classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
14.3.2 Support vector regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
14.4 Job attrition example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
14.4.1 Class weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
14.4.2 Class probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
14.5 Feature interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
14.6 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

15 Stacked Models 291

15.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
15.2 The Idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
15.2.1 Common ensemble methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
15.2.2 Super learner algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
15.2.3 Available packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
15.3 Stacking existing models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
15.4 Stacking a grid search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
15.5 Automated machine learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

16 Interpretable Machine Learning 305

16.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
16.2 The idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
16.2.1 Global interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
16.2.2 Local interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
16.2.3 Model-specific vs. model-agnostic . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
16.3 Permutation-based feature importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
16.3.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
16.3.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
16.4 Partial dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
16.4.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
16.4.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
xvi Contents

16.4.3 Alternative uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

16.5 Individual conditional expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
16.5.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
16.5.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
16.6 Feature interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
16.6.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
16.6.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
16.6.3 Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
16.7 Local interpretable model-agnostic explanations . . . . . . . 325
16.7.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
16.7.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
16.7.3 Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
16.7.4 Alternative uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
16.8 Shapley values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
16.8.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
16.8.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
16.8.3 XGBoost and built-in Shapley values . . . . . . . . . . 336
16.9 Localized step-wise procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
16.9.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
16.9.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
16.10Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

III Dimension Reduction 343

17 Principal Components Analysis 345

17.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
17.2 The idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
17.3 Finding principal components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
17.4 Performing PCA in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
17.5 Selecting the number of principal components . . . . . . . . 354
17.5.1 Eigenvalue criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Contents xvii

17.5.2 Proportion of variance explained criterion . . . . . . . 355

17.5.3 Scree plot criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
17.6 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

18 Generalized Low Rank Models 359

18.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
18.2 The idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
18.3 Finding the lower ranks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
18.3.1 Alternating minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
18.3.2 Loss functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
18.3.3 Regularization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
18.3.4 Selecting k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
18.4 Fitting GLRMs in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
18.4.1 Basic GLRM model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
18.4.2 Tuning to optimize for unseen data . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
18.5 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

19 Autoencoders 377
19.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
19.2 Undercomplete autoencoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
19.2.1 Comparing PCA to an autoencoder . . . . . . . . . . 378
19.2.2 Stacked autoencoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
19.2.3 Visualizing the reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
19.3 Sparse autoencoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
19.4 Denoising autoencoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
19.5 Anomaly detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
19.6 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

IV Clustering 397
xviii Contents

20 K-means Clustering 399

20.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
20.2 Distance measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
20.3 Defining clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
20.4 k-means algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
20.5 Clustering digits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
20.6 How many clusters? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
20.7 Clustering with mixed data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
20.8 Alternative partitioning methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
20.9 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

21 Hierarchical Clustering 417

21.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
21.2 Hierarchical clustering algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
21.3 Hierarchical clustering in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
21.3.1 Agglomerative hierarchical clustering . . . . . . . . . . 420
21.3.2 Divisive hierarchical clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
21.4 Determining optimal clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
21.5 Working with dendrograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
21.6 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428

22 Model-based Clustering 429

22.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
22.2 Measuring probability and uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
22.3 Covariance types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
22.4 Model selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
22.5 My basket example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
22.6 Final thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

Bibliography 443

Index 457
Preface

Welcome to Hands-On Machine Learning with R. This book provides hands-on

modules for many of the most common machine learning methods to include:

• Generalized low rank models

• Clustering algorithms
• Autoencoders
• Regularized models
• Random forests
• Gradient boosting machines
• Deep neural networks
• Stacking / super learners
• and more!

You will learn how to build and tune these various models with R packages
that have been tested and approved due to their ability to scale well. However,
our motivation in almost every case is to describe the techniques in a way that
helps develop intuition for its strengths and weaknesses. For the most part, we
minimize mathematical complexity when possible but also provide resources
to get deeper into the details if desired.

Who should read this

We intend this work to be a practitioner’s guide to the machine learning
process and a place where one can come to learn about the approach and to
gain intuition about the many commonly used, modern, and powerful methods
accepted in the machine learning community. If you are familiar with the
analytic methodologies, this book may still serve as a reference for how to
work with the various R packages for implementation. While an abundance of
videos, blog posts, and tutorials exist online, we have long been frustrated by
the lack of consistency, completeness, and bias towards singular packages for
implementation. This is what inspired this book.
This book is not meant to be an introduction to R or to programming in

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