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Understanding Modern Transistors and Diodes

Written in a concise, easy-to-read style, this text for senior undergraduate and graduate
courses covers all key topics thoroughly. It is also a useful self-study guide for practising
engineers who need a complete, up-to-date review of the subject.

Key features:
r Rigorous theoretical treatment combined with practical detail
r A theoretical framework built up systematically from the Schrödinger Wave Equation
and the Boltzmann Transport Equation
r Covers MOSFETS, HBTs, HJFETS, solar cells and LEDs.
r Uses the PSP model for MOSFETS
r Describes the operation of modern, high-performance transistors and diodes
r Evaluates the suitability of various transistor types and diodes for specific modern
applications
r Examines solar cells and LEDs for their potential impact on energy generation and
reduction
r Includes a chapter on nanotransistors to prepare students and professionals for the
future
r Rigorous treatment of device capacitance
r Provides results of detailed numerical simulations to compare with analytical solutions
r End-of-chapter exercises to aid understanding
r Online availability of sets of lecture slides for undergraduate and graduate courses

David L. Pulfrey is a Professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

at the University of British Columbia, Canada, where he has been since receiving his
Ph.D. in 1968 from the University of Manchester, UK. He has won teaching awards at
the university-, provincial- and international-levels. Most recently he won the 2009 IEEE
Electron Devices Society Education Award “for contributions to the teaching of electron
devices at both the undergraduate and graduate levels”. He has received recognition for
his research work on a wide range of semiconductor devices by being elected Fellow of
the IEEE in 2000, and Fellow of the Canadian Academy of Engineering in 2003.
Understanding Modern
Transistors and Diodes
DAVID L. PULFREY
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, BC V6T1Z4
Canada
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,
São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521514606

© Cambridge University Press 2010

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the

provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part
may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2010

ISBN-13 978-0-521-51460-6 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy

of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
To Eileen
 Contents

Preface page xv

1 Introduction 1

2 Energy band basics 3

2.1 Periodic structures 3
2.2 Periodic potential 4
2.3 Schrödinger’s equation 6
2.4 Energy bands 7
2.5 Reduced-zone plot 10
2.6 Origin of the bandgaps 11
2.7 Quantum states and material classification 12
2.8 Band structure of real semiconductors 13
2.9 Crystal momentum and effective mass 16
2.9.1 Negative effective mass 18
2.9.2 Hole polarity 20
2.9.3 Parabolic-band approximation 20
2.10 Constant-energy surfaces 21
2.11 Effective-mass Schrödinger equation 23
2.11.1 Boundary conditions for the effective-mass
equation 25
2.12 Energy-band diagram 25
2.13 From microscopic to macroscopic 26
Exercises 26
References 28

3 Electron and hole concentrations 30

3.1 Creation of electrons and holes 30
3.1.1 Thermal generation 30
3.1.2 Optical generation 33
3.1.3 Electrical generation 34
3.1.4 Chemical generation 35
viii Contents

3.2 Recombination 37
3.2.1 Band-to-band recombination 38
3.2.2 Recombination-generation-centre recombination 39
3.2.3 Auger recombination 40
3.2.4 Recombination lifetime 41
3.3 Carrier concentrations 43
3.4 Density-of-states effective masses in silicon 46
3.4.1 Electrons 46
3.4.2 Holes 46
Exercises 47
References 48

4 Thermal equilibrium 49
4.1 Collisions 49
4.2 The Fermi level 51
4.3 Equilibrium carrier concentrations and the Fermi level 53
4.4 Equations involving intrinsic properties 56
4.5 Mean unidirectional velocity of an equilibrium distribution 57
4.5.1 Effective mass and v R 60
4.5.2 Current and v R 60
Exercises 61
References 62

5 Charge transport 63
5.1 Charge, current and energy 63
5.2 The Boltzmann Transport Equation 64
5.2.1 The Method of Moments 65
5.2.2 The continuity equations 65
5.3 The device equation set 69
5.4 Mobility 71
5.4.1 Empirical expressions for mobility 73
5.4.2 Conductivity effective mass 74
5.5 Current 75
5.5.1 Drift current 76
5.5.2 Diffusion current 77
5.5.3 Thermal current 79
5.6 Ballistic transport 80
5.7 Tunnelling 81
5.7.1 Probability density current 81
5.7.2 Transmission probability 83
5.7.3 Tunnel current 85
Exercises 87
References 90
 Contents ix

6 np- and Np-junction basics 91

6.1 np-junction at equilibrium 91
6.1.1 The built-in voltage 93
6.1.2 Constructing an equilibrium energy-band
diagram 94
6.1.3 Potential profile 95
6.2 The Depletion Approximation 96
6.3 np-junction under bias 98
6.3.1 Constructing a non-equilibrium energy-band
diagram 100
6.3.2 Quasi-neutrality 101
6.3.3 Reverse bias 102
6.4 Quasi-Fermi levels 102
6.5 Shockley’s Law of the Junction 105
6.6 The ideal-diode equation 106
6.6.1 Deviations from ideality in diodes 108
6.7 Np-junction electrostatics 109
6.7.1 Energy band offsets 110
6.7.2 Junction space-charge region 110
6.7.3 Quasi-Fermi-level splitting 111
6.8 Emitter injection efficiency 113
Exercises 114
References 115

7 Solar cells 116

7.1 The Sun as an electrical resource 116
7.2 Absorption 118
7.3 Generation 119
7.4 Photocurrent 120
7.4.1 Surface recombination velocity 121
7.4.2 Emitter photocurrent 122
7.4.3 Base photocurrent 123
7.4.4 Space-charge-layer photocurrent 123
7.4.5 Total photocurrent 124
7.5 Photovoltage 126
7.5.1 Photovoltaic power 128
7.6 Non-silicon solar cells 131
7.6.1 Thin-film solar cells 131
7.6.2 Tandem-junction cells 132
7.7 Prospects for terrestrial photovoltaic power generation 133
Exercises 135
References 136
x Contents

8 Light-emitting diodes 138

8.1 Voltage efficiency 138
8.2 Current efficiency 140
8.2.1 Heterojunction diodes 141
8.3 Radiative recombination efficiency 142
8.4 Extraction efficiency 143
8.5 Wall-plug efficiency 146
8.6 Luminous efficacy and efficiency 146
8.7 White-light LEDs 147
8.8 Prospects for general-purpose solid-state lighting 149
Exercises 151
References 152

9 HBT basics 153

9.1 Basic properties 154
9.2 Collector current 156
9.3 Base current 161
9.3.1 Recombination in the base 162
9.3.2 Hole injection into the emitter 163
9.4 DC equivalent-circuit model 164
Exercises 166
References 168

10 MOSFET basics 169

10.1 Transfer characteristic 169
10.2 Electrostatics 173
10.2.1 MOS capacitor 173
10.2.2 MOSFET 175
10.3 MOSFET I-V characteristics from the surface-potential model 176
10.3.1 Surface potential 176
10.3.2 Drain current 179
10.3.3 Pinch-off and channel-length modulation 182
10.4 MOSFET I-V characteristics from the strong-inversion,
source-referenced model 182
10.4.1 Basic assumptions of the model 182
10.4.2 Drain current for constant mobility 183
10.4.3 Comparison of the surface-potential and SPICE models 185
10.4.4 Threshold voltage, body-effect coefficient and channel
charge density 185
10.4.5 I D when mobility is field-dependent 187
10.5 Sub-threshold current 189
10.6 Applying the long-channel models 190
 Contents xi

10.7 DC equivalent-circuit model 191

Exercises 192
References 193

11 HJFET basics 195

11.1 Schottky barrier 195
11.1.1 Thermionic emission and tunnelling 198
11.2 MESFET 199
11.2.1 Channel formation and threshold voltage 199
11.2.2 Drain current 200
11.3 HEMT 202
11.3.1 The 2-DEG 203
11.3.2 The finite well 205
11.3.3 Electron concentration in the 2-DEG 206
11.3.4 Controlling the channel charge by the gate potential 207
11.3.5 The drain I-V characteristic 208
Exercises 208
References 209

12 Transistor capacitances 210

12.1 Defining capacitance 210
12.2 MOSFET capacitance 213
12.2.1 Intrinsic MOSFET capacitances 213
12.2.2 Extrinsic MOSFET capacitances 217
12.3 HBT capacitance 217
12.3.1 Emitter-base junction capacitance 218
12.3.2 Base storage capacitance 219
12.3.3 Emitter storage capacitance 220
12.3.4 Base-emitter transit capacitance 220
12.3.5 Collector-base junction capacitance 222
Exercises 222
References 224

13 Transistors for high-speed logic 225

13.1 Si CMOS 225
13.1.1 General features of CMOS 225
13.1.2 The ON-current 227
13.1.3 Channel mobility and strain 229
13.1.4 Oxide capacitance and high-k dielectrics 232
13.1.5 Metal gates and poly-silicon capacitance 233
13.1.6 Gate leakage current 234
13.1.7 Threshold voltage: the short-channel effect 235
xii Contents

13.1.8 Threshold voltage: a quantum-mechanical effect 239

13.1.9 Silicon-on Insulator FET 240
13.1.10 Power dissipation 242
13.1.11 Large-signal equivalent-circuit model 245
13.2 Emitter-coupled logic 246
13.2.1 Large-signal equivalent-circuit model 247
Exercises 248
References 250

14 Transistors for high frequencies 251

14.1 Quasi-static analysis 251
14.2 The generic small-signal model 253
14.3 Hybrid-π small-signal model for HBTs 255
14.4 f T : the extrapolated unity-current-gain frequency 256
14.4.1 An expression for f T 257
14.5 Designing an HBT for high f T 259
14.5.1 SiGe HBT 260
14.6 f max : the extrapolated unity-power-gain frequency 262
14.6.1 Base-spreading resistance 264
14.7 f T and f max for FETs 266
14.7.1 f T 267
14.7.2 f max 268
14.8 Power gain, oscillation and stability 268
Exercises 269
References 271

15 Transistors for memories 273

15.1 Flash memory 273
15.2 Dynamic Random Access Memory 277
Exercises 280
References 280

16 Transistors for high power 281

16.1 Avalanche breakdown 281
16.2 The Kirk Effect 284
16.3 Transistors for power amplifiers 284
16.3.1 GaAs HBTs 285
16.3.2 GaN HJFETs 289
16.4 Transistors for high-voltage power supplies 292
16.4.1 Si L-DMOSFETs 293
16.4.2 Lateral insulated-gate bipolar transistor 294
Exercises 296
References 397
 Contents xiii

17 Transistors for low noise 299

17.1 Noise: general properties 299
17.2 Noise inherent to transistors 300
17.2.1 Thermal noise 300
17.2.2 Shot noise 301
17.2.3 Flicker noise 302
17.2.4 Induced gate noise 303
17.2.5 Adding-up the noise 304
17.3 Representation of noise in an equivalent circuit 304
17.4 Noise figure 306
17.4.1 Associated gain 307
Exercises 309
References 309

18 Transistors for the future 310

18.1 1-D carrier basics 311
18.1.1 Density of states 311
18.1.2 Carrier density 312
18.1.3 Mean, unidirectional velocity of a 1-D equilibrium distribution 313
18.2 1-D ballistic transport 314
18.2.1 Dimensions for current density 316
18.2.2 Local density of states 316
18.2.3 Evaluating the charge 316
18.3 Master set of equations for 1-D simulations 318
18.4 Comparison of 1-D and 2-D currents 319
18.4.1 Energy dissipation in ballistic transistors 321
18.5 Novel features of carbon nanotube FETs 321
18.5.1 Quantum capacitance and transconductance 322
18.5.2 Ambipolarity 323
Exercises 324
References 326

19 Appendices 327
19.1 Appendix A: Physical constants 327
19.2 Appendix B: Selected material properties 327
19.3 Appendix C: N-MOSFET parameters 329

Index 330
Preface

Understanding Modern Transistors and Diodes is a textbook on semiconductor devices

with three objectives: (i) to provide a rigorous, yet readable, account of the theoretical
basis of the subject of semiconductor devices; (ii) to apply this theory to contemporary
transistors and diodes so that their design and operation can be thoroughly understood;
(iii) to leave readers with a sense of confidence that they are well equipped to appreciate
the workings of tomorrow’s devices, and to participate in their development.
There are many books on semiconductor devices, often with similar objectives, and
it is reasonable to ask: why write another one? The answer is two-fold: firstly, after
teaching and researching in the area for 40 years, I have a strong personal viewpoint
on how the subject can best be presented to students; secondly, we are at a particularly
interesting point in the development of the subject – we are at the micro/nano boundary
for high-performance transistors, and we are on the threshold of seeing optoelectronic
diodes make a contribution to our planet’s sustainability.
These circumstances are new, and are quite different from those of 20 years ago
when I was last moved to write a book on semiconductor devices. At that time the
major development was the incorporation of thousands of transistors into monolithic
integrated circuits. To design and analyse such circuits, the transistors were represented
by a set of model parameters. One could use these parameters to design a circuit
without understanding how they related to the physical properties of the actual transistors
comprising the circuit. To address this deficiency I co-authored a book with Garry Tarr
in 1989 that specifically linked circuit-model parameters to the physical properties of
transistors and diodes.1
Today, after a further 20 years of teaching and researching in the area of solid-
state devices, I find myself lecturing on, and needing to know more about: the effect
of miniaturization on the performance of silicon field-effect transistors, as used in
increasingly dense integrated circuits and memories; the displacement of the silicon
bipolar transistor from its traditional areas of strength (high-frequency, high-power,
low-noise) by heterostructural devices based on compound semiconductors; how device
engineers and physicists can address sustainability issues in their domain, particularly
the generation of electricity from a renewable source via more cost-effective solar cells,
and the reduction of electricity usage for lighting via high-brightness light-emitting
diodes. Sometimes I feel as though the trends in semiconductor devices are creating

1 D.L. Pulfrey and N.G. Tarr, Introduction to Microelectronic Devices, Prentice-Hall, 1989.
xvi Preface

an impossible situation: the need for greater depth of knowledge in a wider variety of
devices.
The solution to this dilemma comes back to the first objective of this book: provide a
rigorous and digestible theoretical basis, from which the understanding of devices of the
modern era, and of the near future, follows naturally. This is how Understanding Modern
Transistors and Diodes meets the challenge of covering a wide breadth of topics in the
depth they warrant, while managing to limit the material to that which can be covered in
one or two one-term courses. The requisite physics is treated properly once and is then
approximated, and seen to be approximated, where justifiable, when being applied to var-
ious devices. The physics has to be quantum mechanical for several reasons: band struc-
ture is important for all the devices we discuss, particularly for heterostructural diodes
and transistors of both field-effect and bipolar varieties; electron-photon interactions are
obviously relevant in solar cells and light-emitting diodes; tunnelling is an important
leakage-current mechanism in field-effect transistors; future one-dimensional transistors
may be so short that ballistic, rather than dissipative, transport will be operative. Even
in ‘classical’ devices transport must be treated rigorously in view of the trends towards
miniaturization: the Drift-Diffusion Equation cannot be blindly applied, but must be
justified after a proper treatment of its parent, the Boltzmann Transport Equation. One
intermediate solution to this equation, the charge-density continuity equation, provides
the basis for our rigorous and formal description of capacitance. This device property is
crucially important to the transistors presented in the application-specific chapters in the
book on digital switching, high-frequency performance and semiconductor memories.
As a final emphasis on the rigour of this book, the traditional SPICE-related model
for the MOS field-effect transistor is put in its rightful place, i.e., as a computationally
expedient approximation to the ‘surface-potential’ model. If SPICE has helped design
circuits that have enabled higher performance computers, then that has been its downfall,
because those computers can now permit the more rigorous surface-potential model to
be used for the more accurate simulation of integrated circuits!
Understanding Modern Transistors and Diodes is intended for students at the graduate
or senior-undergraduate level who are studying electronics, microelectronics or nano-
electronics, within the disciplines of electrical and computer engineering, engineering
physics or physics. However, there is sufficient material on basic semiconductor theory
and elementary device physics for the book to be appropriate also for a junior-level
course on solid-state electronic devices. Additionally, the inclusion in the book of spe-
cific chapters on the application of the foundation material to modern, high-performance
transistors and diodes, and a glimpse into the future of true nanotransistors, should make
the book of interest to practitioners and managers in the semiconductor industry, partic-
ularly those who have not had the opportunity to keep up with recent developments in
the field. It is my hope that the depth and breadth of this book might make it a ‘one-stop
shop’ for several levels of courses on semiconductor devices, and for device-practitioner
neophytes and veterans alike. The material in this book, in various stages of develop-
ment, has been used by me for senior-level undergraduate courses and for graduate-level
courses on semiconductor devices at UBC, for short courses to engineers at PMC-Sierra
in Vancouver, and to graduate students at the University of Pisa and at the Technical
 Preface xvii

University of Vienna. I thank all those students of these courses who have commented
on the material and have sought to improve it.
As an undergraduate I focused on ‘heavy-current electrical engineering’, and never
benefited from a course on semiconductor devices. I am basically ‘self-taught’ in the
area, and I think that this has attuned me particularly well to the nature of the difficulties
many students face in trying to master this profound subject. Hopefully this book
circumvents most of these obstacles to the understanding of how semiconductor devices
work. If it does, then thanks are due to many people who have enlightened me over
my 40 years of working in the subject area, both as a professor at the University of
British Columbia, and as a visiting research engineer at various industry, government,
and university laboratories around the world. I particularly want to mention Lawrence
Young, who hired me as a postdoc in 1968, and thereby started my transformation to a
‘light-current electrical engineer’. I owe a great debt of gratitude to my graduate students,
with whom I have worked collegially, learning with them, and sharing the work ‘in the
trenches’ as much as possible. One of the great pleasures of writing this book has been
to call on some of them, and on some former undergraduates too, to make sure that the
material in some of the device-specific chapters in the book is truly modern. Particularly,
I wish to thank: Alvin Loke (AMD, Colorado) for his enthusiastic support, his insights
into the finer points of modern, high-performance CMOS devices and his arrangement
of the procurement of the cover photograph from AMD’s Dresden laboratory; Tony
St. Denis (Triquint, Portland) for provision of material on high-frequency and low-noise
heterojunction field-effect transistors; Mani Vaidyanathan (University of Alberta) for
his insights into high-frequency devices, and for his encouragement; Leonardo Castro
(Qimonda, Munich) for helpful details on DRAMs; David John (NXP, Eindhoven) for
useful information on silicon power transistors, and for alerting me to Philips’ version
of the MOSFET surface-potential model; Shawn Searles (AMD, Austin) for sharing his
thoughts on where Si CMOS is heading; Gary Tarr (Carleton University) for commenting
on the solar cell chapter. I also wish to thank Ivan Pesic of Silvaco Data Systems for
making a copy of his company’s excellent simulation software, Atlas, available to me
during 2008. At Cambridge University Press, England, I thank Julie Lancashire for
her encouragement of this project, and Sarah Matthews, Caroline Brown and Richard
Marston for their assistance in bringing it to fruition.
Most ‘part-time’ authors of technical books comment on the interruptions to their
family life that writing a textbook entails, and I am no exception. My children, their
spouses and my grandchildren are my friends, and I am conscious of the time I have
missed spending with them. I hope they will think that this book has been worth it. The
writing of it has been sustained by the encouragement, support and understanding of
my wife, Eileen, to whom I give my deepest thanks.

David Pulfrey
Vancouver
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