BELIEFS IN SOCIETY Knowledge Organisers

The information contained in this knowledge organiser pack is drawn from research regularly used in the teaching of
AQA A Level Sociology, for the optional topic, Beliefs in Society. The studies used in this pack align with the tutor2u
Beliefs in Society checklist. This constitutes neither a set of compulsory studies that students must know or an
exhaustive list. Students may wish to use alternative sources that are available in the study of Beliefs in Society.

The knowledge organisers cover material set out in the AQA A Level Sociology specification, that was first used for
teaching in 2015 and reflects the following specification points:

3.2.5 Beliefs in Society

Students are expected to be familiar with sociological explanations of the following content:
ideology, science and religion, including both Christian and non-Christian religious traditions
the relationship between social change and social stability, and religious beliefs, practices and organisations
religious organisations, including cults, sects, denominations, churches and New Age movements, and their
relationship to religious and spiritual belief and practice
the relationship between different social groups and religious/spiritual organisations and movements, beliefs and
practices
the significance of religion and religiosity in the contemporary world, including the nature and extent of
secularisation in a global context, and globalisation and the spread of religions.

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ideology, science and religion
The Beliefs in Society optional topic focuses on more than just religious beliefs. It also examines different beliefs in wider society, such as science and
ideology, and compares the features of different beliefs systems and definitions of these. For example, students may be asked to evaluate the extent to
which science has replaced religion as the dominant belief system in society, or the extent to which religion can be seen as ideological.

Defining Ideology: Definitions of Religion

Comparing and contrasting different belief systems:
Ideology is a set of beliefs and values that Substantive Definitions:
reflect and legitimize the interests of Religion is defined by the content of belief
Nature of Beliefs:
particular social groups. Mannheim – particularly the existence of a
Science is ideally an open system where ideas are constantly
Explored the role of ideology in supernatural or transcendent realm.
tested and revised, whereas religion (especially in
maintaining power structures finding that Weber’s definition of religion fits this best
substantive definitions) often relies on established, sacred
ideological systems often underpin as it highlights that without belief in
beliefs.
political, economic, and social institutions, something beyond the natural world, a
Ideology, meanwhile, typically consists of core beliefs that
thereby influencing how society is system of religion would not exist.
may be resistant to change, particularly if they serve to
organised.
maintain existing power relations.
Functional Definitions:
Religion is defined by the role it plays in
Defining science: Role of Texts and Rituals:
society rather than by its specific content.
Positivist/Empirical Definitions: Science does not depend on sacred texts but instead on
The functions of religion in providing moral
Science is often defined as the systematic empirical evidence and peer review processes.
order, social cohesion, and meaning (as
pursuit of objective knowledge about the Religion commonly involves sacred texts, rituals, and
seen in the works of Comte and Durkheim).
natural world. Empirical testing, traditions that are revered and form the core of its practice.
Here, the focus is less on supernatural
falsifiability (Popper), and logical Ideology may draw on influential writings and theories, but
beliefs and more on how religion
consistency. Under this view, scientific these are usually not held as sacrosanct in the same way as
contributes to the stability and regulation
progress is seen through cumulative religious texts.
of society.
advancements and occasional
revolutionary paradigm shifts (Kuhn). Function in Society:
Constructionist Definitions:
Science functions to explain the natural world and drive
Religion is seen as a product of social and
Social Constructionist Definitions: technological and intellectual progress, operating through a
cultural processes, where meanings are
Science is not merely a collection of self-correcting process (often guided by norms like Merton’s
continuously negotiated. The idea that
objective facts but is shaped by social CUDOS).
what is considered ‘religious’ is not fixed
interactions, cultural contexts, and the Religion can provide moral guidance, social cohesion, and a
but constructed through social
norms of the scientific community. sense of meaning, serving both individual and collective
interactions (Aldridge). This definition
The influence of social processes, power needs.
highlights the fluidity and context-
relations, and debates within the scientific Ideology legitimises social arrangements and power
dependence of religious beliefs, as
community (as argued by Woolgar and structures, offering a framework through which individuals
opposed to a static set of doctrines.
Sayer). interpret their social reality.

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FUNCTIONALIST VIEWS OF RELIGION
Functionalist sociologists view religion as a vital institution that contributes to the stability, cohesion, and functioning of society. They argue that religion
serves as a conservative force, maintaining social order by reinforcing shared norms, values, and collective identity. While different functionalist theorists
emphasise various aspects of religion’s role, they all see it as essential for ensuring social integration and solidarity.

Durkheim: Religion and Social Solidarity

Malinowski: Religion as a Psychological Function
Durkheim (1912) studied totemism among the Australian Aboriginals
Malinowski (1954) agreed with Durkheim but focused more on individual
and argued that religion reinforces collective consciousness by
needs, arguing that religion helps people cope with emotional stress and
promoting shared norms and values.
uncertainty.
He distinguished between the sacred (objects or practices imbued
His study of the Trobriand Islanders showed that religious rituals were
with special significance) and the profane (ordinary aspects of life).
performed in situations of uncertainty and crisis, such as fishing in
Religious rituals strengthen the bonds between members of society,
dangerous waters.
creating a sense of belonging and unity.
Religion provides psychological comfort by reducing anxiety and giving
View on religion as ideology or science: Religion provides a moral
individuals a sense of control.
framework that upholds social order, but it is not based on empirical
View on religion as ideology or science: Religion serves an emotional and
testing like science. Instead, it is a socially constructed belief system
psychological purpose rather than a scientific one. It does not rely on
that reinforces social solidarity.
empirical evidence but instead provides explanations for uncertainty.
How it aligns with religion as a conservative force: Religion maintains
By providing comfort and reassurance, religion prevents social instability
existing social structures by fostering a collective identity and
caused by fear or anxiety, helping people accept the status quo.
preventing anomie (a breakdown of social norms).

Parsons: Religion and Value Consensus Bellah: Civil Religion and National Unity
Parsons (1967) viewed religion as reinforcing core values and Bellah (1970) introduced the concept of civil religion, arguing that in
providing a moral framework that guides behaviour. secular societies like the USA, religious symbols and rituals are used to
Religion legitimises social norms, ensuring that individuals conform create a national identity.
to society’s expectations (e.g. ideas of right and wrong based on Civil religion integrates society through shared symbols, ceremonies, and
religious teachings). values that function like traditional religious beliefs (e.g. American
It also helps people make sense of life events such as death and patriotism and national anthems).
suffering by providing meaning and purpose. View on religion as ideology or science: Even in secular societies, belief
View on religion as ideology or science: Religion provides meaning, systems resembling religion persist to maintain social cohesion. Civil
moral guidance, and social regulation but is not a scientific system of religion is ideological in that it promotes shared values and a sense of
knowledge. Instead, it legitimises values and norms that maintain national identity, but it is not based on scientific principles.
social stability. How it aligns with religion as a conservative force: Even in secular
How it aligns with religion as a conservative force: Religion supports societies, religion (or its equivalent) continues to reinforce national unity
social stability by reinforcing societal norms, legitimising authority, and uphold the social order.
and reducing potential sources of conflict.

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MARXIST AND NEO-MARXIST VIEWS OF RELIGION
Marxist and neo-Marxist sociologists argue that religion serves as a tool of ideology, maintaining class-based inequalities by legitimising ruling-class power.
Classical Marxists such as Marx, Engels and Lenin see religion as a form of false consciousness that prevents revolutionary change, reinforcing religion as a
conservative force. However, neo-Marxists like Bloch, Maduro, and Gramsci acknowledge that religion can also be a force for social change under certain
conditions.

Karl Marx: Religion as Ideological Control Ernst Bloch: The Principle of Hope
Marx (1844) described religion as "the opium of the people", arguing that it Bloch (1959) introduced the idea of the "principle of hope",
serves as a form of false consciousness that dulls the pain of oppression. suggesting that while religion often serves ruling-class interests, it
It justifies inequality by promoting suffering as virtuous and discourages also contains an element of utopianism.
revolution. He argued that religion can inspire visions of a better world, which in
View on Religion: Ideology – It distorts reality to benefit the ruling class. turn can motivate social movements and revolutionary change.
Religion as a Conservative Force: Maintains capitalism by pacifying the View on Religion: Mixed – Religion is primarily ideological, but it can
working class. contain revolutionary potential if harnessed by the oppressed.
Religion as a conservative force: Religion usually maintains the status
quo, but under the right conditions, it can also act as a catalyst for
Engels: Religion’s Dual Role change.
Engels (1895) agreed religion often supports ruling-class interests but
argued it has also inspired radical social movements (e.g., early Christianity).
Gramsci: Hegemony and Counter-Hegemony
View on Religion: Mainly ideology – Religion usually controls, but in some
Gramsci (1930s) argued religion helps maintain hegemony (ruling-
cases, it mobilises the oppressed.
class dominance).
Religion as a Conservative Force: Religion justifies inequality but can
However, religious leaders can act as "organic intellectuals", using
sometimes promote resistance.
religion to inspire resistance.
View on Religion: Ideology – A key tool of ruling-class control but can
also challenge power.
Lenin: Religion as "Spiritual Gin" Religion as a Conservative Force: Usually maintains hegemony but
Lenin (1917) built on Marx’s ideas, describing religion as "spiritual gin" – a can promote counter-hegemonic movements.
tool used by the ruling class to confuse and control the working class.
He argued that religion distracts people from their real material conditions,
preventing them from recognising their exploitation.
Maduro: Religion and Liberation Theology
Religion creates a false sense of unity between classes, suggesting that
Maduro (1982) showed how Liberation Theology in Latin America
wealth and poverty are part of a divine plan rather than a result of
encouraged activism against dictatorship.
economic exploitation.
Religion can support social justice movements.
View on Religion – Religion is a mechanism of social control that protects
View on Religion: Ideology, but with revolutionary potential.
the interests of the ruling class.
Religion as a Conservative Force: Religion can resist oppression but
Religion as a Conservative Force: Prevents class consciousness and
often reinforces inequality.
maintains capitalism.

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wEBERIAN AND FEMINIST VIEWS OF RELIGION
Weberian and feminist perspectives offer contrasting views on religion’s role in society. Max Weber emphasises the role of religion in shaping social and
economic change, arguing that it can be a force for both continuity and transformation. Feminists, on the other hand, see religion as a patriarchal ideology
that reinforces gender inequality, though some argue it also offers women opportunities for resistance and empowerment.

Weber: Religion as a Driver of Social Change Nawal El Saadawi: Religion as Culturally Manipulated
Weber (1905) in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism El Saadawi (1980) argued that religion itself is not inherently patriarchal, but
argued that religious beliefs can directly influence economic and has been shaped by male-dominated cultures.
social systems. Religious texts have been reinterpreted to reinforce patriarchy, but originally,
He studied Calvinism, showing how ideas like predestination, many religions had egalitarian elements.
asceticism, and hard work created a mindset that encouraged Practices such as female genital mutilation (FGM) and veiling are cultural
capitalist development. traditions rather than true religious doctrines, showing how men distort
Weber argued that religion is not always a conservative force—it religion to oppress women.
can drive social change (later examples: the role of religious ideas in View on Religion: Cultural ideology – Religion has been manipulated by men,
the Civil Rights Movement and liberation theology). but it is not necessarily patriarchal in itself.
He contrasted the rationalisation of the modern world with Religion as a Conservative Force: Religion is often used to justify women’s
traditional religious worldviews, arguing that as societies become oppression, but this is due to cultural rather than religious factors.
more scientific, religion loses its influence (a process known as
disenchantment). Mary Daly: Religion and Female Erasure
View on Religion: Neither ideology nor science – Religion shapes Daly (1973) argued that mainstream religion is built on patriarchal myths that
human action but is influenced by economic and cultural contexts. erase female power and reinforce male dominance. She claimed that the
Religion as a Conservative Force: Religion can maintain the status Christian Church is inherently sexist, portraying God as a male authority
quo, but it also has the power to create change, depending on figure and women as subordinate.
historical circumstances. She advocated for the rejection of male-dominated religions and the
development of spirituality centred on female empowerment.
Simone de Beauvoir: Religion as a Tool of Patriarchy View on Religion: Ideology – Religion is an oppressive force designed to
De Beauvoir (1953) argued that religion reinforces women’s maintain male power.
oppression by promoting the idea that their role is to be passive and Religion as a Conservative Force: It prevents women from achieving equality
obedient. by enforcing patriarchal norms.
Women are taught to accept their inferior position because they are
promised rewards in the afterlife, making them less likely to Linda Woodhead: Religion as a Form of Resistance
challenge their oppression. Woodhead (2002) argued that while religion is often patriarchal, some
Religion is used to justify gender inequalities, portraying women as religious practices and groups provide women with agency and power.
morally superior but socially subordinate. View on Religion: Mixed – Religion is not always patriarchal; women can use it
View on Religion: Ideology – Religion supports male dominance by to resist oppression.
encouraging female submission. Religion as a Conservative Force: Religion can reinforce patriarchy, but it also
Religion as a Conservative Force: Prevents women from challenging allows for feminist reinterpretation and activism.
patriarchal structures by making them accept their subordination.

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religion and social change
Below is an outline for the specification point on Religion and Social Change structured around the key debate—whether religion acts as a conservative force
or as a revolutionary catalyst. This outline integrates core concepts and shows how various sociological perspectives contribute to each side of the debate,
including the more nuanced arguments that religion can fulfill both functions which is useful for writing conclusions if this were a 20 mark essay.

Framing the debate:

Religion as a Conservative Force Religion as a Revolutionary Force
Functionalists largely believe that
Consensus Views and Social Order Liberation Theology and the Principle of Hope
religion reinforces the value consensus
Religion as a source of shared values and social Liberation theology (Maduro) as an approach that
in society and provides individuals
cohesion (Durkheim, Parsons, Bellah). interprets religious teachings in the context of
with a sense of social cohesion and
It reinforces consensus views that bind society social justice and the struggle for human rights.
provides meaning at times of crisis
together. The principle of hope (Bloch) provides a vision for
that would otherwise threaten social
Calvinism and the Protestant Ethic a reformed, more equitable society.
stability. These ideas are presented
Weber: The role of Calvinism and the Protestant Religion and Civil Rights
through the ideas of Durkheim,
ethic in promoting values of hard work, discipline, Baptist Movement and Civil Rights: religious
Malinowski, Parsons and Bellah.
and self-control underpin capitalist development movements have inspired and mobilised
and social stability. However, these values also communities in the fight for civil rights and social
Marx and Lenin argue that religion also
drive social changes such as economic mobility. equality (e.g., the role of churches in the US civil
acts to maintain the social structure,
Fundamentalism, Patriarchy, and Oppression rights movement).
both suggesting religion is a distraction
Fundamentalism can emerge as a reaction against The emergence of Pentecostalism as a dynamic,
from class struggles They do not want
rapid social change, preserving traditional values. people-centred religious movement that
the capitalist social structure to be
The role of religion in sustaining patriarchal challenges established authority.
maintained. Similarly, feminists like De
structures and contributing to social oppression Hegemony, Counter-Hegemony, and Organic
Beauvoir argue that religion is a form
and alienation (Durkheim’s view on tradition; Lenin Intellectuals
of social control - transmitting
and Marx’s critique on religion as a tool of Gramsci’s ideas of hegemony and counter-
patriarchal norms and values.
domination). hegemony help to understand how religious ideas
The "role of patriarchy" and how conservative can both support and challenge dominant cultural
However not all conflict theorists
religious doctrines have historically reinforced narratives. The concept of organic intellectuals
agree. Both Gramsci and Engels
gender hierarchies. (De Beauvoir) and dual consciousness (drawing on Bloch and
suggest that religion can be both a
Theoretical Contributions Gramsci) to illustrate how religious leaders and
conservative force and a force for
Durkheim: Emphasises religion’s role in creating movements articulate alternative visions of
change, as does Daly. Maduro and
social solidarity and a shared moral order. society.
Bloch go further and outline the
Parsons and Bellah: Focus on the integrative Revolutionary Interpretations of Christianity and
revolutionary potential of religion.
functions of religion, with Bellah introducing ideas Female Spirituality
of civil religion that bind communities together. The emergence of female spirituality as a challenge
Weber offers both explanations -
Lenin and Marx: Although critics of religion, their to male-dominated religious practices (influenced
suggesting the protestant work ethic
arguments suggest that religion maintains social by De Beauvoir and Daly).
supports capitlaist systems, whilst also
structures.
promoting social change.

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Churches, denominations, cults and sects
Students of AQA A Level Sociology studying Beliefs in Society, need to be aware of sociological definitions of different types of religious organisation including
churches, denominations, cults and sects. Being able to identify the differences between these organisations and the social characteristics of who they attract
is key to answering questions not only on religious participation, but also wider debates such as the extent of secularisation and changes in the way people
practice their faith.

Churches Sects
Features of Churches: Features of Sects:
Large, bureaucratic structures with a formal hierarchy. Small, tightly-knit groups often formed as a breakaway from a church.
Inclusive membership, aiming to appeal to the majority of society. Exclusive membership, personal commitment and conversion.
Close links with the state and often support the ruling class. Hostile to mainstream society, rejecting its values and norms.
Monopoly of religious truth (claiming their beliefs are the only valid ones). Charismatic leadership, authority is often based on a single leader.
Professional clergy with specialised training. Strict rules and high levels of commitment—members may be required to
Sociological Definitions: abandon their previous lifestyle.
Max Weber (1922) described a church as a dominant, bureaucratic Sociological Definitions:
religious organisation that is integrated into society and often aligned Weber (1922) linked sect membership to the "theodicy of disprivilege",
with political power. meaning they attract people seeking explanations for their suffering or
Ernst Troeltsch (1912) argued that churches are conservative, supporting marginalisation.
the status quo and the ruling elite. Niebuhr (1929) suggested that sects face the "denomination or death"
Examples: the Catholic Church and the Church of England—both have dilemma, meaning they either become more socially accepted and turn
historically held religious and political authority. into denominations or disappear over time.
Examples: Jehovah’s Witnesses, The Amish, The People’s Temple

Denominations Cults
Features of Denominations: Features of Cults:
Moderate-sized organisations with some bureaucracy but more flexibility Loosely structured and individualistic, focusing on personal spiritual
than churches. experience.
Inclusive but voluntary membership—individuals choose to join. No monopoly of truth, meaning they accept multiple spiritual paths.
Not linked to the state but still accepted in mainstream society. Often world-affirming, meaning they encourage members to succeed in
Tolerant of other religious groups, unlike churches. mainstream society rather than reject it.
Professional clergy, but members are encouraged to participate in Short-lived and flexible, with members coming and going freely.
religious activities. Charismatic leadership but less rigid control than sects.
Sociological Definitions: Sociological Definitions:
Niebuhr (1929) developed the concept of denominations, arguing they Stark and Bainbridge (1985) divided cults into three types based on
emerge when sects become more socially acceptable over time. commitment levels:
Examples: Methodism, Baptists, Pentecostalism—these groups have Audience Cults, Client Cults, and Cultic Movements
distinct doctrines but remain integrated into society. These vary on level of commitment, organisation structure and level of
tolerance

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the growth of new religious movements (NRMs)
New Religious Movements (NRMs) are religious or spiritual groups that have emerged since the mid-20th century, often offering alternative beliefs and
practices compared to traditional religions. Roy Wallis (1984) classified NRMs into three types: world-rejecting, world-accommodating, and world-affirming
movements. These categories help sociologists understand how NRMs interact with society and why people join them.

Types of NRMs (Wallis 1984) 1. Marginalisation and Deprivation (Weber, 1922)

1. World-Rejecting NRMs Weber argued that NRMs often attract people who feel marginalised or
These movements see mainstream society as corrupt and believe they offer socially deprived (e.g., the poor, ethnic minorities, or those who feel
the only path to salvation. They often demand total commitment from disconnected from society). NRMs provide a "theodicy of disprivilege",
members, requiring them to reject their previous lifestyles. Members may meaning they offer an explanation for suffering and promise future rewards.
live separately from society in communal groups. Example: The Nation of Islam gained support among African Americans who
Key Features: felt excluded from mainstream society.
High level of control over members' lives.
Clear distinction between "us" (members) and "them" (wider society). 2. Social Change and Anomie (Wilson, 1982)
Often led by a charismatic leader. Wilson suggested that rapid social change (e.g. globalisation, technological
Examples: advancements) creates anomie (normlessness). People seek stability and
The Unification Church (Moonies),The People's Temple, Heaven’s Gate meaning, which NRMs provide. Example: The 1960s counterculture
2. World-Accommodating NRMs movement led to the rise of world-rejecting groups like the Moonies.
These movements do not reject mainstream society but focus on spiritual
renewal. They believe existing religious institutions have lost their true 3. Secularisation (Bruce, 1995)
meaning and seek to restore a purer form of worship. Steve Bruce argued that in a secular society, traditional churches lose
Key Features: influence, but spirituality does not disappear. Instead, people turn to NRMs,
Tend to be offshoots of existing religions. New Age movements, or alternative spiritual practices. Example: Declining
Focus on personal spiritual experience rather than societal change. church attendance in Western societies has led to a rise in self-help religions
Accept mainstream norms but encourage greater religious devotion. like Scientology.
Examples:
Pentecostalism, Neo-Pentecostal and Charismatic movements 4. The Growth of Consumer Culture (Stark and Bainbridge, 1985)
3. World-Affirming NRMs Stark and Bainbridge see NRMs as religious businesses offering
These movements embrace society and claim to offer members ways to "compensators" for things people want but cannot attain (e.g. happiness,
succeed in life, such as improving mental, spiritual, or financial well-being. purpose). World-affirming NRMs, like Scientology, function like a self-
Unlike the other types, they do not require major lifestyle changes. improvement industry, attracting middle-class professionals.
Key Features:
Often operate as self-help or therapy-based groups. 5. The Cycle of Sects (Niebuhr, 1929)
No strict rules – members can participate while maintaining their normal Richard Niebuhr argued that sects and NRMs follow a "denomination or
lives. death" cycle. Sects begin as radical groups but, over time, become
Focus on personal growth, success, and happiness rather than salvation. mainstream denominations. If they do not adapt, they fade away. Example:
Examples: Pentecostalism began as a sect but is now a large mainstream denomination.
Scientology, Transcendental Meditation, Human Potential Movements

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New Age Movements (NAMs)
New Age Movements (NAMs) are a broad category of spiritual and self-help practices that emerged in the late 20th century. Unlike traditional religions, NAMs
focus on personal spirituality, self-improvement, and holistic well-being rather than strict doctrines or formal worship. They often incorporate elements from
Eastern religions (e.g. Buddhism, Hinduism), mysticism, alternative medicine, and psychology.

Sociological Definitions of NAMs Why Have NAMs Grown Since the Late 20th Century?
Heelas (1996) describes NAMs as part of a "spiritual revolution", where
individuals move away from organised religion and towards "self-spirituality" 1. Decline of Traditional Religion (Secularisation) – Bruce (1995)
(the belief that the divine is within each person). Heelas categorises NAMs As church attendance declined, people still sought spiritual fulfilment
into: but in less formal, more individualistic ways.
Self-religion (e.g., meditation, yoga, crystal healing). Bruce calls NAMs a form of "secular spirituality", offering meaning
Holistic Milieu (a collection of spiritual practices that aim for self- without the strict rules of mainstream religions.
improvement). 2. Individualism and Postmodernity – Heelas (1996)
Bruce (1995, 2002) argues that NAMs reflect individualistic and consumerist In postmodern society, people value personal choice and self-
values in Western societies. They lack commitment and structure, allowing improvement over institutional authority.
people to "pick and mix" their beliefs. NAMs offer flexibility, allowing individuals to shape their own beliefs.
Wallis (1984) classifies NAMs as world-affirming movements, meaning they do 3. Consumer Culture and Self-Help – Bruce (2002)
not reject society but instead help individuals succeed within it. NAMs are marketed like self-help products, offering happiness, success,
and well-being.
Examples of NAMs Many NAMs sell books, courses, and therapies, making spirituality a
Meditation & Mindfulness – Popularised by Buddhist practices, aimed at consumer product.
reducing stress. 4. Social Change and Identity Crisis – Heelas et al (2005)
Yoga & Holistic Healing – Focus on physical, mental, and spiritual well-being. Globalisation, job insecurity, and uncertainty have led many to seek inner
Astrology & Tarot Readings – Used for personal guidance and self-reflection. peace and self-discovery.
UFO-Based Spirituality – Groups like the Raelian Movement or Heaven’s Gate NAMs provide a sense of control and stability in an unpredictable world.
believe in extraterrestrial beings guiding human spiritual evolution.
Wicca and Paganism - Wicca and Paganism represent a revival of pre-
Christian European spiritual traditions. They emphasise nature worship, Who Joins New Age Movements?
seasonal festivals, and polytheism. 1. Middle-Class Individuals
TM Movement – Popularized by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, TM is a meditation Many NAM followers come from educated, middle-class backgrounds, as
technique claimed to reduce stress and enhance consciousness. they have the resources to explore alternative spirituality.
The Hare Krishna Movement – A Hindu-based group emphasising devotion to Women are often more drawn to NAMs due to their focus on healing,
the deity Krishna through chanting and strict lifestyle practices. well-being, and empowerment (Heelas, 1996).
Reiki – A Japanese healing technique based on transferring energy through 2. People Dissatisfied with Mainstream Religion
the hands. Individuals who feel alienated from Christianity and organised religion
Crystal Healing – The belief that gemstones and crystals contain spiritual 3. Environmentalists & Nature Lovers
energies that can balance the body’s energy fields. Movements like Wicca, Paganism, and Druidry appeal to people with a
Aromatherapy – The use of essential oils for spiritual and physical healing. deep respect for nature.

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the secularisation debate
Secularisation is the idea that religion is losing its influence in society — in people’s lives, institutions, and culture. But sociologists disagree about whether
secularisation is really happening, and if so, how far it goes and where it applies. The debates can be examined from different broad perspectives of believing
secularisation has and is happening, that religious participation is changing and that secularisation is largely a Western European phenomenon.

The Case For Secularisation The Case that Religious Participation is Changing The Case that Secularisation is an issue
Bryan Wilson (1966) Grace Davie – Believing Without Belonging for Western Christianity
Defined secularisation as “the process whereby Argues that people still believe in God or Minority Religions in the UK
religious thinking, practice and institutions lose spirituality, but don’t attend church or engage in While mainstream Christianity is
social significance.” traditional practices. declining, some minority religions are
Argued that religious influence has declined in Example: Many people pray or have faith privately, growing:
Western societies, especially Britain. even if they don't go to religious services. Islam is the fastest-growing religion in
Steve Bruce Daniele Hervieu-Léger – Spiritual Shopping the UK, both in terms of numbers and
Builds on Wilson’s work. Argues that Britain is In postmodern society, people choose religious public visibility. Pew Research (2017)
becoming more secular. beliefs and practices like consumers. predicted that Muslims may make up
Church attendance continues to fall (especially in Religion is now more about individual identity than 10% of the UK population by 2050 if
mainstream churches like the Church of England). community belonging. trends continue.
Religious institutions have less power over laws, Rise of personal spirituality, where people mix Global Religious Trends
education, and moral values. beliefs (e.g. astrology + mindfulness + Christian David Martin (2002) argues that
Belief in God is also declining, especially among values). Pentecostalism is growing rapidly in
younger generations. David Lyon – Jesus in Disneyland Latin America, especially among the
Max Weber – Rationalisation Argues religion has become disembedded from urban poor.
Believed modern societies were undergoing traditional institutions. America has higher levels of religious
rationalisation: more reliance on science, logic, Religion is now found in media, online platforms, participation than most of Europe —
and evidence, and less on supernatural and popular culture. e.g. over 40% of people report
explanations. People access religious ideas through TV, music, attending church weekly.
Talked about “disenchantment of the world” — podcasts, Instagram, etc. However, Bruce argues that American
people no longer turn to religion to explain the Religion is still present, but in different forms. religiosity is exaggerated — many
world or solve problems. Growth of NRMs and NAMs people say they attend church but
Scientific explanations now dominate (e.g. Stark and Bainbridge argue that religion hasn’t actually don't (a phenomenon known
medicine for illness, not prayer). disappeared, but evolved into new forms to meet as social desirability bias).
Peter Berger - Impacts of religious pluralism people’s spiritual needs. Gifford (1998) documents the rise of
Berger said religious pluralism (lots of competing Growth of NRMs (e.g. Scientology, Hare Krishna) charismatic Christianity in countries
beliefs) weakens religion’s authority and leads to and NAMs (e.g. crystals, energy healing) shows like Ghana and Nigeria.
secularisation. The more religions that exist, the continued spiritual interest, especially among Islam remains a powerful social,
weaker the effect of the ‘sacred canopy’. young people. cultural, and political force in the
However, Berger changed his mind over this, which These movements reflect a more personalised Middle-East and Northern Africa and
makes him a useful concluding point in the debate. approach to belief. continues to expand.

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social groups and religiosity (gender and AGe)
The relationship between religiosity and age, gender, social class and ethnicity is a topic area in the study of beliefs in society. Students should be able to
apply different explanations for varying levels of religious beliefs based upon these social characteristics, using sociological research to back up their claims.
Below are some of the commonly used explanations for these differences, and how they apply to differing level of religious beliefs, participation and the
organisations and practices that people choose.

Gender Differences: Male Female

Women are more likely than men to: 70

Attend church 60
65

Pray regularly
54
Say they believe in God and the afterlife 50
50 51
They are also more involved in New Age and spiritual
40
movements. 41
37
41

Socialisation and Gender Roles 30 32

Miller and Hoffman: Women are socialised to be more
20
passive, nurturing and obedient—qualities that fit with
religious values. 10
Women are also more likely to work part-time or be
carers, so they may have more time to participate in 0
18-34 35-54 55+ All Age Groups
religious practices.
Social Attitudes Survey 36 (2019) Percentage of males and females identifying as having a religion
Risk and Religion
Davie argues that women are more risk-averse, and
Age Differences
belief in God can be a way of avoiding the ultimate risk
What do we see?
(e.g. hell).
Older people are more religious in terms of belief and practice.
New Age Movements
Young people are less likely to attend church or follow a religion—but may still believe in some
Heelas and Woodhead found that women are more
form of spirituality.
attracted to New Age spirituality (e.g. crystal healing,
Explanations:
astrology) because it fits with a focus on the self,
Life Cycle Effect
healing and emotions. Especially appealing to middle-
People often become more religious as they age (e.g. facing illness, death, bereavement).
class women who seek personal growth.
Generational (Cohort) Effect
Status and Paid Work
Voas and Crockett: Each new generation is less religious than the one before due to secularisation.
Bruce argues that because women are more likely to
Young people are raised in a more secular culture.
face marginalisation (e.g. lone parents, working part-
Decline in Sunday School and Religious Socialisation
time), they turn to religion for support and
Fewer children are raised in a religious environment—so religion plays a smaller role in their lives.
community. Furthermore, males are more likely to
Appeal of New Age Spirituality
have undergone rationalisation earlier through
Some young people may reject organised religion but are interested in spirituality (e.g.,
processes within paid employment
mindfulness, crystals, astrology), which focuses on personal wellbeing rather than institutions.

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social groups and religiosity (class and EThnicity)
The relationship between religiosity and age, gender, social class and ethnicity is a topic area in the study of beliefs in society. Students should be able to
apply different explanations for varying levels of religious beliefs based upon these social characteristics, using sociological research to back up their claims.
Below are some of the commonly-used explanations for these differences, and how they apply to differing level of religious beliefs, participation and the
organisations and practices that people choose.

Ethnic Differences Class Differences Churches and the Middle/Upper Class

Churches (like the Church of
Ethnic minority groups in the UK (especially Working-class people tend to be more involved England) tend to attract middle and
African-Caribbean, South Asian communities) in traditional, institutional religion (though this upper-class members.
are more religious than the white British is declining). They are seen as hierarchical,
population. Middle-class people are more likely to explore conservative, and often aligned
They have higher levels of belief and individualised or spiritual beliefs (e.g., New with the state.
participation. Age). The middle class may be attracted
Explanations: to the status, respectability, and
Explanations: stability churches provide.
Cultural Defence and Transition Church Attendance Patterns Weber (1920) argued that the
Bruce: Religion acts as a source of cultural Brierley: Church attendance has fallen across Protestant Ethic (especially Calvinism)
defence—preserving identity in a potentially all classes, but more sharply among the working helped the middle class develop values
hostile society. class. like hard work and discipline, which
Pryce: Studied African-Caribbean communities Middle-class people are more likely to attend contributed to the rise of capitalism.
in Bristol and found that Pentecostalism helped because they may benefit socially and This shows how religion supported
provide structure and identity during migration. economically (networking, status). middle-class success.
New Age Movements
Socialisation and Community Heelas and Woodhead: Middle-class people are
Sects (like the Jehovah's Witnesses or
Modood: Religion is central to the identity of more likely to join New Age movements
early Methodism) often appeal to
many ethnic minorities, particularly Muslims, because they have the economic and cultural working-class people who may feel
Hindus and Sikhs. capital to access self-help and therapy-based marginalised or deprived. They offer clear
In some communities, religion is tied to family spirituality. answers, strong community support, and
honour, tradition, and communal belonging. a sense of purpose and spiritual reward.
Functionalism and Class Support Wilson (1970) said sects attract people
Social Deprivation and Marginality Religion used to offer a sense of stability and who feel that society has lost its way—
Weber’s idea of "theodicy of disprivilege" hope for the working class (e.g., Marx’s "opium what he called anomie. The working class,
suggests marginalised groups may turn to of the people")—but with secularisation, this feeling excluded from mainstream
religion to make sense of inequality. role has weakened. society, may find security and belonging
in sects.

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GLobalisation and importance of religion in contemporary society
Globalisation has changed how religion is experienced, practiced, and understood across the world. It has intensified religious diversity, led to religious
adaptations, and in some cases, sparked religious resistance. Below are key ways globalisation has impacted religion in contemporary society.

Rise of Fundamentalism: A Reaction to Globalisation Religious Diversity and Resilience Consumerism and the Disneyfication of
Fundamentalism is a reaction to rapid social change, Davie (1994): "Believing without belonging"— Religion
uncertainty, and the perceived threat of modern people still believe, even if they don't attend Lyon (2000):
values. religious institutions. Religion has become a consumer
Giddens (1999) argues fundamentalism offers Voas (2009): Developed the concept of Fuzzy product, adapted to modern life.
certainty and truth in a globalised, postmodern world. Fidelity—many claim to be religious but don’t Disneyfication: Religious experiences
Bruce says it arises when traditional beliefs feel under follow practices strictly. are made entertaining and accessible
threat—e.g. from Western liberalism, migration, or Religion hasn’t disappeared; it's becoming more (e.g. megachurches, religious theme
secular values. flexible in form. parks).
Religious Market Theory – Stark &
Seen in both Islamic and Christian contexts (e.g. the Online Religion & Spiritual Individualism Bainbridge (1985):
New Christian Right in the US). Helland (2000): Identified two forms: Religion thrives in competitive
Religion online: Institutional religion using digital environments.
platforms. Explains why the USA (with religious
Online religion: Interactive, user-led religious competition) is more religious than
Migration and Cultural Change
expression. Europe.
Cultural Defence: Religion helps protect national
Hervieu-Léger (2000): Religion in postmodernity is
or ethnic identity during times of threat (e.g. Islam
shaped by personal choice. People “pick and mix” Secularisation and Rational Thinking
in Iran, Catholicism in Poland).
spiritual beliefs. Bruce (2002): Globalisation promotes
Cultural Transition: Religion offers support for
Rise of spiritual individualism—religion becomes rational, scientific thinking, reducing the
migrants adapting to a new culture (e.g. African-
about identity and well-being. need for religion in everyday life.
Caribbean churches in the UK).
Norris & Inglehart (2011):
Pryce (1979): Studied African-Caribbean Christians in
In places with high existential security
Bristol—found religion helped with identity, belonging,
Clash of Civilisations – Samuel Huntington (1993) (e.g. Scandinavia), religion declines. In
and community cohesion.
Huntington argued conflicts would be based on poorer societies with insecurity, religion
Bruce (2002): Religion helps immigrants maintain
culture and religion, not politics or economics. He remains strong.
cultural traditions and create a sense of community in
identified major civilisations (e.g. Western, Islamic,
a new, unfamiliar environment.
Hindu, Confucian) and claimed these would clash due
Bird (1999): Notes that ethnic minorities in the UK
to incompatible worldviews. Globalisation increases Many of these arguments can be applied
often turn to religion as a form of community support,
contact between these civilisations, often resulting in to the wider secularisation debate
especially where they face racism, marginalisation or
religious conflict. outlined earlier in this pack that largely
status frustration.
focused on secularisation in Western
Europe.

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