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Table of Contents
Cover
Title
Copyright
Notations and Abbreviations
Introduction
1 General Presentation of Vehicle Routing Problems
1.1. Logistics management and combinatorial optimization
1.2. Vehicle routing problems
1.3. Conclusion
2 Simple Heuristics and Local Search Procedures
2.1. Simple heuristics
2.2. Local search
2.3. Conclusion
3 Metaheuristics Generating a Sequence of Solutions
3.1. Simulated annealing (SA)
3.2. Greedy randomized adaptive search procedure: GRASP
3.3. Tabu search
3.4. Variable neighborhood search
3.5. Iterated local search
3.6. Guided local search
3.7. Large neighborhood search
3.8. Transitional forms
3.9. Selected examples
3.10. Conclusion
4 Metaheuristics Based on a Set of Solutions
4.1. Genetic algorithm and its variants
4.2. Scatter search
4.3. Path relinking
4.4. Ant colony optimization
4.5. Particle swarm optimization
4.6. Other approaches and their use in vehicle routing problems
4.7. Selected examples
4.8. Conclusion
5 Metaheuristics Hybridizing Various Components
 5.1. Hybridizing metaheuristics
5.2. Matheuristics
5.3. Conclusion
Conclusion
Bibliography
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
1 General Presentation of Vehicle Routing Problems
Figure 1.1. Example of a supply chain
Figure 1.2. Possible outline of a reverse logistics chain
Figure 1.3. Example of transportation modes
Figure 1.4. Example of a CVRP solution
2 Simple Heuristics and Local Search Procedures
Figure 2.1. Sequential a) and parallel b) route building
Figure 2.2. Possible mergers in Clarke and Wright heuristic (undirected
network)
Figure 2.3. Sweep heuristic for a vehicle capacity Q = 10
Figure 2.4. Splitting procedure
Figure 2.5. Examples of 2-opt and λ-interchange moves
Figure 2.6. Computation of maximum delays in the VRPTW
Figure 2.7. CCVRP route – the sum of arrival times is 10 + 18 + 27 = 55
Figure 2.8. Two kinds of interroute 2-opt moves
3 Metaheuristics Generating a Sequence of Solutions
Figure 3.1. Possible policies for the restricted candidate list
Figure 3.2. Example of ILS trajectory in solution space
Figure 3.3. Initial bunch of flowers
Figure 3.4. Mergers in CWA and ECWA
Figure 3.5. Possible moves on two routes in the GTS for VRP [TOT 03]
4 Metaheuristics Based on a Set of Solutions
Figure 4.1. Main steps in genetic algorithm
Figure 4.2. Example of OX crossover
Figure 4.3. Example of path relinking trajectories
Figure 4.4. Ant colony principle
Figure 4.5. Two-phase split for PCARP
Figure 4.6. Distance measure used in the scatter search for PCARP
Figure 4.7. Illustration of time warp computation
5 Metaheuristics Hybridizing Various Components
Figure 5.1. Possibles moves in GTS for the LRP
Figure 5.2. LRGTS principle
Figure 5.3. Cross moves
Metaheuristics for Vehicle Routing
Problems
Volume 3
Nacima Labadie
Christian Prins
Caroline Prodhon
Metaheuristics Set
coordinated by
Nicolas Monmarché and Patrick Siarry
First published 2016 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted
under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the
case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries
concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd
27-37 St George’s Road
London SW19 4EU
UK
www.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
111 River Street
Hoboken, NJ 07030
USA
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2016
The rights of Nacima Labadie, Christian Prins and Caroline Prodhon to be identified as the authors of this
work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015959666
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-84821-811-6
Notations and Abbreviations
Here is a non-exhaustive list of the most common notations and abbreviations
used in the book.

Notations
A:
set of arcs.
cij :
traveling cost between nodes i and j.
di :
demand of customer i.
E:
set of edges.
f(S) :
cost of solution S.
G:
a complete graph.
K:
set of identical vehicles.
n:
number of customers.
N(S) :
subset of solutions close to S in term of structure (neighborhood).
Q:
vehicles capacity.
Ri :
route i.
S:
a solution.
T:
tour or sequence of customers.
V:
set of nodes.

Abbreviations related to problems

CARP :
capacitated arc routing problem.
CCVRP :
 cumulative capacitated vehicle routing problem.
CVRP :
capacitated vehicle routing problem.
DARP :
dial-a-ride problem.
HFVRP :
heterogeneous fleet vehicle routing problem.
IRP :
inventory routing problem.
LRP :
location-routing problem.
LRP-2E :
two-echelon location-routing problem.
MDVRP :
multi-depot vehicle routing problem.
OVRP :
open vehicle routing problem.
PCARP :
periodic capacitated arc routing problem.
PDPTW :
pick up and delivery vehicle routing problem with time windows.
PVRP :
periodic vehicle routing problem.
RCPSP :
resource-constrained project scheduling problem.
SCP :
set covering problem.
SPP :
set partitioning problem.
SDVRP :
vehicle routing problem with split deliveries.
TOP :
team orienteering problem.
TSP :
traveling salesman problem.
TTRP :
truck and trailer routing problem.
VRP-2E :
two-echelon vehicle routing problem.
VRPs :
family of vehicle routing problems.
VRPTW :
vehicle routing problem with time windows.

Abbreviations related to methods

ACO :
ant colony optimization.
ALNS :
adaptive large neighborhood search.
ELS :
evolutionary local search.
GA :
genetic algorithm.
GLS :
guided local search.
GRASP :
greedy randomized adaptive search procedure
GTS :
granular tabu search (also guided tabu search).
HGSADC :
hybrid genetic search with adaptive diversity control.
ILS :
iterated local search.
LNS :
large neighborhood search
LS :
local search.
MA :
memetic algorithm.
MA|PM :
memetic algorithm with population management.
PSO :
particle swarm optimization.
PR :
path relinking.
RVNS :
reduced variable neighborhood search.
SA :
 simulated annealing.
SS :
scatter search.
TS :
tabu search.
VND :
variable neighborhood descent.
VNS :
variable neighborhood search.
VLSN :
very large scale neighborhood search.
Introduction
Unlike heuristics, which are problem-dependent techniques which try to take full
advantage of the features of the problem at hand but which usually get trapped in
a local optimum when followed by a local search, metaheuristics can be defined as
solution methods that control the exploration of a solution space by problem-
independent techniques with higher level strategies. This allows them to explore
the solution space more extensively with the aim of escaping from local optima
and thus a hopefully obtain a better solution. These approaches include any
scheme that resorts, for example, to one or more neighborhood structures,
building or destroying procedures or combining components of several solutions.
Notwithstanding their general structure, it is necessary to adapt the techniques
according to the problem to solve by some fine-tuning of their intrinsic
parameters. Metaheuristic methods have proved to be particularly effective for
solving many types of complex problems.
This book is dedicated to these methods developed to one of the most important
and studied categories of combinatorial optimization problems: the family of
vehicle routing problems (VRPs). The aim of the basic version also called
capacitated VRP (CVRP) is to determine the optimal set of routes to be performed
by a fleet of capacitated vehicles to serve the demand of a given customer set.
More than 15 years have elapsed since Dantzig and Ramser introduced the
problem in 1959 [DAN 59], and the number of models and solution methods has
experienced a strong growth as exposed in [LAP 09]. Although the CVRP still
attracts researchers, many variants are now investigated. This interest is
motivated by two main concerns:
– this class of problems has a high practical relevance;
– it is challenging to solve given its considerable difficulty.
Despite the abundant activity on VRPs, the current exact methods are limited to
problems of about 100 customers [BAL 08a], while real cases can reach 1,000
clients.
Therefore, a large number of metaheuristics have been proposed to solve very
different problems of vehicle routing, as stated by the surveys periodically
published on the subject. From procedures with tabu to hybrid approaches
combining heuristic and exact methods, metaheuristics remain the favorite
methods for dealing with realistic cases.
Several books are available on either metaheuristics [DRÉ 03, SIA 14] or VRPs
[TOT 02] but, to the best of our knowledge, the only books addressing these two
topics simultaneously are published PhD dissertations [EUC 12] or books with
contributed chapters [GOL 08]. The aim here is more to provide a book for people
wishing to discover and quickly master metaheuristics dedicated to VRPs. The
particularity is to combine a tutorial with algorithms, examples, and a quick
overview of the state-of-the art for such methods developed in the last decades for
the CVRP and some of its main variants.
The key points are to present:
– a progressive approach, from the basics to several recent and efficient
methods;
– different metaheuristics for the same VRP and, conversely, the way of
adapting the same metaheuristic template to several problems;
– algorithms allowing the readers to implement the methods on a computer;
– an up-to-date bibliography focusing on the references which have a real
interest.
The book consists of five chapters. After this introduction, the first chapter gives a
general presentation that intends to make the readers more familiar with the
related fields of logistics and combinatorial optimization.
This preamble is followed, in Chapter 2, with a description of significant heuristic
methods classically applied to provide feasible solutions quickly, and local
improvement moves widely used to search for enhanced solutions. The overview
of these fundamentals allows appreciating the core of the work devoted to an
analysis of metaheuristic methods for VRPs. Those methods are exposed
according to their feature of working either on a sequence of single solutions, or
on a set of solutions, or even by hybridizing metaheuristic approaches with other
kinds of methods (mixed integer programs, mathematical decompositions, etc.).
Thus, Chapter 3 begins with the class that works on a single solution at a time,
making it evolve through a particular iterative process. This kind of exploration
requires us to define at least one neighborhood to jump from an incumbent
solution to another area of the solution space. Eight approaches are presented in
this chapter, namely simulated annealing, greedy adaptive search procedure, tabu
search, variable neighborhood search, iterated local search, guided local search,
adaptive large neighborhood search and transitional forms such as evolutionary
local search.
Chapter 4 exposes methods operating on a set of solutions. Their feature is to
generate new solutions by either combining existing ones or by making agents
cooperate through a learning process. Two main variants are put forward: those
that combine solutions selected from a population such as genetic algorithms,
memetic algorithms, scatter search and path relinking; the ones that make
cooperate homogenous agents in their environment such as particle swarm
optimization and ant colony optimization.
Chapter 5 is devoted to two main classes of hybrid methods: either by combining
components from several stand alone metaheuristics, or by crossing exact
algorithms with metaheuristics (leading to the so called matheuristics). The main
motivation of this trend is to take advantage of the complementarity of different
optimization strategies and cooperate in synergy.
Finally, the Conclusion closes the book and draws up some perspectives of the
research on VRPs. In the three chapters detailing the different class of
metaheuristics, several selected implementations of methods dedicated to typical
VRPs are given as illustrative examples.
1
General Presentation of Vehicle Routing Problems
Vehicle routing problems (VRPs) represent an important family of problems
encountered in the fields of logistics, as well as in many other applications. In
general, a number of customers have to be served with a fleet of vehicles. They can
be modeled as an integer programming problem, solved by combinatorial
optimization tools. However, exact methods cannot solve instances that consider a
large set of customers, as encountered in most real cases. It is, therefore, often
necessary to resort to approximate paradigms generally carried out through
metaheuristics.
This first chapter introduces what the logistics management and the
combinatorial optimization are, before giving a formal definition of the CVRP,
with notations useful throughout the remainder of the book.
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