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 MINORITIES
RACE AND ETHNICITY
IN AMERICA

i
 ISSN 1532-1185

MINORITIES
RACE AND ETHNICITY
IN AMERICA

Melissa J. Doak

INFORMATION PLUS â REFERENCE SERIES

Formerly Published by Information Plus, Wylie, Texas
 Minorities: Race and Ethnicity in America ª 2009 Gale, Cengage Learning
Melissa J. Doak ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 12 11 10 09 08
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

P R E F A C E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii CHAPTER 5
Money, Income, and Poverty Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
CHAPTER 1
Racial and ethnic backgrounds play a big role in the economic status
Who Are Minorities?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 of Americans. Within this chapter, income and poverty are examined
Hispanic, African-American, Asian-American, and Native American by demographic characteristics.
populations make up a growing percentage of the United States.
These groups are discussed in terms of classification, origin, age,
CHAPTER 6
geographic distribution, immigration, and other characteristics.
Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
In general, Americans belonging to minority groups are not as
CHAPTER 2 healthy and die at a younger age than those of the white majority.
Family Life and Living Arrangements. . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 This chapter discusses pregnancy, fertility, and other types of health
The role and makeup of families, particularly minority families, have problems that are particularly common among certain minorities, as
been undergoing great change. This chapter focuses on marital status well as health-harming behaviors in minority populations.
(including a section on interracial marriages), teen pregnancy, the
living arrangements of minority children, and homeownership. CHAPTER 7
Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
CHAPTER 3 Minorities are more likely than whites to be the victims of crime, and the
volume of crime allegedly perpetrated by members of some minority
Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 groups, as well as their representation in prisons and jails, is dispropor-
The educational attainment and performance of minority groups tionately large. This chapter examines minority crime statistics.
differs significantly from that of the white population. This chapter
discusses educational risk factors and high school dropout rates, as
CHAPTER 8
well as minorities in college, including the debate over affirmative
action in admissions. Political Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
The political participation of minority groups plays a critical role in
correcting imbalances in the way American society treats them. The
CHAPTER 4 number of minority voters registered, voter turnout, minorities elected
Minorities in the Labor Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 to public office, and the issue of redistricting are explored in this chapter.
Minorities have long been an important part of the U.S. labor
force. This chapter examines minority labor force participation I M P O R T A N T N A M E S A N D A D D R E S S E S . . . . . . . 133
past, present, and future, as well as the different types of jobs and
R E S O U R C E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
careers held by minorities. Minority-owned businesses are also
discussed. I N D E X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Minorities v
 PREFACE

Minorities: Race and Ethnicity in America is part of only content. Each book also presents the widely held
the Information Plus Reference Series. The purpose of positions and important ideas that shape how the book’s
each volume of the series is to present the latest facts on a subject is discussed in the United States. These positions
topic of pressing concern in modern American life. These are explained in detail and, where possible, in the words
topics include today’s most controversial and studied of their proponents. Some of the other material to be
social issues: abortion, capital punishment, care for the found in these books includes historical background;
elderly, crime, health care, the environment, immigration, descriptions of major events related to the subject; rele-
minorities, social welfare, women, youth, and many vant laws and court cases; and examples of how these
more. Even though this series is written especially for issues play out in American life. Some books also feature
high school and undergraduate students, it is an excellent primary documents, or have pro and con debate sections
resource for anyone in need of factual information on giving the words and opinions of prominent Americans
current affairs. on both sides of a controversial topic. All material is
presented in an even-handed and unbiased manner; read-
By presenting the facts, it is the intention of Gale, a ers will never be encouraged to accept one view of an
part of Cengage Learning, to provide its readers with issue over another.
everything they need to reach an informed opinion on
current issues. To that end, there is a particular emphasis
in this series on the presentation of scientific studies, HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
surveys, and statistics. These data are generally presented Race and ethnicity have acted as some of the most
in the form of tables, charts, and other graphics placed divisive factors in U.S. history. Many people, from all
within the text of each book. Every graphic is directly racial and ethnic backgrounds, have struggled, sometimes
referred to and carefully explained in the text. The source at great peril to themselves, to provide equality for all
of each graphic is presented within the graphic itself. The people in the United States. Nevertheless, it is an undeni-
data used in these graphics are drawn from the most able fact that African-Americans, Hispanics, Native
reputable and reliable sources, in particular from the Americans, Asian-Americans, and other minority groups
various branches of the U.S. government and from major have a different experience living in the United States
independent polling organizations. Every effort has been than do whites. This book reports on and examines the
made to secure the most recent information available. differences between minority groups and white Ameri-
Readers should bear in mind that many major studies cans across the economic, political, and social spectrums.
take years to conduct, and that additional years often pass
before the data from these studies are made available to Minorities: Race and Ethnicity in America consists
the public. Therefore, in many cases the most recent of eight chapters and three appendixes. Each chapter is
information available in 2008 is dated from 2005 or devoted to a particular aspect of minorities. For a sum-
2006. Older statistics are sometimes presented as well, mary of the information covered in each chapter, please
if they are of particular interest and no more-recent see the synopses provided in the Table of Contents at the
information exists. front of the book. Chapters generally begin with an over-
view of the basic facts and background information on
Even though statistics are a major focus of the Infor- the chapter’s topic, then proceed to examine subtopics of
mation Plus Reference Series, they are by no means its particular interest. For example, Chapter 4: Minorities in

Minorities vii
the Labor Force begins with a historical perspective of Appendixes
the role that African-Americans, Asian-Americans, and Besides the main body text and images, Minorities:
Hispanics played in the U.S. labor force. From there, it Race and Ethnicity in America has three appendixes. The
examines the labor force participation and unemployment first is the Important Names and Addresses directory.
of minorities, the types of discrimination that minorities Here readers will find contact information for a number
experience on the job, and workforce projections through of government and private organizations that can provide
2016. Next, the chapter notes some of the different types further information on aspects of minorities. The second
of jobs that minorities hold in various industries and in appendix is the Resources section, which can also assist
the federal government. It then discusses the state of readers in conducting their own research. In this section,
minority-owned businesses—including minority women- the author and editors of Minorities: Race and Ethnicity
owned businesses—and how they are increasing in num- in America describe some of the sources that were most
ber. This discussion covers minority set-aside programs useful during the compilation of this book. The final
and the court cases that are shaping the impact of these appendix is the index.
programs. The chapter concludes with detailing the pros
and cons of Native American casinos. Readers can find
their way through a chapter by looking for the section and ADVISORY BOARD CONTRIBUTIONS
subsection headings, which are clearly set off from the The staff of Information Plus would like to extend its
text. Or, they can refer to the book’s extensive index if heartfelt appreciation to the Information Plus Advisory
they already know what they are looking for. Board. This dedicated group of media professionals pro-
vides feedback on the series on an ongoing basis. Their
Statistical Information comments allow the editorial staff who work on the
The tables and figures featured throughout Minor- project to continually make the series better and more
ities: Race and Ethnicity in America will be of particular user-friendly. Our top priorities are to produce the highest-
use to readers in learning about this issue. These tables quality and most useful books possible, and the Advisory
and figures represent an extensive collection of the most Board’s contributions to this process are invaluable.
recent and important statistics on minorities, as well as
The members of the Information Plus Advisory
related issues—for example, graphics in the book cover
Board are:
the number of different minority peoples living in the
United States overall and in specific regions; their aver- • Kathleen R. Bonn, Librarian, Newbury Park High
age earnings as compared to whites; the rates at which School, Newbury Park, California
they are the victims of various crimes; and the health • Madelyn Garner, Librarian, San Jacinto College–North
problems that disproportionately afflict certain minority Campus, Houston, Texas
groups. Gale, a part of Cengage Learning, believes that
making this information available to readers is the most • Anne Oxenrider, Media Specialist, Dundee High School,
important way to fulfill the goal of this book: to help Dundee, Michigan
readers understand the issues and controversies surround- • Charles R. Rodgers, Director of Libraries, Pasco-
ing minorities and reach their own conclusions about Hernando Community College, Dade City, Florida
them.
• James N. Zitzelsberger, Library Media Department
Each table or figure has a unique identifier appearing Chairman, Oshkosh West High School, Oshkosh,
above it, for ease of identification and reference. Titles Wisconsin
for the tables and figures explain their purpose. At the
end of each table or figure, the original source of the data
is provided. COMMENTS AND SUGGESTIONS
The editors of the Information Plus Reference Series
To help readers understand these often complicated
welcome your feedback on Minorities: Race and Ethnic-
statistics, all tables and figures are explained in the text.
ity in America. Please direct all correspondence to:
References in the text direct readers to the relevant sta-
tistics. Furthermore, the contents of all tables and figures Editors
are fully indexed. Please see the opening section of the Information Plus Reference Series
index at the back of this volume for a description of how 27500 Drake Rd.
to find tables and figures within it. Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535

viii Preface Minorities

 CHAPTER 1
WHO ARE MINORITIES?

MINORITIES ARE A GROWING PERCENTAGE As ethnic identity becomes more complex because of
OF THE NATION immigration and interracial marriages and births, a grow-
The U.S. Census Bureau reports that in 2006 the U.S. ing number of people object to categories based on race.
population totaled 299.4 million people. (See Table 1.1.) Of It is no longer unusual to find Americans whose back-
that number, 198.7 million (66.4%) people identified them- grounds include two or more races.
selves as non-Hispanic white alone. The other 33.6% were Katherine Wallman explains in ‘‘Data on Race and
members of one or more minority racial or ethnic groups. Ethnicity: Revising the Federal Standard’’ (The American
Even though women are a majority of the nation’s popula- Statistician, vol. 52, 1998) that these standards came
tion (151.9 million women versus 147.5 million men), under attack because many Americans believed they did
women are often considered a ‘‘minority’’ in social issues, not accurately reflect the diversity of the nation’s popu-
because they have been historically discriminated against in lation. Between 1993 and 1995 the Census Bureau con-
American society. In this publication, however, women are ducted hearings and invited public comment on the pro-
treated only in relation to racial or ethnic minority groups. posal under consideration to add new choices to the
The Census Bureau predicts that by 2020, 61.3% of categories that had been used in the 1990 census. Among
Americans will be white non-Hispanics and 38.7% will belong the Census Bureau’s findings were that Arab-Americans
to a minority group. (See Table 1.2.) Projections indicate were unhappy with their official designation as ‘‘white,
that the proportion of white, non-Hispanic-Americans will non-European.’’ This group included people from the
shrink to only a bare majority (50.1%) by 2050. In that year, Middle East, Turkey, and North Africa. In addition, many
the Census Bureau projects that 49.9% of Americans will indigenous Hawaiians wanted to be recategorized from
belong to a minority racial or ethnic group. The nation is Pacific Islander to Native American, reflecting historical
increasingly diverse due to the growth in immigration and accuracy and giving them access to greater minority
interracial marriages. benefits.
Some Hispanics wanted the Census Bureau to identify
CHANGING RACIAL AND ETHNIC them as a race and not as an ethnic origin, and to replace the
ORIGIN CLASSIFICATIONS word Hispanic with Latino. They asserted that Hispanic
recalled the colonization of Latin America by Spain and
For the 1980 and 1990 censuses the Census Bureau
Portugal and argued that the term was as offensive as the
divided the U.S. population into the four racial categories
term Negro is for African-Americans. However, when His-
identified by the Office of Management and Budget—
panics were surveyed, the results showed they preferred to be
White, Black, American Indian/Alaska Native, and Asian/
identified by their families’ country of origin, such as Puerto
Pacific Islander—and added the category ‘‘Some Other
Rican, Colombian, Cuban, or sometimes just American.
Race.’’ The U.S. government uses these race and ethnic
origin data to make decisions, among other things, about A number of African-Americans wanted the Census
funding and making laws. For example, federal programs Bureau to retire the term Black. Nevertheless, there was some
use the race information to monitor and ensure that the civil difference of opinion. For example, people from the Caribbean
rights of African-Americans and other minority groups are preferred to be labeled by their families’ country of origin,
not violated, and states use the data to ensure compliance such as Jamaican-American or Haitian-American. Africans
with political redistricting requirements. who were not American also found the term inaccurate. Even

Minorities 1
TABLE 1.1 TABLE 1.1
Population by sex, race, and Hispanic origin, 2006 [CONTINUED]
Population by sex, race, and Hispanic origin, 2006
Population
Population
Sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino origin July 1, 2006
Sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino origin July 1, 2006
Not Hispanic or Latino 124,587,102
Both sexes 299,398,484
One race 122,573,046
One race 294,679,815 White 97,536,842
White 239,746,254 Black 17,471,866
Black 38,342,549 AIAN 1,114,358
AIAN 2,902,851 Asian 6,242,036
Asian 13,159,343 NHPI 207,944
NHPI 528,818
Two or more races 4,718,669 Two or more races 2,014,056
Race alone or in combination:* Race alone or in combination:*
White 243,825,488 White 99,276,455
Black 40,240,898 Black 18,251,963
AIAN 4,497,895 AIAN 1,774,537
Asian 14,907,198 Asian 7,025,262
NHPI 1,007,644 NHPI 412,498

Not Hispanic or Latino 255,077,446 Hispanic or Latino 22,925,050

One race 250,987,070 One race 22,612,532

White 198,744,494 White 21,260,560
Black 36,689,680 Black 812,725
AIAN 2,258,877 AIAN 340,102
Asian 12,881,639 Asian 137,843
NHPI 412,380 NHPI 61,302
Two or more races 4,090,376 Two or more races 312,518
Race alone or in combination:* Race alone or in combination:*
White 202,266,112 White 21,538,883
Black 38,294,161 Black 958,258
AIAN 3,629,247 AIAN 451,624
Asian 14,446,354 Asian 228,164
NHPI 824,477 NHPI 94,329

Hispanic or Latino 44,321,038 Female 151,886,332

One race 43,692,745 One race 149,494,237

White 41,001,760 White 120,948,852
Black 1,652,869 Black 20,057,958
AIAN 643,974 AIAN 1,448,391
Asian 277,704 Asian 6,779,464
NHPI 116,438 NHPI 259,572
Two or more races 628,293 Two or more races 2,392,095
Race alone or in combination:* Race alone or in combination:*
White 41,559,376 White 123,010,150
Black 1,946,737 Black 21,030,677
AIAN 868,648 AIAN 2,271,734
Asian 460,844 Asian 7,653,772
NHPI 183,167 NHPI 500,817

Male 147,512,152 Not Hispanic or Latino 130,490,344

One race 145,185,578 One race 128,414,024

White 118,797,402 White 101,207,652
Black 18,284,591 Black 19,217,814
AIAN 1,454,460 AIAN 1,144,519
Asian 6,379,879 Asian 6,639,603
NHPI 269,246 NHPI 204,436
Two or more races 2,326,574 Two or more races 2,076,320
Race alone or in combination:* Race alone or in combination:*
White 120,815,338 White 102,989,657
Black 19,210,221 Black 20,042,198
AIAN 2,226,161 AIAN 1,854,710
Asian 7,253,426 Asian 7,421,092
NHPI 506,827 NHPI 411,979

though the term African-American has become more prom- races into White, Black/African-American/Negro, Ameri-
inent in spoken English in recent years, lack of agreement and can Indian/Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific
the length of the term have been significant factors in prevent- Islander, and Asian. The Census Bureau also added a sixth
ing its adoption by the government. category: Some Other Race. In addition, the Census Bureau
included two ethnic categories: Hispanic/Latino and Not
The 2000 Census Hispanic/Not Latino. To provide an accurate count of multi-
Conforming to revised standards issued by the Office of racial Americans, the 2000 census allowed Americans to
Management and Budget, the 2000 census recategorized the select more than one race. Write-in spaces allowed Native

2 Who Are Minorities? Minorities

TABLE 1.1 The Census Bureau indicates that in 2006, 44.3 mil-
Population by sex, race, and Hispanic origin, 2006 [CONTINUED] lion Hispanics lived in the United States. (See Table 1.1.)
As 14.8% of the population, they were the largest minor-
Population ity group in the nation. Frank Hobbs and Nicole Stoops of
Sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino origin July 1, 2006 the Census Bureau indicate in Demographic Trends in the
Hispanic or Latino 21,395,988
20th Century (November 2002, http://www.census.gov/
One race 21,080,213
White 19,741,200 prod/2002pubs/censr-4.pdf) that in 1980 Hispanics repre-
Black 840,144 sented 14.6 million people (6.4% of the total U.S. pop-
AIAN 303,872
Asian 139,861 ulation). In 1990 Hispanics totaled about 22.4 million
NHPI 55,136
Two or more races 315,775
people (9% of the total U.S. population). The 2000 cen-
Race alone or in combination:* sus counted 35.6 million Hispanics living in the United
White 20,020,493
Black 988,479
States. (See Table 1.2.) The Hispanic population in the
AIAN 417,024 country increased by 141.7% between 1980 and 2000.
Asian 232,680
NHPI 88,838 The Census Bureau predicts that by 2050 there will be
*‘In combination’ means in combination with one or more other races. The sum of the
102.6 million Hispanics living in the United States.
five race groups adds to more than the total population because individuals may report
more than one race. Immigration and high birth rates are two major reasons
Note: The April 1, 2000 population estimates base reflects changes to the Census 2000
population from the count question resolution program and geographic program for the large growth of the Hispanic population. In Estimates
revisions. Black⫽Black or African American; AIAN⫽American Indian and Alaska Native; of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the
NHPI⫽Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander.
United States: January 2005 (August 2006, http://www
SOURCE: Adapted from “Table 3. Annual Estimates of the Population by Sex,
Race, and Hispanic or Latino Origin for the United States: April 1, 2000 .dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/publications/ILL_PE
to July 1, 2006,” in National Population Estimates—Characteristics, U.S. _2005.pdf), Michael Hoefer, Nancy Rytina, and Christo-
Census Bureau, Population Division, May 17, 2007, http://www.census.gov/
popest/national/asrh/NC-EST2006-srh.html (accessed November 2, 2007)
pher Campbell of the U.S. Department of Homeland
Security estimate that as of January 2005 approximately
10.5 million illegal aliens lived in the United States, up
from 8.5 million in January 2000. More than half of
these illegal immigrants (6 million) came from Mexico,
Americans to record their tribal affiliation, and individuals while El Salvador and Guatemala were the next leading
of Hispanic origin could write in a national affiliation other source countries.
than the major groups of Mexican, Cuban, and Puerto Rican.
The Census Bureau’s American Community Survey
In ‘‘Impact of Census’ Race Data Debated’’ (USA samples the U.S. population yearly and collects detailed
Today, March 12, 2001), Martin Kasindorf and Haya El information on characteristics of the population to pro-
Nasser explain that many Americans thought that the offi- vide more current data on the makeup of the U.S. pop-
cial recognition of multiracial Americans would pro- ulation than the census, which is conducted every ten
foundly change how Americans thought about race in the years. In The American Community—Hispanics: 2004
long term. Some believed that racial lines would blur until (February 2007, http://www.census.gov/prod/2007pubs/
racial differences no longer became so important in Amer- acs-03.pdf), the Census Bureau finds that in 2004, 28%
ican life. Others took a more pessimistic view, arguing that of the Hispanic community, particularly those who immi-
because African-Americans marry outside their racial cat- grated to the United States in recent years, had yet to
egories less than other minorities, the difference between an become citizens. About 61% of all Hispanics had been
‘‘expanded majority’’ of whites and the African-American
born in the United States, and another 11% had become
minority group would harden further.
naturalized citizens. This varied by country of origin,
A more in-depth discussion of the major race and however. Almost all Puerto Ricans had been born in the
ethnic groups follows. United States, because Puerto Rico is a U.S. territory. As
of 2004 more Mexicans than any other foreign group had
been born in the United States: 60.6% of Mexicans,
HISPANICS 38.7% of Dominicans, and 36.7% of Cubans had been
Hispanic is a broad term used to describe a varied born in the United States. (See Figure 1.1.) Cubans had
ethnic group of individuals who trace their cultural her- the highest proportion of those who had become natural-
itage to Spain or to Spanish-speaking countries in Latin ized citizens: 38.1% of Cubans, 28.3% of Colombians,
America. The term can also refer to people whose Span- 28.1% of Peruvians, and 28% of Dominicans had become
ish ancestors were residents of the southwestern region of naturalized citizens. Guatemalans had the highest percent
the United States that was formerly under Spanish or of residents who were not citizens (55.7%), followed by
Mexican control. Hondurans (50.5%) and Salvadorans (49.6%).

Minorities Who Are Minorities? 3

TABLE 1.2

Projected population of the United States, by race and Hispanic origin, selected years 2000–50
[In thousands except as indicated. As of July 1. Resident population.]

Population or percent and race

or Hispanic origin 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Population
Total 282,125 308,936 335,805 363,584 391,946 419,854
White alone 228,548 244,995 260,629 275,731 289,690 302,626
Black alone 35,818 40,454 45,365 50,442 55,876 61,361
Asian alone 10,684 14,241 17,988 22,580 27,992 33,430
All other races* 7,075 9,246 11,822 14,831 18,388 22,437
Hispanic (of any race) 35,622 47,756 59,756 73,055 87,585 102,560
White alone, not Hispanic 195,729 201,112 205,936 209,176 210,331 210,283
Percent of total population
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
White alone 81.0 79.3 77.6 75.8 73.9 72.1
Black alone 12.7 13.1 13.5 13.9 14.3 14.6
Asian alone 3.8 4.6 5.4 6.2 7.1 8.0
All other races* 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.1 4.7 5.3
Hispanic (of any race) 12.6 15.5 17.8 20.1 22.3 24.4
White alone, not Hispanic 69.4 65.1 61.3 57.5 53.7 50.1

*Includes American Indian and Alaska Native alone, Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander alone, and two or more races.

SOURCE:“Table 1a. Projected Population of the United States, by Race and Hispanic Origin: 2000 to 2050,” in U.S. Interim Projections by Age, Sex, Race, and
Hispanic Origin, U.S. Census Bureau, March 18, 2004, http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/usinterimproj/natprojtab01a.pdf (accessed November 2, 2007)

Hispanic Origins the likelihood of Hispanics living in a particular region

Hispanic-Americans trace their origins to a number depends primarily on their country of origin. They find
of countries. The Census Bureau reports that in 2006, that in 2002 Mexican-Americans were the most likely to
65.5% of the Hispanics in the United States were of live in the West (54.6% of them did so) and the South
Mexican heritage. (See Figure 1.2.) Approximately (34.3%), Puerto Ricans were the most likely to live in the
8.6% were of Puerto Rican heritage, 3.7% were Cuban, Northeast (58%), and Cubans were the most likely to live
and 8% were from other countries. Another 8.2% were of in the South (75.1%).
Central American and 6% were of South American ori-
gin. The differences in origin can often mean significant Mexican-Americans
variations in where Hispanics live in the United States Many Hispanic-Americans are descendants of the
and in their educational attainment, income, and living Spanish and Mexican people who lived in the West and
conditions. Southwest when these regions were controlled by Spain
(starting in the 1500s) and later by Mexico (after Mexico
Geographic Distribution gained its independence from Spain in 1821). Their fore-
bears were absorbed into the United States when Texas
Different areas of the United States have more His-
revolted, broke away from Mexico, became a republic,
panics living in them. The West has the highest propor-
and then finally joined the United States during the
tion of Hispanics (26.6%). (See Figure 1.3.) By contrast,
1840s. The Mexican-American War (1846–1848) added
the South is 14.5% Hispanic, the Northeast is 11.3%
California, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, and
Hispanic, and the Midwest is only 5.3% Hispanic. In
territories north of the Rio Grande boundary to the United
American Community—Hispanics, the Census Bureau
States with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe
reports that New Mexico had the highest Hispanic pop-
Hidalgo in 1848. As a result, Hispanics living in these
ulation; 43.4% of its residents in 2004 were Hispanic,
areas became Americans.
followed by 34.9% of the residents of both Texas and
California, 28.1% of the residents of Arizona, and 22.9% The Mexican-origin population, which more than
of the residents of Nevada. Even though New Mexico had doubled in the last two decades of the twentieth century,
the highest proportion of Hispanic residents, 30.3% of all continues to grow in the twenty-first century. According to
Hispanic people living in the United States lived in the Census Bureau, in American Community—Hispanics,
California in 2004. Roberto R. Ramirez and G. Patricia 25.9 million people, or about 9.1% of the U.S. population,
de la Cruz of the Census Bureau note in The Hispanic were of Mexican origin in 2004. Mexican-Americans rep-
Population in the United States: March 2002 (June 2003, resented 65.5% of the Hispanic population in the United
http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/p20-545.pdf) that States in 2006. (See Figure 1.2.) Ramirez and de la Cruz

4 Who Are Minorities? Minorities

FIGURE 1.1

Nativity and citizenship status, by detailed ethnic group, 2004

[Percent distribution]

Foreign born, Foreign born,

Native naturalized citizen not a citizen

Total 88.0 5.0 7.0

White alone, not
96.2 2.1 1.7
Hispanic

Hispanic 60.8 11.0 28.2

Mexican 60.6 8.5 30.9

Puerto Rican 98.7 0.7 0.6

Cuban 36.7 38.1 25.2

Dominican 38.7 28.0 33.3

Central American 32.2 19.1 48.8

Guatemalan 28.9 15.4 55.7

Honduran 32.1 17.5 50.5

Salvadoran 32.3 18.1 49.6

South American 30.3 26.2 43.6

Colombian 33.2 28.3 38.6

Ecuadorian 33.1 25.2 41.8

Peruvian 27.8 28.1 44.1

All other Hispanic 82.5 8.0 9.4

Notes: Some percentages do not sum to 100.0 due to rounding. Data based on sample limited to the household population and exclude the population living in institutions,
college dormitories, and other group quarters.

SOURCE: “Figure 7. Nativity and Citizenship Status: 2004,” in The American Community—Hispanics: 2004, U.S. Census Bureau, February 2007,
http://www.census.gov/prod/2007pubs/acs-03.pdf (accessed December 17, 2007)

find that Mexican-Americans remained concentrated for 1, 2002) that following World War II (1939–1945) an
the most part in the West (54.6%) and in the South industrialization program was launched in Puerto Rico.
(34.3%). Even though the program benefited many, it sharply
reduced the number of agricultural jobs on the island,
Puerto Ricans driving many rural residents to the cities. Combined with
The situation of Puerto Ricans is unique in American a high birth rate, this led to unemployment, overcrowd-
society. The Caribbean island of Puerto Rico, formerly a ing, and poverty. These conditions forced many Puerto
Spanish colony, became a U.S. commonwealth after it was Ricans to move to the mainland United States, particu-
ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Paris in 1898, larly New York City. Since 1993, when President Bill
which ended the Spanish-American War (1898). In 1917 Clinton (1946–) eliminated tax exemptions for manufac-
turing firms in Puerto Rico, industries have moved away
the Revised Organic Act (the Jones Act) granted the island
from the island in search of cheaper labor, further com-
a bill of rights and its own legislature. It also conferred U.S.
pounding the economic problems of Puerto Rico. Accord-
citizenship to all Puerto Ricans.
ing to Virginia E. Sánchez Korrol, in From Colonia to
Ruth Glasser states in ‘‘Tobacco Valley: Puerto Rican Community: The History of Puerto Ricans in New York
Farm Workers in Connecticut’’ (Hog River Journal, vol. City (1994), in 1940 fewer than seventy thousand Puerto

Minorities Who Are Minorities? 5

FIGURE 1.2 Rican immigrants moved in greater numbers to other
boroughs of the city and into New Jersey.
Hispanics by origin, 2006
In 2006 Puerto Ricans represented 8.6% of the Hispanic
population living in the United States. (See Figure 1.2.)
Cuban Ramirez and de la Cruz state that Puerto Ricans were more
Puerto 3.7%
Rican likely to live in the Northeast (58%) than in other areas.
8.6% Puerto Ricans were even more likely than other Hispanic
Central
American groups to reside inside central cities in metropolitan areas—
8.2% 57.4% of them lived in these areas in 2002.
South
American Cuban-Americans
Mexican 6.0%
65.5% Other
Hispanic In Cubans in the United States (August 25, 2006,
8.0%
http://pewhispanic.org/files/factsheets/23.pdf), the Pew
Hispanic Center explains that many Cubans fled Cuba
during the early 1960s after the Fulgencio Batista (1901–
1973) regime was overthrown by Fidel Castro (1926–).
Cuban immigrants tended to settle in Miami, Florida, and
SOURCE:“Percent Distribution of Hispanics by Type: 2006,” in U.S. in the surrounding Dade County. Most of these political
Hispanic Population: 2006, U.S. Census Bureau, October 2007, http://
refugees were older, middle class, and educated. Many
www.census.gov/population/socdemo/hispanic/cps2006/CPS_
Powerpoint_2006.pdf (accessed November 2, 2007) fled to maintain a capitalist way of life, and many suc-
ceeded in achieving economic prosperity in the United
States. A second phase of Cuban immigration took place
FIGURE 1.3
from about 1965 to 1974, legally bringing middle- and
working-class Cubans to the United States through Cuban
Percent Hispanic by region, 2006 and U.S. government programs.

In Mariel Boatlift (April 2005, http://www.globalse

curity.org/military/ops/mariel-boatlift.htm), GlobalSecur-
Northeast 11.3%
ity.org reports that in 1980, 125,000 people seeking ref-
uge from Castro’s government fled Cuba in what became
Midwest 5.3%
known as the Mariel Boatlift, named after the town in
South 14.5%
Cuba from which they sailed. Because most of these new
immigrants were from less wealthy and less educated
West 26.6% backgrounds than their predecessors, and some were
actually criminals or people who were mentally ill, many
SOURCE: “Percent Hispanic by Region: 2006,” in U.S. Hispanic had difficulty fitting into the existing Cuban communities
Population: 2006, U.S. Census Bureau, October 2007, http://www in the United States. Also, unlike the Cubans who came
.census.gov/population/socdemo/hispanic/cps2006/CPS_Powerpoint_
2006.pdf (accessed November 2, 2007) before them, they had spent twenty years living under a
dictatorship that was vastly different from the democratic
government they encountered in the United States. This
difference led to further difficulties in adjustment to their
Ricans lived in the contiguous United States. The Census new homes.
Bureau notes in American Community—Hispanics that by
2004, 3.9 million Puerto Ricans called the United States home. Mireya Navarro reports in ‘‘Last of Refugees from
Partly because of the relative ease with which Puerto Ricans Cuba in ’94 Flight Now Enter U.S.’’ (New York Times,
can travel in the United States, many move freely back and February 1, 1996) that in 1994 more than twenty-nine
forth between the United States and Puerto Rico. thousand Cubans tried to enter the United States after
fleeing a severe economic crisis in their own country.
Joseph Berger explains in ‘‘A Puerto Rican Rebirth Most attempted the trip by boats and rafts but were
in El Barrio; After Exodus, Gentrification Changes Face intercepted by the U.S. Coast Guard and taken back to
of East Harlem’’ (New York Times, December 10, 2002) Cuba, where they were detained at Guantánamo Bay, the
that most of the first Puerto Ricans who arrived in the U.S. naval base. By January 1996 most detainees had
United States settled in New York City in the Manhattan been allowed to enter the United States, and the detention
neighborhood of East Harlem, which came to be known camps were closed. The Pew Hispanic Center notes that
as El Barrio (the Neighborhood). Eventually, Puerto under current U.S. policy, Cubans who are able to reach

6 Who Are Minorities? Minorities

the United States are allowed to stay, whereas those 12.3% in 2000, as reported by the Census Bureau, in
intercepted at sea are returned to Cuba. Profiles of General Demographic Characteristics 2000
(May 2001, http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/dp1/
Even though language differences cause initial diffi-
2kh00.pdf).
culties for Cuban immigrants, the Pew Hispanic Center
explains that most adapt well and that Cubans are the most
Geographic Distribution
economically successful of the Hispanic ethnic groups.
Unlike Americans of Mexican and Puerto Rican back- Few African-Americans voluntarily migrated from the
grounds, who began migrating throughout the country dur- southern farms and plantations that had been their homes in
ing the 1990s, the Cuban population has generally the first decades after the abolition of slavery. As a result, at
remained concentrated in Florida, even though large num- the beginning of the twentieth century a large majority of
bers also live in New Jersey, New York, and California. African-Americans still lived in the South. However, when
World War I (1914–1918) interrupted the flow of migrant
labor from Europe, large numbers of African-Americans
AFRICAN-AMERICANS
migrated from the rural South to northern industrial cities to
In 1619 the first Africans arrived in colonial North
take advantage of new work opportunities there. Compared
America. Subsequently, their numbers increased rapidly
to the oppressive system of segregation in the South, eco-
to fill the growing demand for slave labor in the new land.
nomic and social conditions were better in the North for
The first slaves were brought into this country by way of
many African-Americans, thereby encouraging a continu-
the West Indies, but as demand increased, they were soon
brought directly to the English colonies on the mainland in ous flow of migrants. According to the article ‘‘North by
North America. Most were delivered to the South and South: The African-American Great Migration’’ (2005,
worked on plantations, where they supplied cheap labor. http://northbysouth.kenyon.edu/), between 1900 and 1960,
4.8 million African-Americans fled the South and settled in
The vast majority of African-Americans in the United northern cities such as Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Pitts-
States were kept as slaves until the Civil War (1861–1865). burgh, and New York. The African-American migrations
According to the 1860 census (http://www2.census.gov/ following World War I and World War II are among the
prod2/decennial/documents/1860a-02.pdf), the states that largest voluntary internal migrations in U.S. history.
comprised the Confederacy in the South at the outbreak
of hostilities had a slave population of 3.5 million, com- Most African-Americans moved to the Northeast and
pared to a white population of nearly 5.5 million. By con- Midwest, although after 1940 significant numbers also
trast, the Union states and territories in the North had a moved West. The traditional migration from the South to
white population of 21.5 million, with slaves numbering the North dwindled dramatically in the 1970s. In fact, after
432,650. 1975, largely due to the favorable economic conditions devel-
In 1863 President Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865) oping in the booming Sunbelt cities, African-Americans
issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which technically started migrating in droves to the South. In 2004 five out
freed slaves in the Confederate states, although those of the six states whose populations were more than 25%
states did not recognize the legality of the proclamation. African-American were in the deep South: Mississippi
In 1865 the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitu- (37.2%), Louisiana (32.5%), Georgia (28.7%), South Caro-
tion abolished slavery throughout the United States. In lina (28.9%), and Alabama (26%). (See Figure 1.4.) States in
1868 the Fourteenth Amendment afforded former slaves the Midwest and Northwest had low proportions of African-
and other African-Americans equal protection under the Americans.
law, and in 1870 the Fifteenth Amendment granted them
the right to vote. The present population of African- White Flight
Americans in the United States includes not only those
African-Americans are significantly more likely than
descended from former slaves but also those who have
non-Hispanic whites to live in metropolitan areas, inside
since emigrated from Africa, the West Indies, and Central
of central cities. According to Jesse McKinnon of the
and South America.
Census Bureau, in The Black Population in the United
According to the Census Bureau, in 2006, 36.7 mil- States: March 2002 (April 2003, http://www.census.gov/
lion people who identified their race as non-Hispanic, prod/2003pubs/p20-541.pdf), more than one out of two
black alone lived in the United States; 38.3 million peo- (51.5%) African-Americans lived in these areas in 2002,
ple identified their race as black alone or in combination. compared to only 21.1% of non-Hispanic whites. In con-
(See Table 1.1.) Generally, even mixed-race individuals trast, a higher proportion of whites lived inside metropol-
in the United States identify as African-American due to itan areas, but outside of central cities, than did African-
the rigid politics of race in the nation. In 2006 African- Americans (56.8% and 36%, respectively), as well as in
Americans made up 12.8% of the population, up from nonmetropolitan areas (22.1% and 12.5%, respectively).

Minorities Who Are Minorities? 7

 FIGURE 1.4

Percent African-American by state, 2004

[Black alone as a percent of state population. Data based on sample limited to the household population and exclude the population living in institutions, college dormitories, and
other group quarters.]

U.S. percent 12.2

25.0 or more 10.0 to 24.9 5.0 to 9.9 Less than 5.0

WA
3.3 NH ME
MT VT 0.8 0.6
ND
0.3 0.5
0.6
OR MN MA
1.7 4.1
ID WI NY 6.0
0.3 SD
0.8 5.7 15.8 RI
WY MI
0.8 14.0 5.5
IA PA CT
NE 2.2 10.0 9.3
NV NJ
3.6 IN OH
6.9 UT IL 13.1
11.7
0.8 14.7 8.1 DE
CO WV VA
CA 4.0 KS MO 3.1 MD 19.8
6.2 5.1 11.2 KY 19.3
28.5
6.8
NC
DC
TN 16.3 21.2
AZ OK 57.8
NM AR
3.0 7.1 SC
2.3 15.3
28.9
AL GA
MS
26.0 28.7
37.2
TX LA
11.0 32.5

FL
15.1

AK
3.4 HI
1.7

SOURCE: “Figure 2. Percent Black by State: 2004,” in The American Community—Blacks: 2004, U.S. Census Bureau, February 2007, http://www.census
.gov/prod/2007pubs/acs-04.pdf (accessed November 2, 2007)

Cities with particularly high proportions of African- Eric Bickford explains in ‘‘White Flight: The Effect
Americans in 2003 included New York–White Plains–Wayne of Minority Presence on Post–World War II Suburbaniza-
(24.7%), Philadelphia (22.3%), Washington, D.C.– tion’’ (September 1999, http://eh.net/Clio/Publications/
Arlington–Alexandria (30.1%), Atlanta–Sandy Springs– flight.shtml) that a primary reason for the high proportion
Marietta (29.2%), and Baltimore-Towson (27.3%). (See of African-Americans in central cities has been ‘‘white
Table 1.3.) However, the suburban areas around these flight.’’ Beginning in the 1950s, as African-Americans
metropolitan areas have lower proportions of African- moved to northeastern and midwestern cities, whites
Americans. For example, only 9.8% of the population of who were economically able to do so moved to suburban
Nassau and Suffolk counties, the suburbs of New York areas. Before the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohib-
City, was African-American, compared to 24.7% of New ited discrimination in housing, African-Americans were
York City itself. Even though Chicago was 19.7% African- not given the same opportunities to move away from
American, its suburbs in Lake and Kenosha counties were cities, whether or not they were economically able to do
only 6.9% African-American. so. As wealthier whites abandoned city neighborhoods,

8 Who Are Minorities? Minorities

TABLE 1.3

Population of twenty largest metropolitan statistical areas with metropolitan divisions, by race/ethnicity, 2003

Population characteristics, 2003 (percent)

Black or African American Indian, Native Hawaiian Hispanic
American Asian Alaska Native and other Pacific or Latino
Rank Metropolitan statistical area/metropolitan division White alone alone alone alone Islander alone (any race)
1 New York-Northern New Jersey-Long Island, NY-NJ-PA 69.2 20.2 8.6 0.5 0.1 20.9
Edison, NJ 82.2 7.8 8.7 0.2 0 10
Nassau-Suffolk, NY 84.3 9.8 4.5 0.3 0.1 12.1
Newark-Union, NJ-PA 71.6 22.7 4.4 0.3 0.1 14.4
New York-White Plains-Wayne, NY-NJ 62.5 24.7 10.3 0.6 0.1 26.4
2 Los Angeles-Long Beach-Santa Ana, CA 75.6 8.1 13.2 1 0.3 43
Los Angeles-Long Beach-Glendale, CA 74.3 9.9 12.7 1.1 0.3 46.3
Santa Ana-Anaheim-Irvine, CA 80 1.8 14.9 0.9 0.3 32.1
3 Chicago-Naperville-Joliet, IL-IN-WI 75.1 18.5 4.9 0.3 0.1 17.9
Chicago-Naperville-Joliet, IL 73.5 19.7 5.3 0.4 0.1 18.9
Gary, IN 79.2 18.5 0.9 0.3 0.1 10.3
Lake County-Kenosha County, IL-WI 87 6.9 4.3 0.4 0.1 15
4 Philadelphia-Camden-Wilmington, PA-NJ-DE-MD 74.2 20.6 3.8 0.2 0 5.4
Camden, NJ 78.6 16.5 3.2 0.2 0.1 6.8
Philadelphia, PA 72.1 22.3 4.3 0.2 0 4.9
Wilmington, DE-MD-NJ 78 17.9 2.6 0.3 0 5.1
5 Dallas-Fort Worth-Arlington, TX 79.7 14 4.3 0.6 0.1 24.3
Dallas-Plano-Irving, TX 78.1 15.2 4.8 0.6 0.1 26.1
Fort Worth-Arlington, TX 82.8 11.6 3.5 0.6 0.1 20.8
6 Miami-Fort Lauderdale-Miami Beach, FL 75.7 20.9 1.9 0.3 0.1 36.8
Fort Lauderdale-Pompano Beach-Deerfield Beach, FL 71.3 24.3 2.7 0.3 0.1 20.2
Miami-Miami Beach-Kendall, FL 76.2 20.9 1.4 0.3 0.1 60.5
West Palm Beach-Boca Raton-Boynton Beach, FL 80.8 15.9 1.8 0.4 0.1 14.9
7 Houston-Sugar Land-Baytown, TX 76.1 16.8 5.4 0.5 0.1 31.1

8 Washington-Arlington-Alexandria, DC-VA-MD-WV 63.5 26.4 7.7 0.4 0.1 10.1

Bethesda-Gaithersburg-Frederick, MD 73.6 13.3 10.8 0.3 0.1 10.6
Washington-Arlington-Alexandria, DC-VA-MD-WV 60.6 30.1 6.9 0.4 0.1 10
9 Atlanta-Sandy Springs-Marietta, GA 65.6 29.2 3.7 0.3 0.1 7.7

10 Detroit-Warren-Livonia, MI 72.4 23 2.9 0.3 0 3.1

Detroit-Livonia-Dearborn, MI 53.6 42.4 2.1 0.4 0 4.2
Warren-Farmington Hills-Troy, MI 87.8 7 3.5 0.3 0 2.3
11 Boston-Cambridge-Quincy, MA-NH 85.6 7.5 5.4 0.3 0.1 7
Boston-Quincy, MA 79.9 12.9 5.6 0.3 0.1 7.7
Cambridge-Newton, Framingham, MA 87.1 4 7.6 0.2 0 4.8
Essex County, MA 90.3 4.7 2.8 0.3 0.1 13.2
Rockingham County-Strafford County, NH 96.8 0.7 1.4 0.2 0.1 1.2
12 San Francisco-Oakland-Fremont, CA 65.2 9.5 20.9 0.6 0.7 18.9
Oakland-Fremont-Hayward, CA 64.2 12.5 18.6 0.7 0.6 20.2
San Francisco-San Mateo-Redwood City, CA 66.7 5.2 24.3 0.5 0.8 17.1
13 Riverside-San Bernardino-Ontario, CA 83.1 8.2 4.6 1.4 0.4 40.9
14 Phoenix-Mesa-Scottsdale, AZ 89.4 4 2.4 2.5 0.2 28.1
15 Seattle-Tacoma-Bellevue, WA 79.8 5.5 9.5 1.2 0.6 6.2
Seattle-Bellevue-Everett, WA 79.7 4.9 10.7 1.1 0.5 6.1
Tacoma, WA 80.3 7.3 5.4 1.5 0.9 6.3
16 Minneapolis-St. Paul-Bloomington, MN-WI 86.9 5.9 4.7 0.7 0.1 3.8
17 San Diego-Carlsbad-San Marcos, CA 80.3 5.9 9.4 1 0.5 28.7
18 St. Louis, MO-IL 78.8 18.1 1.7 0.2 0 1.7
19 Baltimore-Towson, MD 68 27.3 3.1 0.3 0.1 2.1
20 Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater, FL 84.8 11.2 2.2 0.4 0.1 12

SOURCE: Adapted from “Table 1. Annual Estimates of the Population of Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2006,” in
Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Area Estimates, U.S. Census Bureau, April 2007, http://www.census.gov/population/www/estimates/CBSA-est2006-
annual.html and “Table B-3. Metropolitan Areas—Population by Age, Race, and Sex,” in State and Metropolitan Area Data Book: 2006, U.S. Census Bureau,
July 2006, http://www.census.gov/prod/2006pubs/smadb/smadb-06tableb.pdf (accessed December 12, 2007)

Minorities Who Are Minorities? 9

taking their tax dollars with them, city neighborhoods rap- fraudulent U.S. citizens escorted to the United States
idly deteriorated, leaving poor and nonwhite residents to a host of ‘‘paper sons.’’ Despite this traffic and other
deal with increasing crime and neighborhood deterioration. means of illegal entry, the Chinese-American popula-
tion declined from the 1880s to the 1920s. Laws reg-
ASIAN-AMERICANS ulating Chinese immigration to the United States did
The term Asian-American is a catch-all term that did not change until World War II, when China became an
not gain currency until the late 1960s and early 1970s. It ally. President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945) per-
was not until 1980 that the Census Bureau created the suaded Congress to repeal the Chinese Exclusion Act
‘‘Asian and Pacific Islander’’ category, a departure from in 1943.
the previous practice of counting several Asian groups People of other nationalities that comprise the Asian-
separately. Even though seemingly a geographic descrip- American category also began immigrating to the United
tion, ‘‘Asian and Pacific Islander’’ contains racial over- States before World War II. The Japanese first came to the
tones, given that natives of Australia and New Zealand
United States in significant numbers during the 1890s,
are not included, nor are whites born in the Asian region
although many laborers had previously settled in Hawaii.
of the former Soviet Union. In 2006, 13.2 million Asian-
Like the Chinese, the Japanese mostly lived in the western
Americans lived in the United States, making up 4.4% of
United States. There was some call for a ‘‘Japanese Exclu-
the country’s population. (See Table 1.1.) Native Hawai-
sion Act,’’ but because Japan was an emerging Pacific
ians and Pacific Islanders had a population of 528,818,
power, such legislation was never passed. Overall, Japa-
making up 0.2% of the total U.S. population.
nese immigrants fared better than their Chinese counter-
Chinese Immigration in the 1800s parts and soon outpaced them in population. However, the
In ‘‘Chinese Immigration’’ (September 1, 2003, http:// Library of Congress notes in ‘‘Japanese Immigration’’
memory.loc.gov/learn/features/immig/chinese.html), the (February 2, 2004, http://memory.loc.gov/learn/features/
Library of Congress explains that the first major immigra- immig/japanese.html) that when Japan and the United
tion of people from Asia to the United States involved the States went to war in 1941, over one hundred thousand
Chinese. From the time of the California gold rush of 1849 Americans of Japanese descent, including many who were
until the early 1880s, it is estimated that as many as native-born U.S. citizens, were removed from their homes
250,000 Chinese immigrated to the United States, with and confined in detention camps. By 1945 approximately
the vast majority coming from the Pearl River delta of 125,000 people of Japanese descent had been sent to these
Guangdong Province. Many hoped to strike it rich in camps. It is noteworthy that even though the United States
California, the ‘‘Golden Mountain,’’ and then return was also at war with Germany and Italy, citizens of Ger-
home. A few fulfilled that dream, but most stayed in the man and Italian descent or birth were not subject to incar-
United States, two-thirds in California, where they faced ceration due to their heritage.
intense discrimination. They became the object of politi-
cal posturing that portrayed ‘‘cheap Chinese labor’’ as a Before World War II Filipinos, Asian-Indians, and
threat to U.S. workers. Koreans represented a negligible share of the Asian-
American population. In Historical Census Statistics on
After the Civil War, at the same time most African- Population Totals by Race, 1790 to 1990, and by Hispanic
Americans were able to gain citizenship with the adop- Origin, 1970 to 1990, for the United States, Regions, Divi-
tion of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868, an exception sion, and States (September 2002, http://www.census.gov/
was carved out for Asian immigrants. They were desig-
population/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.pdf), Camp-
nated ‘‘aliens ineligible to citizenship.’’ The Chinese
bell Gibson and Kay Jung of the Census Bureau state that in
Exclusion Act of 1882 then stopped the entry of Chinese
1940 there were 254,918 Asian-Americans living in the
into the country altogether, except for a few merchants
United States; 126,947 were Japanese, 77,504 were Chi-
and students. As a result, China became the source of the
United States’ first illegal aliens. Claire Lui states in nese, and 45,563 were Filipino. Asian-Indians totaled some
‘‘How Illegal Immigration Was Born’’ (May 7, 2007, 2,405, and Koreans numbered even fewer. As was the case
http://www.americanheritage.com/) that besides jumping with Puerto Ricans, Filipinos began to immigrate to the
ship or illegally crossing borders, many Chinese immi- United States in the years following the Spanish-American
grants took advantage of the 1906 earthquake in San War, when their country was annexed and eventually
Francisco, which destroyed the city’s vital statistics granted commonwealth status. Designated ‘‘American
records, to gain legal status by forging U.S. birth certif- nationals,’’ Filipinos held a unique position: They were
icates. By law, any male of Chinese heritage born in not eligible for citizenship, but they also could not be
the United States had the right to return to China for prevented from entering the United States. Many Filipinos
any children he fathered (although he could not bring immigrated during the 1920s looking for work, but the Great
back the alien mother). As a result, many of these Depression of the 1930s stemmed this flow.

10 Who Are Minorities? Minorities

 Asian-Indians had come to the United States in small FIGURE 1.5
numbers, generally settling in New York City and other
eastern ports, but it was not until the early years of the Region of residence for Asians and non-Hispanic whites, 2004
twentieth century that they began immigrating to the West
Coast, generally entering through western Canada. Kore-
Asian Non-Hispanic white
ans came to the United States from Hawaii, where several
thousand had immigrated between 1903 and 1905. Both
47.9
Asian-Indians and Koreans lost their eligibility to enter
the United States following the Immigration Act of 1917, 33.6
accounting for their small populations before World War 26.7
II. Once the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed, how- 19 20.2 20 19.4
13
ever, the door was also open for Filipinos and Asian-
Indians to gain entry to the United States as well as to
earn citizenship during the postwar years. The Korean
Northeast Midwest South West
War (1950–1953) led to a long-term U.S. military pres-
SOURCE: Adapted from “Table 20. Population by Region and Sex, for
ence in Korea, resulting in a number of Korean-born
Asian Alone and White Alone, Not Hispanic: March 2004,” in The
wives of military personnel relocating to the United Asian Alone Population in the United States: March 2004, U.S. Census
States. In addition, many Korean-born children were Bureau, 2004, http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/race/api/ppl-
184/tab20.pdf (accessed November 10, 2007)
adopted and brought to the United States. A larger influx
of Korean families immigrated during the mid-1960s.

Sharp Rise in Immigration

Asian immigration during the 1980s can be divided of Asian-Americans lived in the South, 19% lived in the
into two ‘‘streams.’’ The first stream came from Asian Northeast, and only 13% lived in the Midwest.
countries that already had large populations in the United
States (such as the People’s Republic of China, Korea, In The Asian and Pacific Islander Population in the
and the Philippines). These immigrants, many of whom United States: March 2002 (May 2003, http://www.cen
were highly educated, came primarily for family reunifi- sus.gov/prod/2003pubs/p20-540.pdf), Terrance Reeves
cation and through employment provisions of the immi- and Claudette Bennett of the Census Bureau report that
gration laws. The second stream consisted primarily of in 2002, 95% of Asians and Pacific Islanders lived in
immigrants and refugees from the war-torn countries of metropolitan areas, whereas only 78% of non-Hispanic
Southeast Asia (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia). They whites lived in metropolitan areas. Jessica S. Barnes and
were admitted under U.S. policies that supported political Claudette E. Bennett of the Census Bureau state in The
refugees after the Vietnam War (1954–1975), as well as Asian Population: 2000 (February 2002, http://www.cen
those escaping unstable economic and political condi- sus.gov/prod/2002pubs/c2kbr01-16.pdf) that in 2000
tions in neighboring countries. In ‘‘Southeast Asian Com- New York, Los Angeles, and San Jose, California, were
munities’’ (2008, http://www.searac.org/commun.html), the three cities with the largest populations of Asian-
the Southeast Asia Resource Action Center notes that Americans. Likewise, Elizabeth M. Grieco of the Census
between 1975 and 1998 an estimated 1.3 million refugees Bureau notes in The Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific
arrived in the United States from Southeast Asia. Islander Population: 2000 (December 2001, http://www
.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-14.pdf) that Honolulu,
According to the 2006 American Community Survey Los Angeles, and San Diego, California, were the three
(http://www.census2010.gov/acs/www/), China was the top cities with the largest Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander
Asian country of origin for Asian immigrants—3.1 million populations in 2000.
U.S. residents traced their roots to China. Almost 2.5 mil-
lion U.S. residents traced their roots to India, and over 2.3
million traced their roots to the Philippines. Over 1.3 mil- NATIVE AMERICANS
lion people living in the United States had ancestral origins Most historians agree that the people known as
in Korea, and almost 1.5 million had origins in Vietnam. Native Americans and Alaskan Natives arrived in North
Among Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders, Native America from northeast Asia at least thirty thousand
Hawaiians had the highest population, at 148,598. years ago during the last of the Ice Age glaciations
(coverings of large areas of Earth with ice). At that time
Geographic Distribution the two continents were connected by a land bridge over
In 2004 Asians and Pacific Islanders were much more what is currently the Bering Strait. However, according
likely than non-Hispanic whites to live in the West (47.9% to Charles W. Petit in ‘‘Rediscovering America: The New
and 19.4%, respectively). (See Figure 1.5.) Twenty percent World May Be 20,000 Years Older Than Experts

Minorities Who Are Minorities? 11

Thought’’ (U.S. News and World Report, October 12, also members of such groups. The largest tribal group-
1998), some archaeologists dispute this theory by citing ings of Alaskan Natives in 2000 were the Eskimos, with
evidence that indicates that migrants may have actually 54,761 members, followed by the Tlingit-Haida, with
arrived many thousands of years earlier, perhaps by boat. 22,365 members, the Alaska Athabascan, with 18,838
Migrants who settled on the northern coast of Alaska members, and the Aleut, with 16,978 members.
and the Yukon River valley, which were free of ice
barriers, became known as Eskimos and Aleuts. Those RELATIONS BETWEEN WHITES
who ventured farther south followed the eastern slope of AND MINORITY GROUPS
the Rocky Mountains and continued along the mountain-
In Whites, Blacks, Hispanics Assess Race Relations in
ous spine of North America into Central and South
the U.S. (August 6, 2007, http://www.gallup.com/poll/
America. There, they moved east throughout the central
28312/Whites-Blacks-Hispanics-Assess-Race-Relations-
plains and eastern highlands of both continents and were
US.aspx), Joseph Carroll of the Gallup Organization reports
later erroneously named Indians by exploring Spaniards.
on a 2007 poll about relations between racial and ethnic
The misnomer is attributed to Christopher Columbus
groups. Overall, 83% of Americans maintained that relations
(1451–1506), who, on landing in the Bahamas in 1492,
between whites and Asian-Americans were ‘‘very/somewhat
thought he had reached the islands off the eastern region
good,’’ 71% thought that relations between whites and
of Asia, called the Indies. He therefore greeted the inhab-
African-Americans were ‘‘somewhat/very good,’’ and 68%
itants as ‘‘Indians.’’ In the twenty-first century many
thought relations between whites and Hispanics were ‘‘some-
descendants of the original settlers prefer to be called
what/very good.’’ Non-Hispanic whites were significantly
Native Americans.
more than African-Americans to perceive relations between
Most Native American groups have historically had a whites and African-Americans as good (75% and 55%,
close relationship with the earth. Some have been farm- respectively). (See Figure 1.6.) Carroll notes that African-
ers, whereas others have specialized in hunting and fish- Americans’ perceptions of relations between blacks and
ing. The arrival of the Europeans eventually changed the whites was the worst it had been since 2001.
way of life of Native American tribes. Devastating wars,
disease, the annihilation of the buffalo, and the loss of According to Carroll, a smaller proportion of Amer-
land fit for cultivation to Europeans led to the elimination icans characterized the relations between non-Hispanic
of much of their population. whites and Hispanics as good; 66% described the rela-
tions in this way. Similar proportions of non-Hispanic
In 2006, 2.9 million Native Americans and Alaskan whites (68%) and Hispanics (70%) viewed relations
Natives lived in the United States, making up approxi- between the groups positively, whereas only 53% of
mately 1% of the population. (See Table 1.1.) An addi- African-Americans viewed relations between the groups
tional 1.6 million people claimed they were Native positively. (See Figure 1.7.)
American or Alaskan Native in combination with one or
more other races. FIGURE 1.6

Geographic Distribution Public opinion on state of race relations between whites and
Stella U. Ogunwole of the Census Bureau reports in African Americans, 2007
The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2000,
February 2002, http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/
% Very/somewhat good % Very/somewhat bad
c2kbr01-15.pdf) that in 2000, the most recent year for
which data are available, 48% of Native Americans and
71 75
Alaskan Natives lived in the West. Another 29.3% lived in 59
55
the South, 16.1% lived in the Midwest, and 6.6% lived in
43
the Northeast. Individuals who were Native American or 28
35
25
Alaskan Native in combination with one or more other
races were slightly less likely to live in the West and
slightly more likely to live in the Northeast, Midwest, or All adults Non-Hispanic Blacks Hispanics
South. whites

SOURCE: Joseph Carroll, “Relations between Whites and Blacks,” in

Many Native Americans live on or near reservations
Whites, Blacks, Hispanics Assess Race Relations in the U.S., The
and are members of groupings called ‘‘tribes.’’ Ogunwole Gallup Organization, August 6, 2007, http://www.gallup.com/poll/
notes that in 2000 the largest tribal groupings were the 28312/Whites-Blacks-Hispanics-Assess-Race-Relations-US.aspx?
version⫽print (accessed January 16, 2008). Copyright © 2008 by The
Cherokee, with 729,533 members, followed by the Nav-
Gallup Organization. Reproduced by Permission of The Gallup
ajo, with 298,197 members, and the Latin Native Amer- Organization.
icans, with 180,940 members. Many Alaskan Natives are

12 Who Are Minorities? Minorities

FIGURE 1.7 Update-Americans-Satisfaction-Aspects-Life-US.aspx) that
even though most Americans characterized relations between
Public opinion on state of race relations between races and ethnic groups as ‘‘good’’ in 2005, only 9% of
non-Hispanic whites and Hispanics, 2007
Americans were ‘‘very satisfied’’ with the state of race rela-
tions in the nation. Another 44% said that they were ‘‘some-
% Very/somewhat good % Very/somewhat bad
what satisfied,’’ and 24% were ‘‘somewhat dissatisfied’’ with
race relations in the United States.
68 70 In Black Dissatisfaction Simmers beneath Good Race
53 Relations (August 22, 2003, http://www.gallup.com/poll/
41
28
9100/Black-Dissatisfaction-Simmers-Beneath-Good-Race-
25
Relations.aspx), Lydia Saad of the Gallup Organization
reports that in 2003, 68% of white Americans believed that
Non-Hispanic Blacks Hispanics African-Americans in their own communities are treated as
whites well as whites. This figure, however, masks a distinct
SOURCE: Joseph Carroll, “Relations between Whites and Hispanics,” in divide, with only 40% of African-Americans reporting that
Whites, Blacks, Hispanics Assess Race Relations in the U.S., The African-Americans are treated as well as whites. African-
Gallup Organization, August 6, 2007, http://www.gallup.com/poll/
28312/Whites-Blacks-Hispanics-Assess-Race-Relations-US.aspx?
American respondents indicated that they were generally
version⫽print (accessed January 16, 2008). Copyright © 2008 by The dissatisfied with the way African-Americans are treated in
Gallup Organization. Reproduced by Permission of The Gallup society—39% felt ‘‘very dissatisfied,’’ 20% felt ‘‘some-
Organization.
what dissatisfied,’’ and only 10% felt ‘‘very satisfied.’’
Most African-Americans reported having experienced
racial discrimination in public life or employment, with
Frank Newport of the Gallup Organization notes in 26% reporting that they experienced it at least weekly. Four
Update: Americans’ Satisfaction with Aspects of Life in the out of five (81%) believed that racial minorities did not
U.S. (January 27, 2005, http://www.gallup.com/poll/14611/ have equal job opportunities as whites.

Minorities Who Are Minorities? 13

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