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978-1-492-09445-6
[LSI]
Chapter 1. Training Data
Introduction

A NOTE FOR EARLY RELEASE READERS


With Early Release ebooks, you get books in their earliest form—
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take advantage of these technologies long before the official
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This will be the 1st chapter of the final book. Please note that
the GitHub repo will be made active later on.
If you have comments about how we might improve the content
and/or examples in this book, or if you notice missing material
within this chapter, please reach out to the editor at
[email protected].

Data is all around us. Videos, images, text, 3D, geospatial,


documents, and more. Yet, in its raw form this data is of little use to
machine learning (ML). How do we make use of this data? How do
we record our intelligence so it can be reproduced through ML? The
answer is the Art of Training Data - the discipline of making raw data
useful.
In this book you will learn:

All-new Training Data specific concepts


The Day-to-Day Practice of Training Data
How to improve Training Data efficiency
Real world case studies
How to transform your team to be more AI/ML centric

Before we can cover some of these concepts, we first have to


understand the foundations, which this chapter will unpack.
Training Data is about molding, reforming, shaping, and digesting
raw data into new forms. Creating new meaning out of raw data to
solve problems. These acts of creation and destruction sit at the
intersection of subject matter expertise, business needs, and
technical requirements. It’s a diverse set of activities that crosscut
multiple domains.
At the heart of these activities is annotation. Annotation produces
structured data that is ready to be consumed by a machine learning
model. Without annotation, raw data is considered to be
unstructured and not usable. That’s why training data is required for
modern machine learning use cases including computer vision,
natural language processing and speech recognition.
To cement this idea in an example let’s consider annotation in detail.
When we annotate data, we are capturing human knowledge.
Typically, this process looks as follows: a piece of media such as an
image, text, video, 3D, or audio, is presented along with a set of
predefined options (labels). A human reviews the media and
determines the most appropriate answers. For example, declaring a
region of an image to be “good” or “bad”. This label provides the
context needed to apply machine learning concepts (Figure 1-1).
But how did we get there? How did we get to the point that the right
media element, with the right predefined set of options, is shown to
the right person at the right time? There are many concepts that
lead up to and follow the moment where that annotation, or
knowledge capture, actually happens. Collectively all of these
concepts are the art of training data.
Figure 1-1. The Training Data Process

In this chapter, we’ll introduce what training data is, why it matters,
and dive into many key concepts that will form the base for the rest
of the book.

Training Data Intents


What can you do with Training Data. What is it most concerned
with? What are people aiming to achieve with Training Data? The
purpose of Training Data varies across different use cases, problems,
and scenarios. Let’s explore some of the most common questions.

What Can You Do With Training Data?


Training Data is the foundation of AI/ML systems - the underpinning
that makes these systems work. With Training Data, you can build
and maintain modern ML systems, such as ones that create next
generation automations, improve existing products, and even create
all new products.
In order to be useful, the data needs to be presented in a structured
way to ML programs. That’s where Training Data comes in - adding
and maintaining structure to make the raw data useful. If you have
great Training Data, you are on the path towards a great overall
solution.
In practice, common use cases center around:
Improving an existing product (e.g., performance), even if ML is
not currently a part of it
Production of a new product, including systems that run in a
limited or “one off” fashion
Research and Development

Training Data transcends all parts of ML programs. Training data


comes up before you can run an ML Program, it comes up during
running in terms of output and results, and even later in analysis
and maintenance. Further, Training Data concerns tend to be long
lived. For example, after getting a model up and running,
maintaining the Training Data is an important part of maintaining a
model.
The creation and maintenance of novel data is a primary concern of
this book. A dataset at a moment in time is an output of the complex
processes of Training Data. For example, a Train/Test/Val split is a
derivative of an original, novel set. And that novel set itself is simply
a snapshot, a single view into larger Training Data processes. Similar
to how a programmer may decide to print or log a variable, the
variable printed is just the output, it doesn’t explain the complex set
of functions that were required to get the desired value. A goal of
this book is to explain the complex processes behind getting usable
datasets.
Annotation, the act of humans directly annotating samples, is an
important part of Training Data. However, it is just one part, and the
process of Training Data involves many others, outlined later in this
chapter.
What is Training Data Most Concerned With?
This book covers a variety of people, organizational, and technical
concerns. We’ll walk through each of these concepts in detail in a
moment, but before we do, let’s think about areas Training Data is
focused on.
For example, how does the Schema, which is a map between your
annotations and their meaning for your use case, accurately
represent the problem? How do you ensure raw data is collected and
used in a way relevant to the problem? How is human validation,
monitoring, controls, and correction applied?
How do you repeatedly achieve and maintain acceptable degrees of
quality when there is such a large human component? How does it
integrate with other technologies, including data sources and your
application?
While not perfect, to help organize this you can broadly divide into
the following topics: Schema, Raw Data, Quality, Integrations, and
the Human Role. Next, I’ll take a deeper look at each of those
topics.

Schema
Schema is central in every aspect of Training Data. Schema is the
map between human input and meaning for your use case. It
defines what the ML program is capable of outputting. It’s the vital
link, it’s what binds together everyone’s hard work. So, to state the
obvious, it’s important.
A good Schema is useful and relevant to your specific need. It’s
usually best to create a new, custom Schema, and then keep
iterating on it for your specific cases. It’s normal to draw on domain
specific databases for inspirations, or to fill in certain levels of detail,
but be sure that’s done in the context of guidance for a new, novel,
Schema. Don’t expect an existing Schema from another context to
work for ML programs without further updates.
So, why is it important to design it according to your specific needs,
and not some predefined set?
First, the Schema is for both human annotation and ML machine
use. An existing domain specific schema may be designed for human
use in a different context or for machine use in a classic, non-ML
context. This is one of those cases where something that’s output
seems really similar, but is actually formed in totally different ways.
Like two different math functions that both output the same value,
but run on completely different logic. The output of the Schema may
appear similar, but the differences are important to make it friendly
to annotation and ML use.
Second, if the Schema is not useful, then even great model
predictions are not useful. Failure with Schema design likely will
cascade to failure of the overall system. The context here is that ML
programs can usually only predict what is included in the Schema.1
It’s rare that an ML Program will produce relevant results that are
better than the original Schema. It’s also rare that it will predict
something that a human, or group of humans, looking at the same
raw data could not also predict.
It is common to see Schemas that have questionable value. So, it’s
really worth stopping and thinking “If we automatically got the data
labeled with this Schema, would it actually be useful to us?”. And
“Can a human looking at the raw data, reasonably choose something
from the Schema that fits it?”
In the first few chapters, we will cover the technical aspects of
Schema, and we will come back to Schema concerns through
practical examples later in the book.

Raw data
When we think about raw data, the most important thing is that it’s
collected and used in a way relevant to the Schema.
To illustrate the idea of relevance let’s consider the difference
between hearing a sports game on the radio, seeing it on TV, or
being at the game in person. It’s the same event regardless of the
medium, but you receive a very different amount of data in each
context. The context of the collection frames the potential of the
data. So, for example, if you were trying to determine possession of
the ball automatically, the visual data will likely be a better fit then
the radio data.
Compared to software we humans are good at automatically making
contextual correlations and working with noisy data. We make many
assumptions, often drawing on data sources not present in the
moment to our senses. This ability to understand the context above
the directly sensed sights, sounds, etc. makes it difficult to
remember that software is more limited here.
Software only has the context that is programmed into it, be it
through data or lines of code. This means the real challenge with
raw data is overcoming our human assumptions around context to
make the right data available.
So how do you do that? One of the more successful ways is to start
with the Schema, and then map ideas of raw data collection to that.
It can be visualized as a chain of Problem -> Schema -> Raw Data.
The Schema need is always defined by the Problem or Product. That
way there is always this easy check of “Given the Schema, and the
raw data, can a human make a reasonable judgment?”
Centering around the Schema also encourages thinking about new
ways of data collection, instead limiting to existing or easiest to
reach data collection methods. Over time the Schema and Raw Data
can be jointly iterated on, this is just to get started. Another way to
relate it on the product side, is that the Schema represents the
Product. So, to use the cliche of “Product Market Fit”, this is “Product
Data Fit”.
To put the above abstractions into more concrete terms, here’s some
of what I see most common in industry:
Differences between data used during development and production
are one of the most common sources of errors. It is common
because it is somewhat unavoidable. That’s why being able to get to
some level of “real” data early in the iteration process is crucial. You
have to expect that production data will be different, and plan for it
as part of your data overall data collection strategy.
The data program can only see the raw data and the annotations.
Only what is given to it. If a human annotator is relying on
knowledge outside of what can be understood from the sample
presented, it’s unlikely the data program will have that context, and
it will fail. We must remember that all needed context must be
present, either in the data or lines of code of the program.
To recap:

The raw data needs to be relevant to the Schema.


The raw data should be as similar to production data as
possible.
The raw data should have all the context needed in the sample
itself.

Quality
Training Data quality is naturally a spectrum. What is acceptable in
one context may not be in another.
So, what are the biggest factors that go into Training Data quality?
Well, we already talked about two of them: Schema and raw data.
For example:

A bad Schema may cause more quality issues than bad


annotators.
If the concept is not clear in the raw data sample, it’s unlikely it
will be clear to the ML program.

Often, Annotation quality is the next biggest item. Annotation quality


is important, but perhaps not in the ways you may expect.
Specifically, that people tend to think of Annotation quality as “was it
annotated right”? But “right” is often out of scope.
To understand how the “right” answer is often out of scope, let’s
imagine we are annotating traffic lights, and the light in sample you
are presented is off (e.g., power failure) and your only options from
the Schema are variations on an active traffic light. Clearly either the
Schema needs to be updated to include an ‘off’ traffic light, or our
production system will never be usable in a context where a traffic
light may have a power failure.
To move into a slightly harder to control case, consider if the traffic
light is really far away or at an odd angle, that will also limit the
ability to annotate it properly. Often these cases sound like they
should be easily manageable but in practice they often aren’t. So
more generally, real issues with annotation quality tend to circle back
to issues with the Schema and Raw Data. So, quality with
Annotation is more about communication of issues, of annotators
surfacing problems in Schema and Data, then just about annotating
“correctly”.
Hopefully this has hammered home the point that Schema and raw
data deserve a lot of attention. However, annotating correctly does
still matter, and one of the approaches is to have multiple people
look at the same sample. This is often costly. And someone must
interpret the meaning of the multiple opinions on the same sample,
adding further cost. For an industry usable case, where the Schema
has a reasonable degree of complexity, the meta-analysis of the
opinions is a further time sink.
Think of a crowd of people watching a sports game instant replay.
Imagine trying to statistically sample their opinions to get a “proof”
of what is “more right”. Instead of this, we have a referee who
individually reviews the situation and makes a determination. That
determination may or may not be “right”, but it’s more cost effective
then trying to survey the crowd, and realistically works better.
Similarly, often a more cost-effective approach is to randomly sample
a percent of the data for a review loop, and have annotators raise
issues with the Schema and raw data fit, as they occur. This review
loop and quality assurance processes will be discussed in more
depth later.
If the review method fails, and you think you still need multiple
people you probably have a bad Product Data Fit and need to
change the Schema or raw data collection to fix it.
Zooming out from Schema, Raw Data, and Annotation, the other big
aspects of quality is maintenance of the data and the integration
points with ML programs. Quality includes cost considerations,
expected use, and expected failure rates.
To recap here, quality is first and foremost formed by the Schema
and Raw data, then by the Annotators and associated processes,
and rounded out by the maintenance and integration.

Integrations
Much time and energy are focused on “training a model”. However,
this often misses the point because training a model is a primarily
technical, and primarily data science focused concept.
What about maintenance of the training data? What about ML
programs that output useful training data results, such as sampling,
finding errors, reducing workload etc., that are not to do with
training a model? How about the integration with the application the
results of the model or ML sub program will be used in? What about
tech that tests and monitors datasets? The hardware? Human
notifications? How is the technology packaged into other tech?
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