The Natural Speaker

The Natural Speaker is a friendly step-by-step guide to public speaking

that explores the fundamental skills necessary to present a natural and
rewarding speech to any audience. By providing an overview of speech
construction, practice, and delivery, this book is designed to enhance and
improve upon students’ natural strengths.
Featuring a warm and humorous writing style, The Natural Speaker
illustrates the concepts and skills required for enjoyable public speaking,
and Randy Fujishin invites readers to view speaking as a life-long journey.
This tenth edition features a new chapter on speaking in online contexts,
including leading or participating in online meetings, using digital
presentation tools, and guidelines for effective online PowerPoint
presentations, as well as additional focus on intercultural considerations
and new Internet student activities at the end of each chapter.
This book serves as an accessible core textbook for Public Speaking and
Introduction to Communication courses and also provides guidance for
individual readers and public speaking workshops.
Online resources include an instructor’s manual with sample test
questions and exercises.

Randy Fujishin is an author, communication consultant, and conference

speaker for high-tech companies, higher education and government
agencies, and Christian organizations. He consults with and serves as a
keynote speaker to organizations including Apple, Intel Corporation, Cisco
Systems, the University of Phoenix, California Community Colleges,
Granite Construction, and the Mount Hermon Christian Conference
Center.
Other Books by the Author

Natural Bridges, 2nd

The Art of Communication, 3rd

Gifts from the Heart, 3rd

Creating Communication, 2nd

Creating Effective Groups, 3rd

Discovering the Leader Within

Your Ministry of Conversation

The Natural Speaker

Tenth Edition

RANDY FUJISHIN
Tenth edition published 2022
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158

and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14
4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group,

an informa business

© 2022 Randy Fujishin

The right of Randy Fujishin to be identified as author of

this work has been asserted in accordance with sections
77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act
1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be

reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by
any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known
or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be
trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only
for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.

First edition published by Pearson Education, Inc. 2009

Ninth edition published by Routledge 2018

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN: 978-0-367-75551-5 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-74832-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-16293-3 (ebk)

DOI: 10.4324/9781003162933

Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Access the Support Material:

www.routledge.com/9780367748326

For Vicky, my gift in this lifetime

Contents

Preface
1 Communicating With Others: Your Most Important Skill

1.1 What Is Communication?

1.2 The Components of Communication
1.3 The Principles of Communication
1.4 Attitude Is More Important Than Aptitude
1.5 Communication Skills for Your Life
1.6 The Role of Public Speaking in a Democratic Society
Communication Activities

2 Giving Yourself Permission: Welcoming a New You

2.1 How Do You Feel About Public Speaking?

2.2 Speaker Apprehension Self-Appraisal Scale
2.3 Speaker Apprehension Self-Appraisal Ranking
2.4 Giving Yourself Permission to Make Mistakes
2.5 A Permission List for Speakers
2.6 Giving Yourself Permission to Overcome Your Fear of Speaking
2.7 Why Are You So Nervous?
2.8 Public Speaking Is Different From Conversation
2.9 Some Encouraging Words About Stage Fright
2.10 Will I Ever Get Rid of These Butterflies?
2.11 Adventure and Growth, Not Safety
2.12 Success in a Hybrid Public Speaking Class
Communication Activities

3 Organizing Your Speech: Keeping It Simple

3.1 Keep It Simple

3.2 Public Speaking
3.3 Three Principles for Public Speaking
3.4 Four Speaking Methods
3.5 Speech Organization
3.6 The Body
3.7 The Introduction
3.8 The Conclusion
3.9 Constructing Your Speech Outline
3.10 Speaking Notes
Sample Tribute Speech Outline
 Sample Corresponding Key-Word Outline
Communication Activities

4 Selecting Your Topic: Choosing Your Path

4.1 It’s Your Choice

4.2 Brainstorming Possible Topics
4.3 Determining Your Speaking Purpose
4.4 Determining Your Specific Purpose
4.5 Selecting Your Main Points
4.6 Analyzing Your Audience
4.7 Intercultural Sensitivity
4.8 Gathering Information About Your Audience
4.9 Speaker Request Form
Communication Activities

5 Gathering Your Material: What You Sow Is What You Reap

5.1 What to Look For

5.2 Where to Look for Speech Information
5.3 How to Record Your Research Information
5.4 Helping the Audience Understand Your Evidence
5.5 Preparing Your Speaking Notes
Communication Activities

6 Listening to Others: Being Good to the Speaker

6.1 The Listening Process

6.2 Barriers to Listening
6.3 Bridges to Listening
6.4 The Benefits of Listening
6.5 Impromptu Speaking
6.6 Impromptu Word List
Communication Activities

7 Delivering Your Speech: Being Yourself

7.1 Characteristics of Good Delivery

7.2 Elements of Good Delivery
7.3 Speech Practice
 7.4 Speaker Evaluation
7.5 Your Delivery Between Speeches
7.6 Handling Speaking Day Challenges Gracefully
7.7 Take the Opportunity to View Your Speech
Communication Activities

8 Informing Your Audience: Teaching Others

8.1 Goals of Informative Speaking

8.2 Designs for Informative Speaking
8.3 Language Use for Informative Speaking
8.4 Types of Informative Speeches
8.5 Question-and-Answer Session
8.6 Public Speaker Self-Image Scale
Sample Informative Speech Outline: Silent Retreat Centers
Sample Key-Word Outline
Communication Activities

9 Persuading Your Audience: Changing Others

9.1 Basics of Persuasion

9.2 Aristotle’s Three Persuasive Proofs
9.3 Types of Persuasive Speeches
Sample Persuasive Outline: Stop Using Credit Cards
Sample Key-Word Outline
9.4 Special-Occasion Speeches
Communication Activities

10 Speaking in the Digital Age: A Lifelong Journey

10.1 Guidelines for Online Speaking

10.2 Guidelines for Leading Virtual Meetings
10.3 Guidelines for the Virtual Participant
10.4 Becoming a Speaker: A Lifelong Journey
10.5 Developing the Heart of a Speaker
Communication Activities

Index
Preface

The most important skill you will ever develop in this life is your ability to
connect deeply with another human being. A hundred years from now, it
won’t matter what level of education you achieved, the kind of a car you
drove, or the amount of money you earned.
What will matter is that you connected with the hearts of others. That
you welcomed others. That you served others. That you encouraged others.
That you loved others. Without this ability to connect with other human
beings, your life will be unhappy and empty. From the moment you are
born, you are driven by an undeniable urge, a need to connect with others
deeply and meaningfully.
One of the most powerful ways to connect with others is through speech.
Your ability to effectively and passionately address a group of people not
only enhances your educational, professional, and personal lives, it can
also enlarge, empower, and help those who listen to you. Public speaking,
the training you might be dreading most, could surprisingly become a
communication skill that you will really appreciate, use, and enjoy in the
years to come.
This book is offered so you can give a speech that will be a benefit and an
encouragement to others. It’s a simple guide to improve and enhance the
natural speaking strengths you already possess, while providing a basic
understanding of speech research, organization, and delivery. In the
process of learning and developing these skills, you will be inviting the
natural speaker within you to develop in ways that will benefit others and
yourself.
Chapters 1 and 2 explore the nature and principles of communication,
your communication attitude, and six interpersonal communication skills
that are vital to effective communication in your everyday life. You will
also be encouraged to give yourself permission to grow in all these areas.
Chapter 3 will introduce you to the basic components of speech
organization.
Chapters 4 and 5 explain topic selection and speech content materials.
In these chapters, you are given a practical guide to constructing a speech
from start to finish in an effective and comprehensive way.
In Chapter 6, the role of listening in public speaking is presented. The
topics of the listening process, barriers to listening, bridges to listening,
and benefits of listening will be explored. Throughout this chapter, you will
see
that the effort expended to improve your listening skills for public
speaking will also bring about immediate improvement in your
interpersonal and relational listening. This chapter concludes with laying
out the basic understanding and skill set for impromptu speaking, the style
of speaking you will have the opportunity to use often in your professional
and public life.
Chapter 7 highlights the physical components of speech delivery and
practical methods for delivery improvement. The emphasis of this chapter
is on developing those speaking strengths you already possess and adding
new skills that will enhance your natural style.
Chapter 8 covers the principles of sharing information with your
audience. Also presented are simple suggestions for effective informative
speaking, language use, and dealing with audience questions. Chapter 9
examines the fundamentals of persuasive speaking. Aristotle’s three
persuasive appeals—ethos, logos, and pathos—are discussed, and ways to
incorporate each appeal into your speech are explained. The chapter
concludes with ways you can be a more effective speaker for special
speaking occasions.
And Chapter 10 invites you to become a speaker in this digital age.
Presented are the necessary guidelines for being an effective and engaging
online speaker, online small group leader, and virtual participant. You will
also be invited to continue using and developing your skills for the rest of
your professional and personal life. And finally, by focusing your love for
your speech topics, your audience, and yourself, you will develop the heart
of a speaker.
The purpose of this book is to give you the basic skills to present a
speech that is effective, natural, and beneficial for you and the audience.
Your decision to develop your natural speaking abilities is one that will
reward you, both professionally and personally, for the rest of your life.

New to This 10th Edition:

 Guidelines for being an effective online speaker
Guidelines for leading online small groups
Guidelines for being an effective virtual participant
Skills for being interculturally sensitive in public speaking
Guidelines for speaking to intercultural audiences
A new chapter on speaking in the digital age
PowerPoint guidelines for effective online presentations
New digital/online exercises for every chapter
Updated examples and illustrations
Updated opening chapter stories
Updated terms, concepts, and examples

I would like to thank my senior editor, Brian Eschrich, for his wisdom,
guidance, and cheerful optimism during every phase of the production of
this 10th edition of The Natural Speaker. Brian is a blessing to me. I would
also like to thank Grant Schatzman, my editorial assistant, for his expert
direction, encouragement, and joyful assistance. This book wouldn’t be
possible without their unselfish support, wisdom, and guidance.
Steve Richmond, my good friend over the decades, deserves my
gratitude and affection. I would also like to express my deepest love and
thanks to my mother, Helen Fujishin, for her godliness and love. And my
sons, Jared and Tyler, and their wonderful wives, Aurora and Lauren, for
giving me the pleasure of a fun and loving family.
Finally, I want to thank Vicky, my bride of 35 wonderful years, for her
love, godly character, and deep, joyous friendship. It is to Vicky that I
dedicate this book. I love you, Vicky.
Randy Fujishin

Communicating With Others

Your Most Important Skill
DOI: 10.4324/9781003162933-1

The fundamental principles of communication are introduced:

Define communication
List the components of communication
Explain the principles of communication
Explain the attitude of communication
List the communication skills for life
Explain the role of communication in a democratic society

communication
sender
receiver
noise
message
feedback
channel
environment
listening
verbal interruption
reframing
touching

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the

following:

1.1 Define communication

1.2 Define the components of communication
1.3 Explain the principles of communication
1.4 Explain the concept that attitude is more important than aptitude
1.5 List the communication skills for your life
1.6 Explain the role of public speaking in a democratic society
Never before had Paul sat for so long in total silence with another human
being. Paul, a young psychologist, was in a therapy session with his client,
a middle-aged woman with lifeless eyes, arms that hung limply at her
sides, and a posture that displayed the shame and anger that often
accompany victims of physical abuse.
It was during Paul’s first year of clinical training as a marriage, family,
and child therapist that he had worked with her. The woman came to
therapy with a long history of depression and withdrawal. As a novice
therapist, Paul encouraged her to open up and share her feelings. But
during the first two sessions, all the woman did was sit in silence. He asked
the usual questions therapists are trained to ask, and she responded only
with silence. She simply stared out the window at the peaceful mountains
in the distance as the two of them sat in the small, cramped office.
During the course of therapy, she did make some progress. After two
months, she responded in short sentences to some of Paul’s questions. She
even smiled a time or two. Yet, within four months, she quit coming to her
sessions. Paul left messages on her answering machine, inviting her back
to therapy, but she did not respond. Paul never saw the woman again.
To this day, Paul is haunted by something she said at the end of one of
her final sessions. After he asked her why she spent the vast majority of
her time in therapy in silence, she slowly admitted, “Most times, it’s less
painful to be silent than to talk. I think it would be much easier to live my
entire life not having to communicate with anyone.”
Can you imagine a life without communication? Immediately, your
existence would change in dramatic ways, leaving you with an entirely
different life—an empty, hollow life.

Once a human being has arrived on this earth, communication is the

largest single factor in determining what happens to him in the
world.
—VIRGINIA SATIR

No longer could you talk with friends over coffee or laugh with your
family at a picnic. No longer could you whisper sweet nothings to your
spouse or discuss the latest movie with a neighbor. No longer could you
debate an issue at a business meeting or negotiate the price of a used car.
No longer could you apologize for a wrong or ask for forgiveness from a
wounded friend. In short, no longer would you be fully human. We need
communication as a bridge to others in this life.
Hell was once described not as a burning pit of endless agony but as a
cold, lonely, isolated place where each person was sentenced to spend
eternity alone on an island—no bridges between the islands, no way to
span the gulf between people, forever alone. A life without communication
would be hell.

1.1 What Is Communication?

Although there are numerous definitions of communication, the following

definition is very simple and has been around for a long time.
Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages. The
sender sends a message through a channel, within a specific environment,
to a receiver. The receiver responds with feedback to the sender; noise can
interfere with the fidelity or accuracy of the message. Communication can
be both verbal and nonverbal. Verbal communication consists of all
language that is spoken and written, whereas nonverbal communication is
all communication that is not spoken or written.

1.2 The Components of Communication

The communication process is made up of seven components. They are the

sender, message, environment, channel, receiver, feedback, and noise.

Sender

The sender is the originator of the message. In other models of

communication, the sender can also be called the source of the message.
The process of communication begins at this point with a speaker who
wishes to communicate an idea or feeling. It’s important to note that the
sender doesn’t simply send a message. She must first decide what she
wants to communicate and then encode the message. Encoding is the
process of converting the message into language and terms that will be
understood by the receiver. Once the message is encoded, it is sent to the
receiver.

Message

The idea or feeling the sender wants to communicate is called the message.
The message can be any idea, thought, emotion, or feeling the sender
wishes to communicate. Whether it’s a flirtatious wink across a crowded
room or a college commencement address, the message is still the thought
or feeling the sender wants to communicate.

Environment

The environment includes the time, place, and occasion of the

communication event. The time at which communication occurs can
influence the communication between people. Talking to someone early in
the morning or late at night can affect how we interact. The physical
surroundings also play an important role. Is the communication event
inside or outside? How does the lighting, temperature, arrangement of the
furniture or chairs, size of the room, and a host of other physical variables
influence the manner in which we communicate with others? The specific
occasion for the event also determines to a large extent how we
communicate. What is the purpose of the occasion? Is the occasion formal
or informal? How many people are involved? These environmental
variables need to be considered when we communicate.

Channel

The channel is the means by which a message is transmitted. Messages can

be transmitted through channels of hearing, sight, smell, taste, and touch.
A sender can use a variety of channels to communicate her message. For
instance, if she wants to communicate affection to someone special, she
can choose to tell the person with words, hug the person, send cookies,
write a letter, or offer perfume. In public speaking, the auditory and visual
channels are used most often. But it’s important to keep in mind that the
more channels utilized by the sender, the more impact the message has on
the receiver.

Receiver

The destination of the message is called the receiver. Without the receiver,
communication does not occur. In public speaking, the receiver of the
message is the audience. In the communication model, the receiver
receives the message and then must decode it. Decoding is the process of
translating the message so that it has meaning for the receiver. A wink of
the eye from the sender can be decoded or interpreted in many ways. It
can be a nonverbal sign of flirting, a sign that there’s dust in the eye, or
even the first symptom of an epileptic seizure. The decoding process is
vital in communication.

Speech is civilization itself.

—THOMAS MANN

Feedback

The response of the receiver to the sender is called feedback. Although

feedback is really a message from the receiver to the sender, the term helps
us see the circular movement of this communication model. It should be
stressed that the receiver can send the return message through all the
same channel options as the sender when she encodes and sends the
response.

Noise

Noise is any disturbance or interference in the communication process.

External noise is any physical interference that diminishes or reduces the
meaning of the message. Examples of external noise include background
talking, a jackhammer banging outside the building, or even a distracting
mannerism of the speaker. All of these and more can interfere with the
communication process. Psychological or semantic interference is called
internal noise. Internal noise can cause us to misinterpret or decode the
message in a way not intended. A word with multiple meanings is a
common example of internal noise. For instance, an audience may
interpret the speaker’s statement, “In Japan, students respect their
teachers,” in a variety of ways, depending on their individual
interpretations of the word respect.

1.3 The Principles of Communication

Now that you have an idea of what communication is and the elements
that make up the process, you are in a better position to examine some
principles that govern communication.

You Cannot Not Communicate

Even when you don’t think you’re communicating, your nonverbal

behavior is constantly giving off important messages. Your posture, your
eye contact or lack of it, and the manner in which you walk or even sleep
send messages loaded with meaning to the outside observer. Freud wisely
observed, “He who has eyes to see and ears to hear may convince himself
that no mortal can keep a secret. If his lips are silent, he chatters with his
fingertips and betrayal oozes out of him at every pore.” Your body, your
movements, your use of time, the distance you stand from others, and even
your clothes broadcast constant and powerful messages to observers. You
are always communicating.

Communication Is Irreversible

Many times we wish we could retract a critical word or erase an angry

response that we have made. Unfortunately, this is not possible. An
apology for harsh words can be sincerely accepted, but the memory of the
event can live on for the remainder of a person’s life. Human memory is a
funny thing. The least of gestures, the smallest of words can haunt us long
after the event. It might be wise for us to remember the recommendation,
“One seldom regrets unspoken words.”

Communication Is a Process

Many years ago, Heraclitus observed, “You never step into the same river
twice.” The river has changed—the water clarity is different, the
temperature is different, the current is different, the depth is different, and
the width is different. The river may look the same, but it’s a different
river. In fact, you too have changed—the very cells of your body are
different—since you last stepped into its waters.
This same principle holds true for communication. A smile might have
worked while requesting something from a friend last week. But this week,
the same smile elicits mild rejection. Why? Because you cannot repeat any
event in exactly the same manner. Things have changed. Both participants
have changed in countless subtle and not-so-subtle ways. It is impossible
to replicate the hundreds of minute variables that influenced you just a
week ago. Everything has changed to some degree during the week.
Have you ever seen the same movie twice? It’s amazing how many new
things you see the second time around that went unnoticed during your
first viewing. Your emotional response to the film may also change because
of the personal changes and emotional experiences you have had since you
first saw the movie.
Communication is a process. Life is a process. The soldier who goes off
to war returns a different person. The old woman dying in the city hospital
bed is not the same person who ran along the country lane 70 years ago.
That, however, is the beauty of life. As we get older, we can explore,
experiment, change, and grow so that, on our deathbed, we will have very
few regrets.

Communication Is Learned

There are some nonverbal communication behaviors that seem to be

universal, such as smiling and crying. But the majority of verbal and
nonverbal communication is learned. The specific language that a child
grows up with is learned early in childhood, as are the nonverbal
communication behaviors that are appropriate for a specific culture. For
instance, in US culture, we value and encourage direct eye contact,
especially in the public speaking arena. Yet a native of the Japanese culture
would interpret the same direct eye contact as a sign of rudeness and lack
of respect, especially when the speaker is addressing an individual of
higher status.
Just as a fish is unaware of the water surrounding it, an individual might
not be aware that communication is learned because he too is surrounded
by the language and culture of his society. However, when a person learns
a new language, visits a foreign country, or acquaints himself with a person
from a different culture, he begins to realize that his way of talking and
perceiving the world is but one of many. There are many realities out
there, and perhaps one important indicator of maturity is the realization
that “our way” isn’t necessarily the only or best way.
The most important aspect of this principle is that ineffective ways of
communicating can be replaced by learning new, more effective methods.
People often think that because they can talk, they can communicate
effectively, too. This is far from the truth. Ernest Hemingway once warned
us “not to confuse motion for action.” The same holds true for talking and
communicating. Communicating effectively in our interpersonal and
professional lives requires study and practice. Effective communication
skills can be learned, and they must be learned if we are to experience a life
that is meaningful and worth living.

Communication Needs to Be Cross-Culturally

Appreciated

Perhaps the most significant lesson we can learn is that communication is

often culture specific. Granted, the principles of communication
mentioned thus far apply to all cultures. Individuals from all cultures learn
to communicate. They cannot not communicate. Their communication and
their lives are in process. And once they communicate a message,
intentionally or unintentionally, the effect is irreversibly felt by others.
But we must not make the mistake of thinking that what we value in
terms of communication competencies is desired by all people in every
culture. This is not always the case. For example, in this book, you will be
encouraged to maintain direct eye contact with your listeners, use
expressive gestures, employ vocal variety, and share personal illustrations
in your speaking. For the purposes of addressing most American
audiences, these and other skills will serve a positive and desirable
function. But if you were addressing a group of Japanese businesspeople in
Tokyo, these same behaviors might be interpreted as overly forward,
disrespectful, annoying, and even rude. The Japanese often view direct eye
contact as an invasion of personal space. The use of exaggerated gestures
and vocal variety does not fit their more restrained and formal style of
communication. And personal disclosure would be inappropriate, if not
suspect, in a large group of strangers.

Every culture views beauty in different ways. You expand your

world each time you see beauty through the eyes of others.
—BARBARA DOWER

“Well,” you sigh, “I just won’t ever give a speech to a group of Japanese
businesspeople in Tokyo!” Maybe not, but the United States is a country
that is home to hundreds of different cultures. That’s the beauty of our
nation! If you really analyzed any audience in America, you’d be surprised
at the heterogeneous mix of the cultures and ethnic backgrounds of your
listeners.
The purpose of this public speaking book is not to provide you with a list
of the communication skills and behaviors valued by each of these
different cultures. We’ll leave that book to someone else. But you are
encouraged to become aware of, sensitive to, and respectful of these
differences. This is not to say you must shift your communication style
with each audience you address. That would be an impossible task. But
you are being challenged to examine the notion that your way is the only
way.
You need to become more aware of the subtle, and not-so-subtle,
differences between cultures. Not only must you raise your level of
awareness concerning these differences, but you also need to be more
sensitive to them, not only in your speaking but also in your daily
interactions with others. And, finally, you must respect these differences in
your speaking and listening with all people. The next section will help you
meet this challenge.

1.4 Attitude Is More Important Than

Aptitude

Before proceeding to the next chapter, it is important to mention the

attitude of the communicator, for the attitude of the speaker is the most
important factor in effective communication.
A person’s attitude is far more important than his aptitude in
communicating with others. An individual can be highly trained and
skilled in the communication arts but may possess an angry or critical
attitude. It is this negative attitude that is sensed below the level of spoken
language, and the receiver or audience ultimately will respond to it rather
than to the words.
The attitudes that distinguish truly effective communicators from less
effective ones are worth mentioning here. Effective communicators seem
to possess an attitude of self-acceptance. They accept who they are without
having to prove a great deal to others. They exhibit an attitude of other-
centeredness, which enables them to empathize with, care for, and
respond to others. Rather than constantly being consumed with the need
or desire to control others or gain their approval, these self-accepting
individuals can dance to the beat of a different drummer with greater ease
and grace. They don’t spend a lot of time looking over their shoulders or
down their noses.
Flexibility is another attitude that characterizes these individuals, for
they are more likely to experiment with new behaviors, take risks, and
make mistakes. They appear gentle in their dealings with others. And
finally, these individuals possess a sense of openness and authenticity that
makes them comfortable to be around, demanding little energy. We walk
away from these individuals feeling enlarged rather than diminished.
The most telling attitude of effective communicators is their sense of joy
—not just a temporary happiness or a practiced, interpersonal warmth, but
a joyfulness that seems to come from deep within. Usually these
individuals have lived a while, they have managed to survive and accept
some of life’s tragedies, and still, they have chosen to embrace the beauty
and mystery of life.
You know when you’ve been in their presence, for they usually make you
feel calm, relaxed, and trusting. Just as certain animals can sense fear in
some people and love in others, you can feel the attitude of joyfulness in
these individuals. At such times, words really don’t matter all that much.
Without these positive attitudes shaping and influencing the
communication process, most communication skills training is wasted.
Ultimately, the heart is more important than the head.

1.5 Communication Skills for Your Life

Before we actually begin learning about the concepts and skills of effective
public speaking, let’s spend a few moments examining your personal
communication life, because how you communicate interpersonally lays
the foundation for your attitude and skills in public speaking. Effective
public speaking must be audience centered.
There have been individuals who were powerful, persuasive public
speakers. They could command the attention of hundreds of people with
their words alone. Their relationship with the audience was impressive, as
the masses swayed in unison to their every word.
But their relationship with the audience wasn’t necessarily indicative of
their relationships with individuals in their personal lives. Some of these
outstanding public speakers had miserable personal lives, racked with
pain, emptiness, and longing. Their great speaking skills could impress
hundreds in the audience but could do very little to bridge the gulf
between themselves and those who should have mattered—family and
friends.
In this book, you will learn skills and concepts that will help you speak
effectively to an audience. But before you run out and book speaking
engagements, we need to begin with a brief discussion on a topic that is
enormously important to your life—your interpersonal communication
impact on others.
Every time you talk with someone, you either enlarge or diminish that
person by your interaction. Suppose that you and another person are
engaged in casual conversation for a few minutes and then you say
goodbye. As you walk away from that individual, how are you feeling?
What kind of emotional impact did he have on you? Maybe he had a
diminishing impact, and you say to yourself, “Yuck! I’m glad to be away
from that negative, depressing guy. I was feeling all right before I talked
with him.” Perhaps he didn’t have any noticeable effect on you, and you’re
saying, “I wonder where I parked that darn car of mine.” Or, just maybe,
his impact on you was enlarging, and you’re exclaiming, “I felt pretty down
before I talked with him, and now I feel better. The world doesn’t look as
depressing as it did just a few minutes ago.”
Do others enlarge or diminish you? Don’t count the neutral impact as a
third category, because neutral impact is similar to a negative impact. So
clump those two together into the “diminish” category. If you still want
three categories, that’s okay. The discussion will work either way.
Remember that communication is a process, and your past history, your
state of mind, your physical condition, and a host of other factors come
into play here. And yet, ultimately, you have an impact on others every
time you interact. You either enlarge or diminish another person by your
interactions. With every word, sound, gesture, expression, glance,
movement, pause, and touch you share with another person, she is
changed in ways that are both subtle and striking.
There are six specific ways you can enlarge others by your interpersonal
communication with them: not taking communication so personally,
listening without verbal interruption, listening reflectively, complimenting
others, reframing, and touching.

Not Taking Communication So Personally

Most of us listen to what others say in terms of how it affects us personally.

We ask questions such as the following: Is that right or wrong (from my
point of view)? How does that affect me? What does the speaker think or
feel about me? How do I feel about what was shared? How do I respond?
With all of these questions, did you notice where the focus of attention
was? It was on our response, our evaluation, our point of view—in short,
we take center stage; everything revolves around us. We take it all so
personally.
That’s not necessarily a bad thing. We need to evaluate the merits of a
sales presentation, we need to form an opinion of our new manager, and
we need to check our emotional response in a conflict situation. But to
overemphasize a self-centered approach to all communication is not
healthy. We need to develop the ability to suspend judgment when
listening to another person. We need to develop the art of psychological
and emotional disengagement—to take our ego out of gear once in a while.
When we always take what is said personally, we get hooked into many
unnecessary arguments, conflicts, and struggles.

We can alter our lives simply by altering our attitudes of mind.

—WILLIAM JAMES

An effective technique that can help you to disengage your ego and not
take everything that is said so personally is to ask these questions when
you’re listening to someone else:

What is this person’s point of view?

What does this say about this person?
How is this person feeling?
Where is this person coming from?
How does this person see the situation?
Who is this person?

Did you notice the different focus of attention? No longer do we take

center stage. The speaker is the focus of attention—her point of view, her
feelings, her frame of reference, her character and personality. We’re not
taking in all that is said in terms of how it affects us. We are broadening
our perspective to include the one who is talking. We have concentrated on
the speaker, and, consequently, we have also distanced ourselves from her.
We are not taking her communication so personally.
The ability not to take communication personally is the first step in
effective communication—to be able to hear what the other person is
saying without a screen of self-centered questions filtering and clouding
what is being said. Without this ability, communication with others will be
superficial and often defensive. Without this ability, we will be hearing
only the echoes of our own mind, instead of the thoughts and feelings of
the other person.
Listening Without Verbal Interruption

Now that we can accept what is being said from an other-centered point of
view, we can begin to listen without verbal interruption—the ability to be
silent for a period of time when someone else is speaking.
Did you know that when we are talking with another person, we verbally
interrupt the other person every 12 seconds? Every 12 seconds! “That’s
wonderful!” “That’s terrible!” “I’m sure!” “I’m all …” “That reminds me of a
time when I …” “If I were you, I would …” “No, that’s not true, because …”
“Well, it was even worse for me, because I …” And the interruptions go on
and on. Every 12 seconds. Back and forth. On and on we interrupt.
And we wonder why we don’t feel like we’ve been really listened to,
really taken seriously, really understood at a deep level. Because of the
constant interruptions and judgments, advice, and direction, we realize
there is no safe harbor to simply say what’s on our minds and in our hearts
without being interrupted from all sides every 12 seconds. Maybe that
explains why we pay certain people $100 to $150 an hour to just sit quietly
and listen to us in therapy.
One of the most enlarging behaviors we can share with another person is
to listen without verbal evaluation—without interrupting every 12 seconds!
What an oasis that would be. Perhaps the most loving thing we can do for
another human being is to listen quietly, deeply, without interruption.
The next time your spouse, your child, or a neighbor begins talking with
you, ask yourself the question, “Should I give this person 12 seconds before
I interrupt, or should I allow 120 seconds?” If you wear a watch with a
sweep second hand, time yourself, as long as you can do so without being
too obvious. See what happens if you remain silent for two entire minutes!
Many times, the other person won’t even notice your silence and will
continue talking. Other times, he might ask, “Is something wrong?” or “Are
you all right?” Such questions could be indicators that the other person is
accustomed to your interruptions. Don’t feel bad. Just respond by saying,
“Everything is fine. I just think what you’re saying is important, and I
didn’t want to interrupt you.”

Listening Reflectively

In addition to not taking communication too personally and listening

without verbal interruption, another enlarging communication behavior is
to listen reflectively. To listen reflectively means to mirror back to the
speaker what he is saying.

It is better to ask some of the questions than to know all the answers.
—JAMES THURBER

When you are listening to someone, think in terms of “What is this

person trying to communicate to me?” “What is this person saying?”
“What is this person feeling?” As you begin to get a sense of exactly what
this person is attempting to communicate to you, check it out—reflect or
mirror back to the speaker. The simplest way to accomplish this is to begin
your questions with one of the following:

“Are you saying …”

“I hear you saying …”
“You think …”
“You believe …”
“Are you feeling …”
“Your point is …”
“Do you mean …”

These are simple beginnings to your questions, but they will change the
entire focus of your communication. Once again, where is the attention
directed? You? Or the other person? Right, the other person!
There may be a change in the relationship with this person if you use
reflective listening with any frequency. With practice, this reflective way of
listening will begin to feel natural, and you will notice that your
communication patterns shift from a self-centered posture to a more
other-centered focus.
There are numerous advantages of this reflective listening technique.
First, it shifts the focus from you to the speaker, and it encourages you to
not take communication too personally. Ideally, it will also force you to
listen without verbal judgment. Second, reflective listening will prove to
the speaker that you care about what he is saying. This, in and of itself, is
enlarging. Third, it improves the accuracy of communication. If your
reflected statement is inaccurate, the speaker can clarify, explain, or
illustrate in detail. Fourth, this type of listening takes the burden off you.
No longer do you have to judge, give advice, or solve problems. You are
simply acting as a mirror, reflecting the other person’s image back to him.
Fifth, you provide the speaker with a safe harbor where he can talk and be
heard. It beats paying $100 to $150 an hour just to be heard accurately. In
a later chapter, we will examine specific ways you can listen to a speaker
more effectively.

Complimenting Others

Mark Twain once admitted, “I can live two months on one compliment.” A
sincere compliment not only feels good, but it also can give new life to the
person receiving it. We all know the feeling of satisfaction, joy, and even
inspiration when a sincere compliment comes our way. We love to receive
them, yet we are usually guilty of not giving them as often as we could.
The fourth communication skill for your life is that of complimenting
others—sharing sincere praise. The first step in developing this skill is to
decide to be a source of compliments. Begin to look for the best in others.
Sure, all individuals have their weaknesses, faults, and areas for
improvement. But shift your focus of attention and instead see their
strengths of character, achievement, and effort.

Compliment Character

The first type of compliment is to acknowledge the internal attractiveness

of the person rather than looking at his physical appearance.
Complimenting character traits is better than complimenting physical
traits because character traits do not diminish with age. Such things as
kindness, generosity, optimism, gentleness, humor, trustworthiness,
empathy, loyalty, and candor are just a few of the hundreds of character or
personality traits you can appreciate and praise. Here are a few character
compliments:

“I really appreciate your thoughtfulness.”

“Your trustworthiness makes me feel secure.”
“I like your sense of humor.”
Compliment Achievement

A second form of complimenting is to compliment achievement. To do

this, you simply acknowledge something that a person has accomplished
or realized. The achievement can be as modest as remembering a
telephone number or as monumental as overcoming some physical
disability. Here are some examples of complimenting achievement:

“Your speech was inspirational.”

“Congratulations on finishing your decorating project!”
“I’m happy you were elected to the city board.”
“Great job!”

Compliment Effort

You can compliment a person on her effort to achieve some task or goal,
even if the person was unsuccessful in attaining it. In US culture, we tend
to compliment only the winners—those people who finish first and win the
trophies. But you can compliment people for the effort they invest in a task
or project. What’s important is that they tried. It’s not the destination but
the journey that matters. Here are some examples of complimenting effort:

“I’m really impressed with the effort you put into this project.”
“I love your determination!”
“You ran a clean and honest race during this election.”

Compliment the Invisible

The final form of complimenting is a bit unusual. It involves

complimenting people on the things they don’t do—complimenting the
invisible. There are countless things people don’t do that are worthy of
appreciation, yet we rarely think about those things. Maybe the person
doesn’t swear, chain-smoke, or interrupt constantly, so tell him that you
appreciate it.
Once you begin to compliment the invisible, it can be fun and even
entertaining. Here are some examples of complimenting the invisible:

“I appreciate the fact that you don’t swear.”

 “I’m thankful you don’t mention the mistakes of the past.”
“You could have criticized me, but you didn’t. Thanks!”
“I’m happy you don’t watch television all night long.”

Your willingness to see the best in others and verbally compliment their
positive traits, efforts, and achievements is a life skill that will be a blessing
not only to others but also to you.

Reframing What Is Said

A fifth way you can enlarge a person is to reframe his negative perception
of a situation, circumstance, or person. The reframing technique involves
seeing something from a different perspective or point of view. The French
Renaissance writer Montaigne once cautioned, “We are hurt not so much
by what happens, as by our opinion of what happens.” In other words, our
perceptions of an event are more important than the event itself.
How we choose to see something is instrumental in determining how we
will respond to, deal with, and resolve problems that confront us. For
instance, a man is fired from his job. Nothing can change the fact that he
has been fired. But he can view the event from a variety of perspectives.
The obvious viewpoint is that the firing is a terrible thing. He is out of a
job, and he will need to begin looking for another one. It’s a depressing
situation. Many people in the man’s shoes would stop here and go no
further in their attempt to see this event from a different point of view and
would simply become hurt, angry, or depressed. Many people do not
realize that there can be other ways of perceiving this same event.
It can be seen as a new beginning. He can finally pursue employment
that might be more to his liking. It can be seen as a learning experience.
What went wrong? How can he improve? What skills does he need to
develop for future jobs? It can be viewed as a chance to take a break from
the rat race. If he can afford it, he can use the next few weeks or months to
rest and possibly take a vacation from the responsibilities of earning a
living. It can be seen as a time to travel. He can sell everything he owns
and hit the road. It can be viewed as an opportunity to be creative and start
his own little company or business. This one event can be seen in a
hundred different ways—no one way more valid than another.
Despite the many points of view from which we can choose to see a
situation, we tend to hold onto the first interpretation that pops into our
heads. We cement that perspective into our field of vision and limit our
emotional responses to that point of view. In short, we get stuck. One
experienced marriage and family therapist stated, “As a counselor, I don’t
change my clients’ situation; I simply help them see other ways of viewing
the same situation” (personal communication, Dr. Jack Sequest). This
seems to have a freeing effect on clients. It releases them from the bondage
of seeing something from only one point of view. Depression can also be
viewed as an invitation to grow. Anger can also be seen as a way of dealing
with repressed sadness.

One question, one gentle word can change the course of a

conversation and a life.
—ALFRED ADLER

The death of a loved one can also be a reminder to love those around us
with greater appreciation. There are many ways of seeing. We need to be
flexible in our perceptions and interpretations of those events that make
up the fabric of our lives.
As a friend, you can enlarge others by opening their eyes to other ways of
viewing a situation. If they share something terrible that has just happened
to them, you can listen without verbal interruption, reflect what they are
saying and feeling, and, if you can, reframe their situation. You can do this
by simply stating something like the following:

“John, another way of looking at this is …”

“Mary, could this also mean …”
“Dad, another interpretation of this is …”

Your reframing doesn’t have to be accepted by others as the truth, as

insightful, or even as a solution to a problem. It’s simply a way of allowing
them not to get stuck with their own frame of reference. The purpose is to
get them unstuck, to help them see with a different set of glasses, to assist
them in looking at the same situation from a different perspective. You can
be instrumental in freeing them from the prison of their own perceptions.
Touching Others

The final way to enlarge others is to touch them. This sounds like an
obvious suggestion, but it is often overlooked as a means of making others
feel acknowledged, cared for, and loved. There are times when words ring
hollow and we need the comfort and reassurance that only physical contact
can provide.
A little boy was frightened by a summer thunderstorm and ran to his
father for comfort. The father attempted to reassure the boy by saying that
the lightning and thunder were actually far away. “Anyway,” added the
dad, “God will always be with you for protection even though you can’t see
him.” The boy listened to his father but continued to crawl up onto his lap.
“I know that,” the boy said, “but can I hug you anyway? I need
something with skin on it.”
At the end of the nineteenth century in Europe, orphaned children
under the age of six months were dying for some unknown reason. The
mortality rate for these infants in the orphanages of Europe was 100
percent. Experts tried to help by giving the infants more food, better
lighting, special medicines, and even soothing music. But nothing seemed
to work. The babies kept dying. This was so prevalent in Europe that it was
referred to as the “Marasmus syndrome.” Marasmus in Latin means “to
waste away.” And that’s what the babies continued to do—waste away.
Apparently, these infants did not possess the will to begin life. Then the
orphanages discovered that if these young infants were touched on a
regular basis by “hired mothers”—women who were paid to handle,
cuddle, and fondle the babies—they would live. The death rate dropped to
the point at which an infant’s death was the exception.
Could it be that we suffer from an adult form of the Marasmus
syndrome? Perhaps in our culture, we are wasting away from lack of touch.
How many hugs do you receive a day? When was the last time you really
hugged another human being for more than one or two seconds? One of
the most powerful ways to enlarge other people is to touch them. Touching
changes relationships. It changes lives.
There are entire books devoted to the importance of touching behavior,
but for our purposes, remember that there are times when words don’t
bridge the gap between you and another person. When to touch? How long
to touch? How to touch? These are questions only you can answer,
depending on the individual, the situation, and your intent. But keep in
mind that touching others is one of the most powerful ways that we
enlarge others and ourselves.

1.6 The Role of Public Speaking in a

Democratic Society

Not only is communication important in your relationships, it also serves

as the primary foundation upon which a democracy is based. The United
States of America was founded upon principles that value the worth of
every individual, people’s right to express themselves freely, and the idea
that they can and will work together for the greater good of the people.
Their worth, expression of ideas, and productive cooperation requires
communication—the sending and receiving of messages. Communication
serves as the basis of society. Without communication, there can be no
democratic society.
The role of public speaking in our democracy is obviously displayed in
campaign speeches, inaugural addresses, state-of-the-union messages, and
televised speeches to the nation. The importance of public speaking is also
demonstrated when people come together to discuss and debate issues at
the local, state, and national levels, both in face-to-face settings and
through radio, television, and the Internet.
Even at the most intimate level of public discourse, when people discuss
and debate issues in their church or synagogue, at the local PTA, or in
neighborhood meetings, the role of verbally communicating your thoughts
to others is essential to the productive and successful life of a democratic
society.
The sharing of ideas for the greater good of the people is one of the most
important roles of public speaking.
In this book, you will learn to research, construct, practice, and deliver
speeches that will inform your audiences about topics that will improve
their lives, strengthen their commitments, and broaden their interests.
You will also learn to present speeches that will persuade and motivate
your audiences to modify or change their beliefs and inspire them to
action, all for the greater good of a democratic society. These skills
represent some of the highest goals of public speaking—to improve society
for the lives of its people.
The majority of your life, however, will not be spent speaking at a
political rally, school board meeting, or neighborhood watch gathering.
The vast majority of your civic communication will most likely occur in
small, informal conversations with colleagues at work, acquaintances in
the supermarket, next-door neighbors, or relatives at a family gathering.
It’s during these communication events that you want to create welcoming,
fair, and productive conversations.
Unlike most conversations involving politics, candidates, public policy,
or any controversial topics, where people quickly state their position,
defend or debate their position, and eventually leave the conversation in
frustration, your conversations can be different. Rather than state and
debate, you can learn, share, and cooperate. Life doesn’t have to be a
battle, debate, or contest every time you discuss controversial issues with
others. You can use the USA Approach—U nderstand, S hare, and A
gree.

1. Understand

The first step in any discussion involving a controversial issue or topic is

not to immediately state your position. Don’t open the conversation with
“I’m voting for …,” “I support …,” “I will never support …,” “I disagree with
you …,” or “How can you be so wrong about …” These immediate openers
shut off communication and distance you from the other person. Your
proclamation, judgment, or condemnation kills the conversation from the
very beginning. It’s sad, but many conversations about controversial issues
begin this way and quickly deteriorate into stuck-in-the-mud battles where
opinions are reinforced, emotions heat up, and eventually feelings are
hurt.
A better first step in any controversial conversation is to make
understanding the other person your first goal. In other words, put the
other person first and yourself second. Understand where they’re coming
from, what they believe, and how they feel. Not forever. Just for that
moment, so you can create a conversation for the greater good. When you
make understanding your first goal, you can ask questions like the
following:
 “What is your position on …”
“Whom do you support for the office of …”
“How do you feel about the issue of …”
“What’s your position on …”

And after the other person states her opinion or position, don’t
immediately judge, assert your opinion, or try to change the person’s
mind. Instead, breathe, smile, and ask something like the following:

“Why do you support this position?”

“What do you like about the candidate?”
“What benefits are offered by this position?”
“Tell me the story about your convictions concerning …”
“What should I know about your candidate/position?”

These questions invite the other person to explain or develop her position.
While the person is talking, listen attentively without interrupting. Even if
you disagree strongly with her position, continue to listen. Your goal in
this step is to understand, not to debate, judge, or persuade. If asked, could
you repeat or paraphrase what the person has said? You should be able to,
since your first goal is to understand what another person is saying.

2. Share

The second step is to share your position on the same issue. After you’ve
listened to the person state his position preference and hopefully his
rationale or reasons, you can share your position. Now you get to express
yourself.
Don’t begin your sharing statement with judgment, accusation, or
advice. Instead, begin your statement with qualifying or tentative language
such as the following:

“Well, from where I stand, I see it as …”

“With the information I have so far, I think …”
“From what I’ve researched, I’m inclined to support …”
“For now, I’m leaning toward …”

These openers demonstrate your willingness to acknowledge that you

might not have all the facts, information, or answers. It communicates an
openness and willingness to accept and consider additional information or
perspectives. Flexibility and softness, not rigidity and hardness, is your
goal in this second step.
Your sharing statement (notice I said “sharing,” not announcing,
asserting, or proclaiming) should be brief—just one sentence, such as the
following:

“Well, from where I stand, I see the advantages of the progressive candidate.”
“With the information I have so far, I think raising the minimum wage is good
for our nation.”
“From what I’ve researched, I’m inclined to support adoption over abortion.”
“For now, I’m leaning toward abortion rights for women.”

Once you’ve shared your opinion statement, don’t launch into a persuasive
speech supported by five reasons or a long personal story defending your
position. Just share your position in one sentence, then take a breath and
note the other person’s response.
If you’re asked to give some reasons or justification for your position,
then briefly share one reason. Keep your reason to a sentence or two, so
your response doesn’t take more than 30 seconds. If the person challenges
or debates your reason, you can provide additional information, facts, or
perspectives, but your purpose is not to defend your reason to the death or
convince the person to change his mind. Your purpose is to simply share
your position. Share, not defend, persuade, convince, or punish. Just
share.
If the person restates his position, that’s fine. Acknowledge his position.
For now, we want to keep the bridge of communication open, not closed.
We’ll learn to debate and persuade in later chapters, but for now, it’s
enough to keep the lines of communication open.

3. Agree

The third step is to discover areas of agreement. Rome wasn’t built in a

day, and your conversation about an important issue, policy, or candidate
will not be settled in a day—or maybe ever. But your goal for now is to keep
your lines of communication open with the other person. Your ability and
willingness to place the person above her position on an issue or candidate
goes a long way toward building a civil and productive society—not a rude
and destructive one.
 During the understanding and sharing steps of the USA Approach, be
aware of common ground you and the other person may hold. What
beliefs, values, goals, or facts do you hold in common? Invest effort to this
end—to discover what you both have in common rather than what divides
the two of you.
Identify those beliefs, values, goals, or facts you both share. Keep your
communication brief as you identify common ground. The other person
most likely is expecting rebuttal, debate, or battle after step 2, but your
purpose in the USA technique is to build bridges, not walls.
The conversations that shape a society or nation continue forever. They
are never really terminated, because the evolution of a society requires the
exchange of ideas to meet the challenges of a growing and changing nation.
So, in this first chapter, our goal is to open and establish lines of
communication, not close or destroy bridges of communication. Here are a
few examples of statements of agreement:

“I noticed that we both value the rights of human beings …”

“I see that you and I both want to reduce government spending …”
“I’m glad that we agree on limiting government regulations in education.”
“I think we both feel strongly that a candidate should have no direct ties to
Wall Street.”
“It’s reassuring that we both desire higher education for the poor.”

By focusing your conversation on those things you have in common, you

increase the chances of continued conversations, a healthier interpersonal
relationship, and the opportunity to discover additional common ground
and mutual cooperation toward shared goals.
You might never vote for the same candidate, support the same course of
action, or donate to the same organization, but the possibility for
continued conversation and engagement, cooperation at some level of
action, and the willingness to seek those things that unite rather than
divide are the foundations of a democracy that values people over profits,
continually striving for the greater good in society.

COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES

PERSONAL ACTIVITIES
 1. Enlarging communication behaviors
On a sheet of paper, identify three individuals whose
communication behaviors have had an enlarging impact on
your life. List specific behaviors that each person has
demonstrated. If possible, thank each of the three individuals
for their positive contributions to your life.

2. Communicating in other cultures

Ask an individual from a different cultural background about
her communication behaviors and attitudes. How do her
behaviors and attitudes differ from your own? How are they
similar? How did you feel about communicating with a person
from a different cultural background?

3. Seeing your communication improvements

On a sheet of paper, list three specific ways you have improved
your communication behavior in the past five years. Maybe
you’re a better listener, less judgmental, more assertive, more
forgiving, less timid, and so on. How do you feel about each
positive change? How has each improvement changed your
life?

4. Reflecting on your smartphone usage

Take a moment and reflect on three ways your smartphone
usage benefits your communication with others and three ways
your smartphone usage hinders your communication with
others. In what ways can you modify or change those
hindrances to improve your communication?

CLASS ACTIVITIES

1. Analyzing a communication event

Consider a recent communication event from your life—
asking a friend for a favor, trying to persuade your employer
that you were deserving of a raise, or resolving a relationship
conflict. Identify the seven communication components of
sender, message, environment, channel, receiver, feedback,
and noise and explain how they contributed to the success or
failure of the communication event. Be prepared to discuss
 your thoughts and feelings about this assignment in class.

2. Listening to others
Use reflective listening when you are talking with a friend.
After your friend has completed a statement, try reflecting it
back to her (“Are you saying …?” or “Do you mean to tell me
that …?”). How did it feel? How did your friend respond to
your mirroring? Be prepared to discuss your reactions to this
assignment in class.

3. Reframing others
Pair up with another student in class and share a recent
disappointment or upsetting event. Listen to your partner
describe his disappointment or upsetting event for 30 to 60
seconds; then offer one or two positive reframes of that
situation. “Well, Jill, another way of looking at this is …” or
“Fred, a positive way of seeing this is …” Discuss your
responses to the activity, then reverse roles and repeat the
exercise.

Giving Yourself Permission

Welcoming a New You

DOI: 10.4324/9781003162933-2

The reasons and cures for speaker anxiety:

Define your current feelings about public speaking

 Explain the speaker apprehension self-appraisal scale
Explain giving yourself permission to make mistakes
Discuss the permission list for speakers
Explain giving yourself permission to overcome your fear of speaking
Discuss your current level of nervousness
Distinguish between public speaking and conversation
Explain encouraging words about stage fright
Explain the concept of growth in public speaking
List four ways to succeed in a hybrid public speaking course

pubic speaking
speaker anxiety
speaker apprehension self-appraisal scale
permission list
overcoming fear of speaking
nervousness
conversation
stage fright
growth
hybrid public speaking course

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the

following:

2.1 Explain how you feel about public speaking

2.2 Explain the speaker apprehension self-appraisal scale
2.3 Discuss your speaker apprehension self-appraisal ranking
2.4 Apply the concept of giving yourself permission to make mistakes
2.5 Describe your response to the permission list for speakers
2.6 Explain the concept of giving yourself permission to overcome
your fear of speaking
2.7 Explain the concept of why you are so nervous
2.8 Summarize three reasons public speaking is different from
conversation
 2.9 List five encouraging words about stage fright
2.10 Explain the question “Will I ever get rid of these butterflies?”
2.11 Discuss the concept of adventure and growth, not safety
2.12 Identify seven ways to be successful in a hybrid public speaking
class

Kuan knocked on his professor’s door and heard her say, “Come on in! The
water’s fine!” Even though the purpose of his visit was to drop her public
speaking class, he still smiled at her sense of humor.
“Well, what brings you to me, Kuan?” his professor said cheerfully. “I
just wanted to tell you that I’ve enjoyed your class these past two weeks,
but I need to drop the course.”
“Why?” she asked. “I have a 4.0 grade point average in college, and I
know I won’t get an A in your class,” he said reluctantly. “So I’m thinking
about transferring to a college that doesn’t require public speaking for
graduation.”
“All that effort just to keep a 4.0?” “Well, I’ve always been a straight-A
student, and the public speaking class is a real problem if I can’t get an A.”
“Maybe your real problem is not public speaking,” she offered. “Maybe
your real problem is your desire to be perfect.”
“I don’t want to be perfect,” he said. “I just want to get straight A’s.” “A
wise man once said that ‘He who is attached to much will suffer much.’
You might consider being less attached to your desire to be perfect. You
might think about letting go of perfection and consider being an ‘excellent
student’ or maybe even just a ‘good student.’ In fact, you might need to be
gentler on yourself in other areas of your life as well.”
“I’ve never thought of it that way,” Kuan whispered, almost to himself.
“This public speaking class could provide you with your greatest learning,
Kuan—to give yourself permission to make mistakes, because it’s through
our mistakes that we learn and grow.”
After a long silence, Kuan announced, “I’ll stay in your class.” “Hey,
that’s great! And when you give your first speech, make a mistake or two so
I feel needed as a teacher.”
“Now that’s a promise!” Kuan chuckled as he rose and shook his
professor’s hand.
2.1 How Do You Feel About Public
Speaking?

Before we begin discussing the idea of giving yourself permission to make

mistakes, let’s take a moment and imagine what the process of giving a
speech might be like. It might be helpful to take an imaginary glimpse into
the future before we actually begin—somewhat like looking at a map before
setting out on the actual journey itself. Let’s take a few moments and
glance at a map of the places you will be exploring as you learn to speak to
an audience.
We will begin our exploration by responding to the Speaker
Apprehension Self-Appraisal Scale.

2.2 Speaker Apprehension Self-Appraisal

Scale

Read each of the following ten speaking situations and circle your response
on the five-point scale. Upon completion of your ten responses, add up
your total points circled and refer to the Speaker Apprehension Scale
provided.

1. Having a friendly conversation with a close friend, I would feel

1 2 3 4 5
Confident Relaxed Neutral Anxious Terrified

2. Having a conversation with a stranger, I would feel

1 2 3 4 5
Confident Relaxed Neutral Anxious Terrified

3. Researching and outlining a formal speech, I would feel

1 2 3 4 5
Confident Relaxed Neutral Anxious Terrified
 4. Practicing a formal speech, I would feel

1 2 3 4 5
Confident Relaxed Neutral Anxious Terrified

5. Sitting alone in the speaking room 30 minutes before I speak, I

would feel

1 2 3 4 5
Confident Relaxed Neutral Anxious Terrified

6. Sitting in front of the audience one minute before I speak, I would

feel

1 2 3 4 5
Confident Relaxed Neutral Anxious Terrified

7. Speaking to an audience of 30 strangers, I would feel

1 2 3 4 5
Confident Relaxed Neutral Anxious Terrified

8. Speaking to an audience of 30 friends, I would feel

1 2 3 4 5
Confident Relaxed Neutral Anxious Terrified

9. Speaking to an audience of 30 communication instructors, I would

feel

1 2 3 4 5
Confident Relaxed Neutral Anxious Terrified

10. Speaking to an audience of 30 infants in their cribs, I would feel

1 2 3 4 5
Confident Relaxed Neutral Anxious Terrified

2.3 Speaker Apprehension Self-Appraisal

Ranking

Although this scale is simply a rating of how you might respond to

different speaking situations, it can provide you with some things to
ponder as we begin looking at public speaking and your attitude toward
your audience and toward yourself.
There are no right answers, and your responses would most likely
fluctuate depending on a host of variables, including your psychological
frame of mind, your emotional state, the specific people in the audience,
your speech topic, what you had for breakfast, and so forth. But these ten
situations give you a more specific idea as to your level of apprehension.
Add up your total scores and let’s see how you did.
Score of 10–20. Comfortable with Speaking.
Your level of confidence and comfort in speaking would provide you
with a healthy emotional foundation to address an audience without
anxiety.
Score of 20–40. Acceptable Tolerance to Speaking.
Your level of speaker anxiety is normal and would provide you with a
satisfactory foundation to address an audience with proper preparation
and practice.
Score of 40–50. It’s Good You’re Reading This Chapter.
Your level of anxiety is high, but there’s good news. Your level of self-
satisfaction after reading this chapter could be much greater than the level
of self-satisfaction of those who didn’t respond with as much anxiety. In
fact, some of the most satisfied speakers, after completing a public
speaking course, are those individuals who initially reported the greatest
anxiety before receiving instruction and practicing their speaking skills.
Regardless of your score on the Speaker Apprehension Scale, you’ll be
pleased to realize that you can decrease your level of speaking anxiety by
changing the thoughts you have about speaking in front of others. Let’s
begin by taking a look at some interesting aspects of the situations you just
responded to.
How did you feel about your level of apprehension when you envisioned
having a conversation with a stranger or a friend? Normally, your anxiety
is much lower when talking one on one with another person, regardless of
the degree of familiarity, when compared to addressing an audience. How
did you feel?
 How were your feelings when you imagined you were researching or
practicing your speech by yourself? Once again, your level of anxiety is
relatively low when compared to actually standing in front of your
audience and speaking.
It’s not surprising that speakers usually report increased feelings of
apprehension when they envision themselves in the speaking room 30
minutes before their talk and especially when they’re getting ready to be
introduced to the audience. How did you feel?
And finally, how did you feel when you imagined yourself delivering
your speech? Did the kind of audience make a difference? Audience
membership can make a big difference. Speaking to friends probably
didn’t make you feel as apprehensive as speaking to a group of strangers
and especially not as anxious as when addressing a group of
communication instructors.
However, the final speaking situation is interesting. How did you feel
about speaking to an audience of 30 infants in their cribs? Probably not
apprehensive at all. Why? Although you were in the presence of 30 human
beings while you spoke, most likely, you didn’t feel anxious at all. You
might have even felt comfortable or even confident. Why?
The answer is that the infants weren’t going to evaluate or judge you.
They’re just babies facing you with those innocent eyes and wonderful
smiles. The other audience groups were knowledgeable and experienced
enough to evaluate your speaking effectiveness, especially the
communication instructors. But not the babies in their cribs. Interesting.
Think about that for a moment. Your fear of speaking is primarily based
upon your fear of evaluation and ultimately rejection. All performance
anxiety is founded upon the fear that we will be judged to be inadequate,
undesirable, and, in the end, unlovable.
But that doesn’t have to be your frame of reference when it comes to
public speaking. You can change your ideas and expectations about what it
means to share your thoughts and feelings in front of others. It all begins
with giving yourself permission to not be perfect.

2.4 Giving Yourself Permission to Make

Mistakes
Someone once said, “If you’re not failing every once in a while, you’re
living life too cautiously.” One of the primary stumbling blocks to our
personal growth is our fear of making a mistake: making the wrong
decision, choosing the wrong profession, marrying the wrong person,
looking foolish in the eyes of others, and so on. We are often paralyzed into
not acting at all and not taking any step because we fear it might be the
wrong one.
But aren’t mistakes an important part of the learning process? Isn’t that
how we truly learn? Not from reading it in a book or listening to someone
else, but by experiencing it ourselves? The first time we tried to walk as
infants was probably awkward, if not humorous. And our initial attempt at
riding a bicycle without Mom or Dad holding on to the seat must have
been a sight. Remember, we learn from our mistakes. That’s the beauty of
this journey.
R . H. Macy, founder of Macy’s department stores, tried seven times to
get his department stores started but failed each time. Can you imagine his
sense of failure even after the first or second attempt? But on the eighth
venture out, he succeeded. Just think of all the Macy’s stores you’ve visited
over the years. Would you have had the courage, as Mr. Macy did, to risk
even a second attempt, let alone an eighth? The saddest thing is not that
we didn’t succeed but rather that we didn’t even try. We learn from our
mistakes.
As you read this book, you will be asked to try new behaviors and new
ways of seeing yourself. Don’t take yourself too seriously on this journey.
Give yourself permission to make mistakes along the way. Give yourself
permission to be gentle on yourself.

2.5 A Permission List for Speakers

Before we begin talking about the mechanics of speaking in front of others,

we need to take a few moments to examine your attitudes toward public
speaking. People will often train as public speakers without ever once
asking themselves if this is a skill they would like to improve. They struggle
through all of the preparation and practice required for effective public
speaking, and yet they neglect to explore some very fundamental issues
involved in this highly charged communication event. They never give
themselves permission to improve their speaking skills.
This may sound strange to you—giving yourself permission to improve
your speaking skills. Usually, public speaking training is imposed on you
by someone else. For example, it may be required by your college or
university for graduation, or your manager at work may think you would
benefit from such a course. Rarely do you, after an afternoon of
introspection, decide suddenly that your speaking skills are lacking and
your life would be dramatically improved if you learned to speak more
effectively on your feet.
So let’s take a few moments to explore this whole area of giving your self
permission to speak. Read the following statements and circle the response
that most accurately describes your feelings.

Be gentle on yourself.
—JOY BROWNE

1. I give myself permission to express myself. yes/no/unsure

I give myself permission to stand up in front of
2. yes/no/unsure
others.
I give myself permission to ask others to listen
3. yes/no/unsure
to me.
I give myself permission to experience
4. yes/no/unsure
something new.
5. I give myself permission to feel uncomfortable. yes/no/unsure
I give myself permission to speak in front of
6. yes/no/unsure
others.
7. I give myself permission to not be perfect. yes/no/unsure
8. I give myself permission to make mistakes. yes/no/unsure
I give myself permission to try new speaking
9. yes/no/unsure
skills.
I give myself permission to improve my
10. yes/no/unsure
speaking.
I give myself permission to not know all the
11. yes/no/unsure
answers.
 12. I give myself permission to teach others. yes/no/unsure
13. I give myself permission to persuade others. yes/no/unsure
I give myself permission to let others have their
14. yes/no/unsure
opinions.
I give myself permission not to seek the
15. approval of others. yes/no/unsure

I give myself permission to enjoy my time

16. yes/no/unsure
speaking in public.
I give myself permission to like my voice and
17. yes/no/unsure
my body.
18. I give myself permission to be gentle on myself. yes/no/unsure
19. I give myself permission to be myself. yes/no/unsure
20. I give myself permission to love myself. yes/no/unsure

Did it feel unusual or unnatural giving yourself permission to do or feel

these things? Usually, permission to think, feel, or do something comes
from someone or something outside of yourself. It comes from the
government, the boss, the teacher, the church, the school, your parents,
your friends, or your spouse.
However, in the 20 permission statements you just considered, the
permission was coming from you, not someone else. It didn’t matter
whether you responded with “yes,” “no,” or “unsure” because it was you
who was doing the deciding. No one else. You were the one who was giving
permission or not giving permission. You were even the person deciding if
you were “unsure” about each statement. No matter how you responded,
each of the 20 times, you were in the control tower deciding how each
decision landed.
This concept of where permission resides is often called the locus of
power. Do you decide things for yourself, or do others decide for you? It’s
the subtle difference between “I have to …” and “I choose to …” Try this: in
a normal speaking voice, say, “I have to give a speech.” Say it again. How
did that feel? Now try saying, “I choose to give a speech.” Again. How did
that feel? Did you notice a difference between the two statements?
With the “I have to” statement, you may have noticed less commitment
in your voice, perhaps even less energy. When you said, “I choose to give a
speech,” you may have felt more definite, more determined. If not, try the
“choose” statement again. Feel anything different? If you think that feels
awkward or strange, try saying, “I choose not to give a speech” a couple of
times and explore how that statement feels to you.
You might be thinking they’re just words—“I have to …,” “I choose to …,”
and “I choose not to …” But words are powerful, and these particular
words—“have to” and “choose to”—bring you to an interesting place in
your personal decision-making. Who makes your decisions? Are they made
for you most of the time (I have to …)? Or do you choose and decide for
yourself (I choose to …; I choose not to …)?
Much of your sense of independence, personal strength, and internal
resilience depend directly on your decision to think and decide for yourself
during your lifetime.
As you marked your responses to the 20 permission list items, you may
have been surprised by the number of statements you have never
consciously considered before this moment. These are not questions we
often ask ourselves. And it would not be unusual if you responded more
frequently with “no” and “unsure” than “yes,” because most individuals
often feel they have nothing really important to share that would warrant
the attention of a group of human beings. Many people, after completing
this questionnaire, report that they rarely feel anyone would want to listen
to them speak.
If your answer to these items was “yes” the majority of the time, you are
the exception to the rule, and your training in public speaking should be
easy, if not downright enjoyable. If, however, you were unsure, responding
with lots of nos, or you thought this was a dumb set of questions, don’t be
discouraged. Your training in public speaking might just change your
perception of who you think you are.
Before you begin your training in public speaking, we need to spend a
few moments examining one of our most common fears—the fear of giving
a speech in front of a group of people. The 20 statements on the
permission list asked if you gave yourself permission to overcome your
fear of speaking. No matter how you responded to these questions, you will
benefit from a brief discussion of overcoming stage fright.

No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.

—ELEANOR ROOSEVELT
2.6 Giving Yourself Permission to
Overcome Your Fear of Speaking

The thought of speaking before an audience can often arouse a great

amount of anxiety. It outranks death, losing one’s spouse, financial
bankruptcy, illness, war, and snakes as the number one thing that terrifies
us most.
Most people would probably agree with this survey. Very few people
actively seek speaking opportunities, sneak into speech tournament
competitions, or grab the microphone from the speaker at a PTA meeting
and deliver an impromptu talk. Very few.
Many of us would prefer avoiding anything even resembling a public
speaking event. Whenever someone is needed to introduce the bride and
groom, deliver a brief sales presentation, speak at a luncheon, preside at
the annual awards dinner, or even say a prayer at the family reunion, most
folks disappear into the woodwork or run for the hills. The stress of
speaking before an audience is great for many of us.

Three Ways We Stress Out When Speaking

There are three primary categories of stress responses that people report
when they experience stage fright. Physical sensations make up the first
category of stress responses that can occur when we are preparing to
speak. The physical sensations can begin long before the actual day of the
speech and may appear in the form of sleepless nights, an upset stomach,
dizziness, and tingling in the hands and legs. During the speech itself, the
physical sensations can include trembling knees, sweaty palms, light-
headedness, dry mouth, and nervous coughing. The exact physical
sensations vary from person to person, of course, but almost everyone
experiences some degree of physical discomfort or uneasiness when
speaking in front of others.
The second category of stress responses includes emotional responses
that can be experienced before, during, and after the speaking
performance. They can include feelings of being overwhelmed, fear, loss of
control, depression, panic, anxiety, helplessness, inadequacy,
abandonment, shame, and anger.
The final category is the psychological responses that can be
experienced when delivering the speech. This includes loss of memory;
negative self-talk; jumbled thought patterns; nervous repetition of words
or phrases; and the use of verbal pauses such as “ah,” “um,” and “you
know.”
To complicate matters, these three categories of stress responses can
and often do interact with one another, increasing your level of stage
fright. For instance, the physical sensations of trembling knees can give
rise to feelings of being out of control and feeling helpless or terrified.
These feelings in turn can cause a psychological block so that the words of
your talk are lost.
Sound like fun? Well, before you throw this book in the garbage and
swear that you would rather hide away in some cave in Tibet than risk
these terrible ills, hold on. It’s not all that bad.
Even skilled speakers experience some of these responses when
addressing an audience. But the difference between you and them is that
they understand the speaking process. They understand that such
responses are natural. It’s all part of being human. They realize that these
responses can be changed. These speakers have prepared and practiced
their speeches, and when they do experience any of these sensations of
stage fright, they know how to bring themselves back under control. They
know the skills and techniques to get themselves to breathe gently, center
their focus of attention, and return to their talk. This chapter is designed to
enable you to do the same. But first, let’s look at why you are so nervous.

2.7 Why Are You So Nervous?

Before you can overcome a problem, you must admit that there is a
problem and then understand the reasons for its existence. Most people,
when confronted with a fear or anxiety, either deny its existence or fail to
adequately investigate the reasons for it.
As to the first issue of denial, very few novice speakers are grandiose
enough to boast that they have no fears regarding public speaking.
Without exception, most beginning speakers are very conscious and aware
of their fears, but they don’t seem to know why they are afraid.
One mystified speaker angrily lamented, “Why am I so frightened? I
know how to talk.”
“My friends all tell me I am witty,” another complained, “but when I get
up to speak in front of a group, I just go blank.”
And one executive grumbled, “I’ve had this speech written out for nearly
a month, but as soon as I stand up before my audience, my eyes get blurry
and my brain turns to mush. I just don’t understand why.”
“Why?” they ask.
Why is it so difficult to just speak in front of a small group of 10 or 12
people, many of whom you may know? Why is it so hard to deliver a talk
when you’ve been talking all your life? Why is it so demanding to speak,
even when you’re prepared ahead of time? Why should you be so nervous?
Now let’s look at the same public speaking scene, without the sound.
There is a group of people seated in a room, all facing one direction. Then,
one of them stands, walks to the front of the room, turns, and faces the
other people, who are still seated. As she stands above the seated audience,
the speaker’s mouth begins to move, and her hands gesture occasionally.
All eyes are on her. She looks at the group. Her mouth is moving. Their
mouths are shut. She gestures. They do not. Her mouth stops moving. The
seated individuals clap their hands. She turns and walks down from the
podium, finds her chair, and sits down. Now, everyone in the group is
seated again.

If you’re never scared or embarrassed or hurt, it means you never

take any chances.
—JULIA SOREL

What just happened? Well, if you simply watched the event and did not
analyze the content of the speech, you would discover a very striking thing.
The speaker becomes separate from the people she is talking to. She is no
longer just one of them. Instead, she is in front of them. She is standing
above them, while they are seated below. She is talking, while they are
silent. She is moving and animated, while they sit motionless. She is
glancing at individual members, while every eye in the audience is on her.
In fact, she now controls the event, while they have little or no control. She
determines the ebb and flow of the experience, while they watch for her
cues. When she finishes, they applaud. She walks back down to find her
chair while they are seated and are still clapping. In short, the speaker
becomes the leader of the group, and the people in the audience become
her followers.
Now, if you are the president of the United States or the conductor of the
New York Philharmonic, such an experience in front of all those people
would not be frightening (maybe). Having all of those eyes riveted on you,
watching your every move, listening to your every word—you, the center of
attention—might not be too frightening, if you’re trained for such
experiences.

2.8 Public Speaking Is Different From

Conversation

The fact that you’ve carried on conversations all your life doesn’t help now.
The fact that you are witty doesn’t help now. The fact that you’ve written
the speech beforehand doesn’t help now. All of these things don’t help now
because you’re not involved in conversational skills.
You are involved in presentational skills. You are, in short, presenting
yourself, both body and mind, to a group of people who are watching your
presentation. You are no longer one of them. You are separate from them.
You are presenting; they are observing. That’s why it’s so frightening to
speak in front of an audience. No one has ever told you what to do in this
situation. Sure, you’ve spent your entire lifetime learning how to carry on a
conversation, how to informally talk to others in small group settings or at
intimate gatherings at quaint restaurants. But it is unlikely that you’ve ever
been trained to present yourself to a group of people. So remember to give
yourself permission to be gentle on yourself as you learn to be different
from “the rest of them”—your audience.
Public speaking is an activity that involves mental and physical
presentation skills that are different from social conversational skills.
Being an effective public speaker requires physical coordination, mental
concentration, content organization, skills practice, and a great deal of
experience. Just as it would be foolish to thrust a beginning surfer into
large waves her first time out, it would be equally foolish to expect the
beginning speaker to be cool, calm, and collected the first time before an
audience. Formal presentation skills require as much, if not more, practice
and skills improvement as surfing, or any physical sport, for that matter.
There are many books and teachers who sincerely believe that if a novice
speaker could just relax, she would decrease her stage fright and would
thus become a better public speaker. Positive thinking, self pep talks,
creative visualization, and self-hypnosis are often encouraged as means of
improving your speaking skills. There is some research to support such
claims, but there are no shortcuts to learning these formal presentational
skills.
Without the practical experience, there can be little behavioral change.
You can visualize, think, and dream all you want that you can ride a surf-
board. But it’s the practical, hands-on experience that enables you to
paddle out, stroke just enough to match the speed of the wave, stand up,
and maintain a trim position as you ride the swell to the beach.
That’s what we’ll be doing. Learning not only the whys but, equally
important, the hows. We’ll learn step by step how to do everything from
walking up to the podium to returning to and sitting back in your chair.

2.9 Some Encouraging Words About Stage

Fright

Now that you know some differences between public speaking and
conversation, let’s consider some encouraging words about stage fright.

It’s Natural to Be Anxious

The human body reacts to any perceived threat with certain physical,
psychological, and emotional responses. To not do so would be cause for
serious concern. It’s natural to feel some anxiety and fear as you face an
audience.
You Are Not Alone

Everyone experiences some degree of stage fright before, during, and even
after a speech. There is not one person in your audience who would not
feel some degree of stage fright if he were in your place. So take heart:
you’re not alone. We’re all in this together.

You Appear Much More Relaxed Than You Feel

When speakers view a video playback of a speech, they are all, with very
few exceptions, surprised at how relaxed they appear on the monitor.
Feedback from audience members immediately after the talk confirms this
interesting phenomenon. The speaker experiences a great deal more
internal anxiety than she exhibits externally to others. You may feel really
nervous on the inside, but chances are you don’t appear nervous to your
audience.

Have Something Important to Say

Abraham Lincoln once stated, “I shall never be old enough to speak

without embarrassment when I have nothing to say.” Those words still
ring true today. If you feel strongly about what you are going to share with
your audience, you are less likely to be fearful of them. Speak only when
you have something important to say. That is an essential rule of thumb
for public speaking, as well as in your daily life.

To grow, we must travel in the direction of our fears.

—JOHN BERRYMAN

Concentrate on What Is Said

Be more concerned with the main idea you are going to share with your
audience than the exact wording of your message. Don’t get fixated on the
details of your talk. Instead, focus on the main idea of the speech. Keep
looking at the big picture, not the minutiae.

Practice Your Speech

There are very few speakers who can give well-developed speeches in an
impromptu fashion, with no prior practice. Practice is one of the most
important factors in confident speaking for speakers at all experience
levels. There is no substitute for actually practicing your speech in a
standing position. Remember, public speaking is a physical skill as well as
an intellectual, psychological skill.

Visualize Success

After you have practiced your speech two or three times, find a quiet place
to relax and visualize yourself successfully delivering your presentation. Sit
in a comfortable chair, relax your entire body, close your eyes, take a deep
breath or two, and visualize the speaking situation. See the room, the
audience looking at you, the podium, and yourself all dressed up, ready to
communicate your message enthusiastically to your listeners. Visualize
yourself beginning the introduction, effortlessly moving from point to
point in the body of your speech, and then concluding the talk with
conviction. Imagine the audience smiling, nodding, and leaning forward in
their chairs to hear every word you say. Finally, imagine the audience
smiling and applauding warmly as you end your speech. Let the applause
linger for a while in your ears, and then take a deep breath, open your eyes,
and let your body remember the scenes from your visualization. Try this
exercise once each night before you give your speech. It will make a
difference.

Release Your Tension Before You Speak

Some speakers jog in the morning before giving a speech. Others talk
nervously about their anxiety to a friend the night before. There is a
television news anchor in New York who goes through five minutes of light
stretching exercises in her dressing room before she goes on camera.
Systematic relaxation exercises work for some, while other speakers prefer
to simply pace backstage before they deliver their speech. One of the most
effective relaxation exercises is simply to breathe deeply from your
stomach. Keep your eyes open, but don’t fix your gaze on any one thing.
Just breathe deeply and evenly. You’ll discover that all your bodily
rhythms will become calmer and more centered. Experiment to discover
what works best for you. It’s your life.

Experience Reduces Anxiety

The more speaking experience you have, the less likely you are to be
frightened by your next speech. It’s like that with most things. The more
you do it, the less frightening it is. There once was a man named Clay in
the central California farmlands who flew a crop duster, an airplane used
to spray insecticides on the strawberry fields. Day after day, Clay would
make that old red plane loop, spin, twirl, and zip over those strawberry
fields. When asked if flying like that ever frightened him, he responded,
“At first it did, but after 27 years of flying a duster, I’ve sorta gotten used to
it.” The same holds true for speaking.

The Audience Is on Your Side

Think of your own reactions when you’ve been an audience member. Did
you want the speaker to fail? To look like a fool? Probably not. The vast
majority of us want the speaker to succeed. We want the speaker to be
interesting, informative, stimu lating, and entertaining. The last thing we
want is for the speaker to fail in her attempts to communicate. Audiences
really are empathic, encouraging, and supportive, if given half a chance.
One of the most uplifting thoughts you can have as you face an audience is
the belief that they wish you well and want you to succeed. They really are
on your side.

There is only one of you in all time.

—MARTHA GRAHAM
2.10 Will I Ever Get Rid of These
Butterflies?

We’ve talked about giving yourself permission to make mistakes and to

overcome your fears, and still, you’re probably wondering, “Will I ever get
rid of the butterflies once and for all?” Well, there’s a well-known story
about a 60-year-old woman who was enrolled in a public speaking class at
a local college. On the night she was scheduled to deliver her first speech,
she was overcome with terror at the prospect of talking in front of all those
people. She couldn’t bring herself to walk up to the front of the class when
her name was called, so the instructor walked over to her and asked her
how she felt.
The woman replied, “I’m scared. My stomach is filled with butterflies,
and they’re flying around chaotically.” With some gentle encouragement
from the teacher and students, the woman slowly walked to the front of the
class and spoke to the group.
The following summer, that same woman was at a family gathering.
During dinner, the woman’s granddaughter asked, “Grandma, Daddy said
you took a speech class and learned how to talk. He said you had
butterflies in your stomach. Did you finally get rid of them?”
“No, I didn’t get rid of those butterflies,” the woman replied proudly,
“but at least now they fly in formation.”
Carl Jung wisely observed, “We rarely solve life’s biggest problems. We
merely outgrow them.” In your life’s journey, you will outgrow many of the
fears and problems you are struggling with today. Your butterflies will
most likely always accompany you when you speak in public, but with time
and practice, they will be flying in formation.

2.11 Adventure and Growth, Not Safety

A ship in a harbor is safe, but that’s not what ships were built for.
—ZEN SAYING
Many people run from new opportunities, especially if those opportunities
involve thinking differently, behaving differently, and feeling differently.
Most of us suffer needlessly because we fear the unknown.
Rather than venture into the unknown, we would rather resign ourselves
to a situation that is painful because it is also familiar, predictable, and in
some ways safe. But perhaps we were intended to explore the unknown in
our life’s voyage.
For most of us, learning how to speak in front of others involves
venturing out into the unknown. We are like ships in a harbor, not really
comfortable with the prospects of setting sail into open sea because every
voyage requires some element of risk and maybe change. But that’s what
learning is all about—changing, improving, and being freer than you were
before.
Just keep in mind that the purpose of life is not to be perfect. It’s to try
new things as we grow older—to learn more about this world, our friends,
and ourselves. We should learn to discover and communicate what we
think, how we feel, and who we are as we journey during our lifetime.
Now it’s time to leave the harbor.

2.12 Success in a Hybrid Public Speaking

Class

With online courses becoming more popular because of geographical

demands, institutional budgetary constraints, and student convenience,
public speaking courses are often being offered as hybrid classes. A hybrid
public speaking course will require that much or all of the content
material, assignments, quizzes, and exams be accessed on the Internet.
Online chat rooms or discussion boards will facilitate student/instructor
discussion, interaction, and feedback, while students will meet in person
with other students at an onsite location to deliver their speeches on
specified dates. This hybrid approach to public speaking requires
additional student responsibilities and commitment that a regular course
might not. Here are seven suggestions that will help you achieve greater
success in a hybrid public speaking class.
Determine Your Level of Hybrid Readiness

Hybrid courses are different from onsite, face-to-face courses, and your
hybrid public speaking course may present some challenges that you need
to consider if you are to be successful in this approach to learning. Here
are five questions you need to honestly reflect upon before you commit to a
hybrid course.

1. Do you like to work independently?

2. Are you good at meeting deadlines?
3. Are you willing to ask for clarification and/or assistance?
4. Do you feel confident working with computers and the Internet?
5. Do you manage your daily and monthly schedules effectively?

If you answered “yes” to four or five of these questions, you will most likely
be successful in meeting the requirements of your hybrid public speaking
course. If, however, you answered “no” to two or more of the questions,
you might reconsider using a hybrid approach to your public speaking
course, especially if you have difficulty with the time management issues
raised in questions two and five.

Make a Personal Commitment for Hybrid Success

A hybrid public speaking class does not offer the daily, face-to-face
interaction with the instructor and students that a regular course does. All
of the nonverbal communication cues that are so readily available in an
onsite class are now largely replaced with PDF readings, links to related
web-sites, online forums or chat rooms, and e-mail communications with
your instructor and fellow students. This approach to learning offers less
face-to-face interaction, stimulation, and encouragement and demands
more self-motivation and discipline on your part.
You will need to make a personal commitment to the additional
responsibilities and requirements your hybrid class will demand of you.
That means that, for the next semester, you will have to devote yourself to
structuring your life to meet the assignment, exam, and speech deadlines
without the in-person reminders and reinforcement that an onsite class
offers. Make a personal commitment for success and stick to it every day of
the semester.

Manage Your Time Effectively

The most essential element for success in your hybrid public speaking
course is time management. Simply put, if you manage your time
effectively, you can succeed in completing your hybrid public speaking
course. If you don’t manage your time effectively, you will be less likely to
succeed. Here are four helpful suggestions for effective time management.
First, construct a semester-length calendar generated from the course
syllabus assignment deadlines for your class. Note every reading,
homework assignment, online forum/discussion, quiz/exam, and speech
deadline for the entire semester on your calendar. Use color coding of due
dates to help you indicate the type of assignment or work. You might even
place reminders of assignment due dates three days ahead. In other words,
three days before a big assignment or speech is due, give yourself a heads-
up reminder.
Second, conduct a daily and weekly check of assignments that are due.
Your beautiful semester calendar won’t do you any good if you don’t check
it once in a while. I suggest that you check it daily and keep on top of all of
your class responsibilities. You can even schedule in weekly homework
time periods in a specific color so you can see when you should be working
on each assignment, day by day. It’s best to assign your homework time
periods in one- or two-hour blocks so you have adequate time to complete
assignments without burning out.
Third, elicit the help of a friend to hold you accountable to your semester
calendar—someone to ask you each week if you’ve been following your
homework calendar for the course. It’s amazing how powerful knowing
that someone will be asking you every Sunday night for the entire semester
if you’re current on all of your assignment preparations and submissions
can be. That’s what friends are for.
And fourth, submit all of your assignments, exams, and speech material
on time. This is the secret to online success. More than anything else,
submit all work on the due dates. Better yet, submit all work one or two
days early, if possible. This not only indicates to the instructor that you are
responsible, committed, and a little neurotic (in a good way), it also will
give you a feeling of accomplishment and pride (in an even better way).
Remember, if you manage your time effectively, the hybrid public speaking
course can be a wonderful experience. If not, you’d better change your
time management practices right now. I mean, right now.

Establish a Relationship With Your Instructor Early

On

You might be reluctant to visit your instructors during office hours, but
you need to make changes when it comes to a hybrid course. If your
instructor holds office hours, visit him during the second week of the
semester. By that time, most of the initial confusion of the first week of
classes has settled, and both you and your instructor are in a place where
you can meet one another in a more relaxed atmosphere. It will be
beneficial for you to shake hands with your professor, get a feel for his
personality, and establish the beginning of a relationship. Since your face-
to-face interactions with your professor will be limited in a hybrid course,
meeting him in person during the second week will take the mystery out of
the relationship, and you’ll be more apt to communicate online or in
person if the need should arise.
You might even visit your professor a couple of times more during the
semester, just to touch base, clarify any questions you might have, and
glean any pearls of wisdom his knowledge and experience can afford you.
Communicate with your instructor in person. It will make a big difference.

Participate in Class: Online and In Person

In addition to submitting all of your work on time, one of the things you
can do to really benefit from a hybrid public speaking course is to
participate in all of your online forums, discussion groups, and e-mail
communications. Since there is little face-to-face interaction with the
instructor and students, your participation in all online assignments is
vital to your contribution and success in the class. Keep current on all
online assignments, feedback discussions, and forums. Contribute your
responses, feedback, and opinions in a manner that is clear, meaningful,
and respectful. Refrain from arguing online. Keep your remarks positive
and your attitude uplifting. Since the instructor and students cannot see
your face, your words will have to communicate your genuine and positive
attitude. One final suggestion, think before you click the “Send” button on
any online correspondence, especially if the discussion gets heated or
intense. Once a message is sent, it can never be erased. So pause before
you hit the “Send” button.
On the days you meet face to face with the instructor and other students,
don’t be intimidated or reluctant to contribute. Arrive to the classroom five
or ten minutes early, and greet the instructor and other students. Sit
toward the front of the room. Look for ways you might be helpful in getting
the room arranged or the class organized. Ask the instructor if he needs
any help. Contribution to the class begins even before the instructor
welcomes the students.
Most likely, your face-to-face meetings will involve the presentation of
various speeches. Be positive in all of your nonverbal communication. Pay
attention to each speaker. Smile at the speaker. Nod your head in
affirmation. Ask a question after each presentation if there is a question-
and-answer session. Look for two or three things to compliment as each
student speaks. And volunteer often to verbally compliment speakers after
their speeches. Do all you can do to make the face-to-face onsite
experience enlarging, friendly, and supportive. Your fellow students and
instructor will be glad you did, and so will you. Make a positive difference
in all that you do.

Establish Face-to-Face Support

In some hybrid public speaking classes, the instructor will assign you to a
class group or “family” that you are required to meet with, in person, a
number of times during the semester, in addition to the scheduled onsite
speaking days. These face-to-face meetings with your class group add a
personal dimension to the course experience for discussion, speech
practice, and support.
If your instructor does not provide the opportunity for non-speaking-
day, face-to-face group meetings, you might want to establish your own
face-to-face support with two or three other students enrolled in your
course.
During the first day or two of onsite speaking presentations, be on the
lookout for two or three students who appear friendly, deliver good
speeches, and participate in the discussions. Approach two or three of
those students after class and ask them if they’d be interested in forming a
small group to meet occasionally to discuss the class, practice speeches,
and be encouraging of one another. You’d be surprised how delighted and
willing students will be to join such a group.
Your meetings don’t have to be formal, long, or numerous. Volunteer to
have the first meeting at your house, dorm, or apartment. Provide some
chips and soft drinks. And just see how the first meeting goes. It’s best to
meet every two or three weeks for one hour to discuss assignments, study
for tests, or just touch base. Your group can be especially helpful if you
practice your upcoming speeches in front of one another and provide some
feedback on the practice speeches. Whatever your group does, remember
that the purpose is to support and encourage one another in this journey of
public speaking. And you might just make a friend in the process.

Find Out-of-Class Speaking Opportunities

Your instructor might require that one or more of your speech

presentations be delivered to an out-of-class audience and recorded. This
type of speaking assignment requires some planning and additional effort
on your part. Here are four suggestions that will make any out-of-class
speaking assignment a successful one.
First, review the requirements for your out-of-class speaking
assignment. What are the requirements in terms of speech purpose, type
of audience, minimum size of audience, time limits, recording
requirements, and due date? The answers to many of these questions will
determine your approach to planning for the out-of-class speech.
Second, you will need to locate an audience for your speech. In some
instances, instructors will permit you to deliver your speech to a group of
students from your hybrid class or to a group of your friends. But the
majority of instructors will have you locate an existing group to serve as
your audience. Here’s where many students in hybrid public speaking
courses want to throw up their hands in disgust and drop the course
because they can’t think of any audiences. But slow down, take a deep
breath, and be creative in your approach to this requirement.
There are many audiences within a few miles of where you’re sitting
right now that would be happy to have you deliver an interesting
informative or persuasive speech. Consider contacting community service
groups, such as the Rotary Club, Lions Club, Kiwanis International,
Soroptimist International, Knights of Columbus, Junior League, and
League of Women Voters. You can contact local political groups, such as
the Young Democrats, Young Republicans, and Young Libertarians.
Consider reaching out to interest groups, such as the Sierra Club, the
National Rifle Association, Greenpeace, and the 4-H Club. If you want to
have a fun time scanning hundreds of interest groups, just Google “local
interest groups,” and you have enough to fill a Friday evening. Local
churches often host weekly lunches where guest speakers are encouraged
to present brief presentations on a topic of interest.
You can often give a presentation to a church youth group or college
group, and the topic of your speech doesn’t have to be religious in nature
so long as it’s relevant to the audience. You might even consider contacting
a local company or corporation that hosts “brown bag” luncheons with a
local guest speaker and sharing an interesting or relevant topic. And
finally, you might even ask one of your former or current college
instructors if you can serve as a guest speaker in one of her classes if your
topic is related to the course content. There are hundreds of potential
audiences within 25 miles of your home if you just invest a little research
and effort.
Third, you will need to record your speech. Once you’ve located an
audience of appropriate size to listen to your speech, you will need to
record the speech so that your instructor can view your presentation for
evaluation. Make sure you understand and can accommodate the
recording requirements. Whether you are required to submit your speech
to your instructor, upload it to YouTube, or some other procedure, make
certain that you know how to accomplish this very important task. If you
don’t or are uncertain, contact your instructor to clarify or receive further
instructions. This is the time to learn the process—not on the day of your
off-site speech.
Fourth, have a friend or fellow student record your speech. Whether you
use a tablet, smartphone, or some other device to record your speech, it’s
easier to have an assistant who understands the requirements of the
assignment rather than trying to get one of the audience members to
volunteer to record your speech a minute before you deliver your
presentation. Have your assistant record the entire audience before you
are introduced to serve as evidence for the audience size and frame your
entire body during your presentation so your instructor can see as much of
your delivery as possible. Also have your assistant record the applause and
any questions and answers that follow your speech. Remember to treat
your assistant to lunch or dinner after the event. You can never be too
grateful.
An out-of-class speaking assignment could be viewed as one extra
headache in your attempts to complete the course. Another way of looking
at it is that it can be an opportunity to learn some real-world skills, to
provide relevant and helpful information to an appreciative audience, and
to achieve a level of personal accomplishment that is not always discovered
in a college classroom. Who knows? Someone in your audience might even
offer you another opportunity to speak. This could open up a whole new
career for you. Be positive. Be open to what life has in store for you.

COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES

PERSONAL ACTIVITIES

1. Giving yourself permission

Review your responses to the 20 statements in the permission
list. Select one item that you did not agree with. Read the
statement aloud five times in a definite, confident voice. Close
your eyes and imagine you are actually experiencing the
situation described in the statement, for example, “I give
myself permission to not know all the answers.” Imagine being
asked a question by a teacher and simply responding, “I don’t
know.” Imagine feeling comfortable with your response.
Imagine the teacher smiling and saying, “That’s okay. I don’t
know the answer either.” Imagine that you and the teacher
both begin to laugh. How did that feel to you? Try another
permission statement if you had more than one “no” response.

2. A different cultural perspective

Ask an individual from a different cultural background about
his attitudes and feelings about the permission list presented
in this chapter. How does his culture perceive the ideas raised
 by the statements in the permission list? How do you feel
about his responses?

3. Imagining the worst

Imagine you are delivering a five-minute speech about your
college public speaking class to a group of 25 high school
seniors. Halfway through your speech, you draw a blank—you
can’t remember what you were going to say. What is the worst
thing (or things) that could happen? Be specific. List all of the
horrors that could happen. Look at your list. How would you
respond to each of the items on your list? Be strong. Be
assertive. Tell those high school seniors a thing or two. Did any
of the audience members come to your rescue? How do you
feel? Was it all that bad?

4. Researching the effects of smartphone usage on self-

esteem
Go online and research “the effects of smartphone usage on
self-esteem.” What did you discover in your research? What
were some of the positive effects? What were some of the
negative effects? In what ways might you want to consider
changing your smartphone usage in the future? Why?

Class Activities

1. Receiving permission
Pair up with another student in class and take turns granting
one another permission for the statements from the
permission list. If you responded “no” to any statement on
your list, have your partner grant you permission to do that
behavior. For instance, have your partner tell you in a firm and
definite tone of voice, “I, (name), give you permission to make
mistakes!” Ask her to say the statement three or four times.
How did it feel? What did you think? After your partner has
repeated this process with three or four other statements you
disagreed with, switch roles and give your partner permission
statements. Be prepared to share your reactions to this
assignment in class.
2. Group sharing: letting others know what you fear
The class is to be divided into groups of five students each.
Each student is to share three or four things he fears. As each
individual shares a specific fear, other students in the group
can raise their hands to indicate that they too share that same
fear. You’ll be surprised at how many others share not only
your fear of public speaking but other physical, psychological,
and emotional fears as well. You are not alone. The group
members can also discuss how they cope or deal with these
fears.

3. You appear more relaxed than you feel

This exercise will be videotaped in your class. Give an informal
30-second talk about your public speaking fears. You can share
anything you’d like during this brief talk. After the entire class
has spoken, view the presentations without sound. What did
you look like? Did you look as anxious or frightened as you
felt? How did the other students appear while they were
speaking? Discuss your responses to this activity in class.

4. Worst nightmare speech

Make a list of the five most terrible things an audience could
do to you while you’re speaking—throw paper, walk out of the
room, shout criticism, sleep, “boo” and “hiss,” or laugh. This
will be like your worst nightmare. But, you’ll discover, it’s not
that bad. Assign members of the class to role-play your
“terrible” behaviors while you are speaking. Give an informal
30-second talk about a happy childhood memory and let the
students act out their roles (the horrible behaviors). How was
it? Was the experience as bad as you thought it would be? Did
you laugh? Did the audience laugh? What feelings do you
have? How did the exercise change your attitude toward
speaking? Be prepared to discuss your reactions to this
assignment in class.
3

Organizing Your Speech

Keeping It Simple

DOI: 10.4324/9781003162933-3

The building blocks of organizing your speech:

Explain the keep-it-simple concept

Define public speaking
List three principles of public speaking
List four speaking methods
Define speech organization
Define the body of the speech
Define introduction
Define conclusion
Construct a speech outline
Explain different ways to prepare notes for a speech

speech organization
manuscript speech
memorized speech
impromptu speech
extemporaneous speech
introduction
conclusion

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the

following:
 3.1 Explain the concept “keep it simple”
3.2 Define public speaking
3.3 List the three principles of public speaking
3.4 Define the four speaking methods
3.5 Explain speech organization
3.6 Discuss the body of the speech
3.7 Discuss the introduction of the speech
3.8 Discuss the conclusion of the speech
3.9 Construct a speech outline
3.10 Construct speaking notes for a speech

Have you ever experienced a time in your life when everything seemed to
hit all at once—a hundred things to do, appointments to keep, projects to
complete, unfinished business pressing in from all sides?
Sam’s first year of teaching college was like that. He was 23 years old,
teaching three classes as a part-time instructor at a local community
college, attending graduate school, volunteering a couple of hours a day as
a teacher’s aide at a local child-care center, and washing dishes at the
Garrett Restaurant in the evenings. In addition, Sam was conducting
communication workshops for college students every other Sunday at a
local church.
Somehow, Sam managed to juggle all of those responsibilities for the
first three months of the year, until gradually he noticed changes in his
behavior. He was getting angry over little things. And he wasn’t sleeping as
well as he once had. Getting up in the morning was becoming more
difficult, and Sam found himself just lying in bed staring at the ceiling after
the alarm went off.
Sam has since learned that these are some of the telltale symptoms of
depression. But at that time, all he knew was that getting up in the
morning was becoming more and more difficult. Knowing that something
was wrong, Sam wanted to talk to someone about his situation, but he
didn’t have the money to see a therapist. He was too embarrassed to share
his problem with his family and too proud to discuss it with his friends. So
he was stuck.
One Saturday morning, as Sam was sitting on the back porch of his
second-story apartment, Annie shouted up to him with an invitation for
coffee. Annie Loveless was a friendly 76-year-old woman who lived by
herself in the apartment directly under Sam’s. Annie was a gentle soul, and
very wise. After her second husband died nine years earlier in Hollywood,
she moved to Northern California. The years had been good to her, and she
seemed to glide through life with ease and grace.
After pouring a second cup of coffee, she asked Sam if he had been
feeling well. He lied and said he was fine. A long silence followed his
response, and Annie whispered, “I once heard that God invented time so
everything wouldn’t happen all at once.” Sam smiled weakly and remained
silent as he held his cup.
“You have a long life ahead of you,” she continued. “Don’t complicate
and confuse your life with too many things, too many responsibilities. You
need to ease your burden by cutting some things out. I think you need to
simplify your life a little.”
Annie was a good friend, and she had come to know Sam well during the
year and a half he had lived at the apartment complex. Her words hit him
with great force. During the next two weeks, Sam quit his dishwashing job
at the restaurant, said good-bye to all those kids at the child-care center,
and arranged to teach the college Sunday school class once a month
instead of twice.
With only his teaching and graduate school to occupy the majority of his
time, Sam felt as though the weight of the world had been lifted from his
shoulders. His anger gradually subsided. His sleep began to return to
normal. And soon, Sam discovered it was even easy to get out of bed in the
morning when the alarm went off.
Not all responsibilities can be cast aside. Not all lives can be simple and
uncomplicated in the web of relationships, ties, and duties we accumulate
over the years. But we do have the freedom to make choices. We don’t have
to say yes to every request that is placed before us. Sometimes, we need to
choose simplicity over complexity. One or two good friends, instead of 10
or 15. One or two organizational memberships, instead of seven or eight. A
desk empty of clutter, rather than one piled high with old papers, books,
unanswered mail, and yesterday’s lunch wrappings. One single painting
adorning a wall, instead of five. There is beauty and freedom in simplicity.

The ability to simplify means to eliminate the unnecessary so that the

necessary may speak.
 —HANS HOFFMAN

3.1 Keep It Simple

A young pastor, intent on impressing the congregation with his theological

education, developed a lengthy, complicated, and verbose sermon style.
The congregation would stir restlessly, eyeing the clock on the wall as this
young pastor droned on and on, bringing up point after point after point.
This continued for some time, until one Sunday morning, the pastor’s
wife, also frustrated with his long sermons, slipped him a note before he
went up to speak. At the top of the note was written “KISS.” He smiled as
he glanced over at his wife. Then he noticed at the bottom of the note,
“Keep It Simple, Stupid.”
Hopefully, you will never receive such a note. But the recommendation
to “keep it simple” is one of the wisest bits of advice you will ever receive.
Your speech must be structured so that it is easy to follow if you are to
accomplish your goal of having the audience listen to your words and
remember your points and recommendations.
Far too many novice speakers talk in a style that is difficult to follow.
The listener gets lost in a maze of unrelated thoughts and ideas, with no
clear theme connecting the endless parade of words. We often lose interest
and perhaps become annoyed with a speaker who cannot present her
thoughts in a readily understood fashion. Before we examine the basics
parts of any speech, let’s look at the fundamentals of public speaking.

3.2 Public Speaking

Public speaking is defined as speaking before an audience. There are three

primary purposes for giving speeches: to inform, to persuade, and to
entertain. College lectures, a winery tour, and a demonstration of flower
arranging are speeches that primarily inform. Examples of persuasive
speaking include a fund-raising talk for the Soccer Club on campus, a
speech advocating blood donation, and a sales presentation for the latest
computer software. After-dinner speaking and comedy club acts are
examples of speeches that entertain. Usually, speeches are technically a
combination of all three, but the primary goal of a given speech is to
inform, to persuade, or to entertain.

3.3 Three Principles for Public Speaking

Before we begin discussing the various ways you can speak to an audience,
three principles for public speaking will set you on the right path for giving
effective speeches. For effective speaking, you should put the audience
first, speak deep from the heart, and leave your audience wanting more.

Put the Audience First

The most important secret to successful public speaking is to put your

audience first. It’s a matter of having the right attitude. Many beginning
speakers spend far too much time focused on themselves. They worry
about how they’ll sound, how they’ll come across, and what the audience
will think of them. Their focus is on self. Too often in relationships, dating,
and marriage, we hold a similar “me-first” attitude, and the results can be
damaging.
To be more effective, and less anxious, we need to shift the spotlight off
of us as speakers and focus it instead on our audience. Our attention
should be on the people who will listen to our speech. So when you begin
thinking about a speech you will be giving, think in terms of your audience
first. Who are they? What are they interested in? How do they feel? What
do they think? How might I instruct them? How can I help them? How
might I encourage them? This shift in focus not only helps your public
speaking, but it also can improve your relationships as well.

Deep Speaks to Deep

The second secret to successful speaking is that “deep speaks to deep.”

Whenever you have an opportunity to address an audience, whether it’s a
one-minute impromptu speech at a wedding reception or a formal
presentation at a dinner banquet, don’t waste your audience’s time on
trivial matters. Our lives are already saturated enough with the
insignificant details of celebrities’ lives, frivolous e-mail, Saturday Night
Live characters, and the tedium of never-ending electronic gizmos and
doodads.
Instead of adding to the trivia, invite your audience to consider topics of
importance. Talk about subjects that really matter to you, deep in your
heart. Select stories from your life and from your research that move the
heart and challenge the mind. Share thoughts and feelings that are
significant, are meaningful, and, in the end, matter. Every person in your
audience, no matter how he appears on the outside, is on the same journey
as you, from birth to death, consciously or unconsciously trying to find
meaning in this life and attempting to make sense of it all. Appeal to that
part of your listener. If you do, your audience will respond, because
whether they realize it or not, they are moving through deep waters in this
lifetime. Share important topics, for deep speaks to deep.

Deep speaks to deep.

—PSALM 42:7

Leave Your Audience Wanting More

There’s an old saying that “the more you say the less you say, and the less
you say the more you say.” A speaker who goes on and on, and on and on,
with little or no regard for the bored and restless responses of the
audience, can actually cancel out any positive contribution or effect she
has had on the audience.
Even a dynamic speaker, with significant material, can eventually cause
a once-appreciative audience to become restless, frustrated, and even
angry if the speech doesn’t end within a reasonable length of time. What’s
a reasonable length of time? That depends on the occasion, the speaking
environment, the speaker, and the audience. But here’s when our first
principle of public speaking comes in handy—put the audience first.
Consider your audience. Observe them as you speak. Do they look bored?
Tired? Restless? Or even frustrated? If they do, bring your speech to an
end. No use talking your audience to death. Know when to stop.
When preparing your speech, put the audience first. Know what you
want to say, and say nothing more. Don’t use all the material you
researched, although it might feel good to show off your efforts. Instead,
select only the best material. Then, stay focused. Keep to your point. And
conclude your speech. Bigger is not necessarily better. Longer is not
necessarily more helpful or instructive. Observe the time limit of your
speech, and don’t go over it. In fact, end before the allotted time. Instead of
giving a 20-minute speech, end at 17 minutes. Instead of giving a ten-
minute speech, conclude at eight minutes. Your audience will never rush
the podium in a rage if you end a little sooner than expected. But they
might do so if you drone on and on.
Avoid having your audience grumble, “When’s she going to quit?” or
“Isn’t he finished yet?” Instead, earn their ultimate compliments—“I wish
she’d spoken longer” or “I hope he’ll speak again.” Always leave your
audience wanting more of you, not less.

3.4 Four Speaking Methods

Now that we’ve examined the three principles of public speaking, let’s look
at the different styles or methods of delivering a speech. The four basic
methods or approaches are manuscript, memorized, impromptu, and
extemporaneous.

Manuscript Delivery Method

The manuscript delivery method consists of reading a speech from a text

or manuscript. The speech is written word for word, and the speaker does
not stray from the prepared text as she reads to the audience.
One advantage of this delivery method is that the content of the speech
is guaranteed so long as the speaker sticks to the text. This could be
important if the exact wording of a speech is vital, as in scientific
presentations or political addresses.
There are many disadvantages to this style of speaking. The obvious
disadvantage to manuscript delivery is the lack of natural, spontaneous
delivery on the part of the speaker. Eye contact is decreased because most
speakers using this method read the entire speech, word for word, instead
of establishing eye contact with their audience. Animated gestures, facial
expressions, and body movement are limited by this style of speaking.
Spontaneous speaker response to audience feedback is not easily attained
with this delivery method, as the text is already determined. We’ve all
known professors who relied on this style of lecturing, semester after
semester, year after year.

The real art of speaking rests in exhausting your subject before you
exhaust your audience.
—ADLAI STEVENSON

Memorized Delivery Method

The second method of delivery is memorized. In this style, the speaker

memorizes the text of a speech, word for word, and then recites the speech
without the use of a manuscript.
One advantage of the memorized delivery method is that the speaker is
able to look at the audience more often because he no longer needs to rely
on reading the manuscript that is in front of him. The speaker is also more
spontaneous in gestures and body movement. This method is used by
actors and Disneyland tour guides, among others.
The disadvantages of this method are many. Unless you are gifted at
memorization, it’s difficult to commit to memory even the briefest of talks.
Memorization requires a great deal of time and effort, even for the best of
speakers. To make matters worse, once you’ve memorized the speech, you
face the possibility of forgetting a part of the speech when you’re speaking.
Once the speaker forgets just one word, everything that followed that
particular word is out the window—swooosh … into the universe, never to
be seen again. The speaker usually goes blank. And that’s one of the most
pitiful looks you can ever see on a human being—just blank. Don’t let this
happen to you.
Impromptu Delivery Method

Impromptu speaking consists of speaking to an audience on the spur of the

moment, without prior preparation or practice. Most public speaking
nightmares involve sadistic variations on this style of speaking, with
hundreds of shrieking demons dancing around you as you stand on the
stage, naked, struggling to find words, any words, to begin your talk.
It doesn’t sound like there’s anything good or of redeeming value about
impromptu speaking. But nothing could be further from the truth. Once
mastered, impromptu speaking can change the way you see yourself and
how you communicate with others. The confidence you receive from being
skilled in impromptu speaking can change your self-concept.

Extemporaneous Delivery Method

Of the four methods of speaking, the extemporaneous method is perhaps

the best style for most public presentations because it utilizes the best
aspects of the other three while balancing their respective weaknesses.
Extemporaneous speaking is speaking that is prepared and practiced
ahead of time but for which the exact wording isn’t determined until the
speaker delivers the speech.
The speech is researched and outlined ahead of time. Normally, the
outline contains only 25 to 30 percent of the total words that will be
delivered in the speech. Usually, a full-sentence outline structure is used,
with an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. This outline is the skeleton
of the speech and the meat of the talk; the other 70 to 75 percent of the
wording isn’t exactly determined until the speaker delivers the speech.
Practice is another requirement for extemporaneous speaking. Once the
speech is researched and outlined, the speaker practices the speech—first
with the outline and then with only note cards. Many extemporaneous
speakers deliver their entire speeches from only one or two four-by-six-
inch note cards containing a brief key-word outline of points.
The speech should be practiced at least five to seven times in its entirety.
Too little practice doesn’t provide the command of the main points of the
talk and the general flow of the speech. Too much practice increases the
probability that the speech will begin to sound memorized. You need to
balance the two extremes as far as practice is concerned. There should be
balance in speech practice, as in life.
Once the speech has been prepared and practiced, the speaker is ready
to deliver it. The primary advantage of the extemporaneous style of
speaking is that the speaker is organized and knows what points need to be
covered, much like the manuscript and memorized speaking methods—but
without the loss of natural delivery and the threat of forgetting the words
and content. Furthermore, the speaker has the spontaneity of impromptu
speaking without the added burden of having to create the speech while
standing in front of the audience. The extemporaneous delivery method is
the style you will most likely use in your public speaking class.

3.5 Speech Organization

Now that we have reviewed the fundamentals of public speaking, let’s look
at how to organize a basic speech that is easy for your listeners to follow.
More than 2,000 years ago, the Greek philosopher Plato said that every
speech should have only three parts: an introduction, a body, and a
conclusion—just like our existence: birth, life, and death. This simple
formula for speech organi zation still holds true today. Whether you’re
giving a 2-minute impromptu talk at a wedding reception or a 20-minute
sales presentation to a group of prospective buyers, the organization of
your speech should be the same.
Before launching into a more detailed examination of each of these three
components, let’s preview the basic functions of the introduction, body,
and conclusion.

True eloquence consists of saying all that should be said, and that
only.
—FrANÇOISDELA ROCHEFOUCAULD

The introduction should capture the attention of the audience, clearly

state what your speech is about, and preview the main points of your talk.
Your introduction should make up only 10 to 15 percent of your total
speaking time. The body of the speech contains the two or three main
points of your talk, along with the supporting material necessary to
develop each point contained in the body and with clearly stated
transitions between each point. The body of the speech should make up 75
to 85 percent of your total speaking time. The conclusion of the speech
presents a summary of your main points and a final thought to leave with
your audience. The conclusion should be brief and should be only 5 to 10
percent of your total speaking time.

3.6 The Body

If you have an important point to make, don’t try to be subtle or

clever. Use a pile-driver. Hit the point. Then come back and hit it
again. Then hit it a third time.
—WINSTON CHURCHILL

We’ll examine the body of the speech before we discuss the introduction.
This may seem a little odd, but we need to realize that we can’t work on
our introductory attention getter and preview of main points until we
know what the main points will be and how they will be organized. Let’s
begin with the main-point selection and organization.

Main-Point Selection

The specific purpose of the presentation, often referred to as the thesis

statement, states the purpose of the speech and divides the speech into its
key parts or main points. The remainder of the body of the speech
develops, clarifies, explains, or proves those main points. Let’s examine
one specific purpose.

Specific Purpose: To inform the audience about three uses of public speaking training.

As you see, the specific purpose establishes the goal in speaking (to inform
the audience) and what you want to share (three uses of public speaking
training). What are those three uses? They constitute the three main
points of the speech. In complete sentence form, those three points are as
follows:

Main Points

1. Public speaking improves your presentational skills.

2. Public speaking helps you become more effective in business.
3. Public speaking improves your self-image.

Selecting main points is not difficult, as long as you remember that each of
the implied areas of the specific purpose will be one of the main points of
your speech.
Let’s have you try your hand at providing three main points for a specific
purpose statement. Suppose you had to share with your audience three
things that make you happy—any three things that bring you joy, make you
feel good, give you a rush. The specific purpose statement would be

Specific Purpose: To share with the audience three things that make me happy.

Now, complete the main points with three things that make you happy.
Use short, complete sentences for each point.

1. ___________________________________________________
____
2. ___________________________________________________
____
3. ___________________________________________________
____

That wasn’t too difficult, was it? You’ve just completed outlining your first
main-point structure for the body of an informative speech. Not bad!

Main-Point Organizational Patterns

For your purpose as a beginning speaker, the following five main-point

orders will most likely suit your needs: topical order, chronological order,
spatial order, advantage-disadvantage order, and problem-solution order.
Each of these five main-point organizational patterns is designed to
present your main points in a way that is easy for the audience to
understand and remember and satisfies the requirements of your specific
purpose.

Topical Order

With topical order, the order of the main points is left to the discretion of
the speaker. The main points can go, for example, from specific to general
or from least important to most important. Often, the topic suggests its
own arrangement of main points. Look at how the following example
makes use of this organizational pattern.

Specific Purpose: To describe three characteristics of a good marriage.

The partners share in open communication.

The partners support the personal growth of each other. The partners resolve
conflict in a nonthreatening manner.

Now that you’ve gotten the hang of topical order, let’s have you complete
the following:

Specific Purpose: To discuss three things I appreciate about my college education.

Chronological Order

Chronological order is the kind of organizational pattern in which the main

points follow a time order or sequence. It shows your audience that there
is a definite order in which the main points develop. The order of main
points is not left to the discretion of the speaker but rather is determined
by the process itself. This type of organizational pattern works well with
speeches that describe how something is made, how something happened,
or how something works. Notice the chronological order in the following
example:

Out of intense complexities emerge intense simplicities.

—ALBERT EINSTEIN

Specific Purpose: To explain how to bake cookies.

The first step is to gather your materials.

 The second step is to prepare the ingredients.
The third step is to bake the cookies.

Now, try your hand at providing the main points for the following specific
purpose, utilizing time order:

Specific Purpose: To explain how I wake up in the morning.

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Spatial Order

The third organizational pattern we examine in this chapter is spatial

order. In spatial order, the main points are arranged in physical or
geographical sequence. This pattern could be employed in a speech that
described the floor plan of your house, the digestive tract of the human
body, or the structure of a guitar. See if you can visualize the spatial
structure in the following example:

Specific Purpose: To describe the arrangement of the town hall.

The first floor contains the reception area and clerks’ offices.
The second floor houses the city officials’ offices.
The third floor is where the city records are stored.

How would you list the main points for the following specific purpose
statement?

Specific Purpose: To describe the three parts of a whole egg (not a scrambled egg).

Advantage-Disadvantage Order

The fourth main-point order is advantage-disadvantage. There might be a

time when you want to present both sides of a case or proposal. The
purpose of your speech would be to fairly and equally communicate the
pros and cons of an issue or case. Here’s an example of advantage-
disadvantage main-point order.

Specific Purpose: To inform the audience about the advantages and disadvantages of
enrolling in a summer school class.

There are advantages to enrolling in a summer school class.

 A summer school class enables you to focus your attention on one subject.
A summer school class is completed in only four to six weeks.

There are disadvantages to enrolling in a summer school class.

A summer school class requires longer daily class meetings.

A summer school class requires three times the daily homework.

See if you can think of the subpoints for this advantage-disadvantage

speech.

Specific Purpose: To inform the audience about the advantages and disadvantages of
working full-time while attending college.

There are advantages to working full-time while attending college.

________________________________________________
________________________________________________

There are disadvantages to working full-time while attending college.

________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Problem-Solution Order

The fifth main-point order is problem-solution. Many times, you will want
to propose a specific solution to an existing problem. This is a persuasive
speech structure, which is discussed in a later chapter, but for now, we will
briefly outline the format known as problem-solution order.

Proposition: You should support a federal law fining violators $1,000 for running a red
light at a traffic intersection.

This federal fine will generate revenue.

This federal fine will lower insurance rates.
This federal fine will save lives.

See if you can construct three points to this problem-solution proposition.

Proposition: You should support an 8 percent federal income tax.

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Now that you’ve chosen your main points and the organizational pattern
you will use, you need to turn your attention to selecting the
developmental material. How your audience will receive, understand, and
appreciate what you have to say will depend largely on how you develop
the main points of the body.

Many a speaker exhausts his audience before he exhausts his subject.

Limit your material.
—MARK TWAIN

In the next chapter, you will learn how to research a speech topic using
the four-by-six-inch note card method, storing each piece of research
evidence on a note card. Let’s assume you’ve already completed
researching a speech topic and that you now have three times the amount
of material required for your talk. Now we must begin the task of selecting
the appropriate supporting material for your main points.

Selecting Your Developmental Material

The easiest method for selecting supporting material for your speech is
called the “pile method.” To use the pile method, simply place the various
four-by-six-inch research cards in one of three piles (if you have three
main points), according to content. At the end of this process, each pile or
stack will contain various definitions, statistics, expert testimony,
examples, stories, comparisons, explanations, or visual aids that support a
particular main point.
Now the fun part begins—the selection of the actual pieces of supporting
material you will use for each main point. Here are some suggestions that
will guide you in your selection as you stare at the various piles of research
cards scattered in front of you.

Have at least one piece of evidence for each point. Provide at

least one piece of evidence to support each of your main points. This
will form a solid base of support for your speech.
Provide a variety of supporting material. Don’t just cite statistics
in each point or tell anecdotes throughout your speech. Present a
variety of supporting material for your listeners to consider. If you
researched your topic sufficiently, you should have little difficulty
 giving your audience a variety of supporting material.
Distribute your supporting material evenly. Develop each main
point of your speech equally. Don’t invest three pieces of evidence on
one main point and not support the other two points. Provide the
listener with an equal balance of supporting material for each point.
Adapt your material to the particular audience. This suggestion
is vitally important if your message is to be received by your
audience. Audiences respond favorably to information that relates to
their interests, their knowledge, their demographics, and their
attitudes. Adapt your research information in ways that your
particular audience can understand, relate to, and appreciate. For
instance, if you’re talking about the advantages of public speaking to
a group of Asian immigrants, who may be reluctant to speak, you
could adapt your information and show how effective presentational
skills can be desirable in job interviews, work performance, and
academic success.

Transitions Within the Body of the Speech

Now that you have your main points selected and developed with
supporting material, you will need to move your listeners smoothly from
one point to the next. Although there are numerous transitions available to
serve this function, numbered transitions are the simplest and most
informative type to use.
The numbered transition is a sentence stating which main point you will
be presenting and its content. For instance, “The first characteristic of a
good marriage is open communication” or “The third and final step in
negotiation is the closing phase.”
The numbered transition is useful because it tells the audience not only
what you will be speaking about next but also where you are in the speech.
This type of “signposting” encourages the audience to pay closer attention
to what is being said and helps them retain the information.
A second technique that helps the audience move from one point to
another is a moment of silence before you state your numbered transition.
A two- or three-second pause between the last word of your preceding
main point and your numbered transition serves as a welcome rest for
your audience, allowing them to digest what has been said.
 After you end your introduction or one of your main points in the body
of the speech, simply stop with a two- or three-second pause (one
thousand one, one thousand two, one thousand three), and then proceed
to your numbered transition. The use of pauses is a dramatic and visible
sign of speaker confidence. Using the two- or three-second pause gives you
time to breathe, focus, and relax. We should pause more in our daily lives,
too.

3.7 The Introduction

Once the body of the speech is completed, you can begin working on the
introduction. The introduction serves two primary functions. First, it
captures the attention of the audience with an attention getter. Second, it
previews the main points you will be presenting in the body of the speech.
The introduction should take no more than 10 to 15 percent of the total
speaking time.

The Attention Getter

The first objective of the introduction is to capture the attention of the

audience. This can be accomplished by any number of attention getters,
such as an audience question, an amusing anecdote, a startling statement,
a startling statistic, a hypothetical situation, a quotation, or a joke. No
matter which attention getter you choose, it should relate directly to the
topic you will be presenting, and it should appropriately match the overall
tone of your speech. You wouldn’t want to begin a serious speech with a
joke, nor would you start a humorous speech with a sad anecdote. Let’s
take a look at an example of types of attention getters.

As long as you can start, you’ll be all right. The juice will come.
—ERNEST HEMINGWAY

Audience question. “How many of you have ever danced with a

 brown bear, ridden side-saddle on a horse, or jumped through a
burning hoop? Well, I have. And today, I’d like to speak about my
career in the circus.”

Amusing anecdote. “Two monks were walking toward a stream

when they were approached by a beautiful woman. She asked if they
could help her cross the swiftly moving water. The older monk
agreed to help. He then carried the woman across the stream in his
arms and let her go on the other side.
“As the two monks continued their journey for some time, the
younger monk turned and asked the older monk, ‘Why did you carry
that woman across the stream? You know our vows don’t permit us
to touch women.’
“‘I carried the woman across the river, that is true,’ replied the
older monk. ‘But I let her go when we got to the other side. It seems
that you are still carrying her.’ Today, I am going to talk about letting
go of past hurts.”
Startling statement. “More individuals are murdered by people they
know than by complete strangers. Although this may seem
unbelievable, this statement is nonetheless true. Today, I am going
to talk about murder in the United States.”
Startling statistic. “In 1998, teachers in Japan ranked in the top 15
percent of all wage earners in that island nation. Today, I’d like to
talk about the salaries of teachers in the United
States.”Hypothetical situation. “Imagine yourself sitting on a
warm, sandy beach in Hawaii. You can see the deep blue sea
stretching out to the horizon. You can hear the waves in the distance,
and the smell of the late-afternoon ocean breeze surrounds you. A
relaxed, wonderful feeling engulfs you. Stay there for a moment.
Today, I’d like to share with you some highlights of my last trip to
Hawaii.”
Quotation. “Psychotherapist Heinz Kohut once said, ‘The ability to
soothe your own soul in the face of adversity is the most powerful
skill you can develop in your lifetime.’ Today, I’d like to speak about
the benefits of positive self-talk.”
Joke. “One of my problems is that I internalize everything. I can’t
express my anger, so I grow a tumor instead. Well, maybe I’m
 stretching the truth a bit, but I do have difficulty expressing anger.
Today, I want to talk about the hazards of not expressing your
anger.”

There are many other attention getters you might consider as you
construct your introduction. Other methods include referring to the
occasion, referring to the previous speaker, building up suspense, using a
visual aid, establishing common ground with the audience, pointing to a
historical event, complimenting the audience, and stressing the
importance of the speech topic. Remember that whatever attention getter
you decide on, it should relate directly to the topic, and it should
appropriately match the overall tone of the speech. Keep your attention
getters relatively short because the entire introduction should be only 10 to
15 percent of your total speaking time.

Preview of Main Points

After you have given your attention getter, you should pause for one or two
seconds and then present your preview of main points. The purpose of the
preview of main points is to give your audience a foreshadowing of what’s
to follow. It prepares their minds to receive the points you will be speaking
about. The preview of points should be only one sentence in length. A
common mistake is to say too much in the preview, almost giving a mini-
speech for each point previewed. Keep it brief and to the point—only one
sentence. Here are some examples of acceptable previews of main points:

“The three steps to making cookies are gathering your materials,

preparing your ingredients, and, finally, baking the cookies.”
“The three parts of the guitar are the head, neck, and body.”
“Running can improve your physical stamina, reduce psychological
stress, and increase your spiritual awareness.”
“The three components of a healthy relationship are caring,
communication, and companionship.”

After you’ve given the preview of main points, pause for one or two
seconds before you state your first numbered transition. This pause will
give your audience time to digest the preview of points.
3.8 The Conclusion

After you have finished your final point in the body of the speech, it is
important to have a two- or three-second pause before you begin your
conclusion. Actually say to yourself silently, “One thousand one, one
thousand two, one thousand three,” before you start your conclusion. This
brief pause will let your audience know that you will be ending shortly.
The first words out of your mouth during the conclusion will be your
summary of main points. Please do not say, “In conclusion …,” or “I guess
it’s time for me to quit,” or “Well, I’d better end now.” Those transitions
into the conclusion are unnecessary and awkward.
Your conclusion should summarize your main points in one sentence
and leave your audience with a final thought. The conclusion should
require only 5 to 10 percent of your total speaking time. In a five-minute
speech, that’s approximately 15 to 30 seconds. That might not sound like a
great deal of time, but it will be sufficient to recap your points and provide
the audience with a closing thought.

Summary of Main Points

The summary of main points should be a one-sentence review of the three

or four points you made in your speech. One simple sentence will do.
Nothing more. Here are some examples of main-point summaries:

“Today, I’ve shared the three steps to making cookies: gathering your
materials, preparing your ingredients, and, finally, baking the
cookies.”
“In my talk this morning, I described the head, the neck, and the body
of the guitar.”
“So remember, running can improve physical stamina, reduce
psychological stress, and increase spiritual awareness.”
“Today, I spoke about the three components of a healthy relationship,
which are caring, communication, and companionship.”

Final Thought or Appeal

After you have summarized your points, it’s best to leave your audience
with one final thought. This thought can be a return to your attention
getter, an appeal, a quotation, a vision for the future, or a call to action.
The final thought shouldn’t be very long. Present a concise and focused
thought for your audience to remember. This is not the time to begin
another main point. Here are some examples of the various methods:

Return to attention getter. “Like the young man in my opening

story who wanted to know the secret of living a long life, I hope you
will examine your life and attempt to reduce the stresses in it.”
Appeal. “As we have seen, drug use among our teenagers is at a record
high, and many of us adults have been denying its existence. Our
denial will not rid us of the drugs. Our denial will not put the drug
dealers in prison. Our denial will not save our children’s lives. It’s
time that we opened our eyes and began thinking about the horrors
of teenage drug use.”
Quotation. “John Steinbeck once observed, ‘A marriage is like a
journey. The certain way to be wrong is to think you control it.’ I
hope that you will relax a little more in your marriage or in your
relationships in the future and follow the guidelines I’ve outlined
this morning on how to give your spouse more personal space.”

The secrets to successful speaking are to be organized, be brief,

and then be seated.
—NORMAN THOMAS

Vision for the future. “I see a future for our club with 1,000
members, not just 28. I see a future in which our club will donate
thousands of dollars to local charities, not just $200. Our club will
be a place for all women of Oakland to meet, build lasting
friendships, and, most important, give something back to the
community that provided us with our beginning. Do you see this
vision also?”
Call to action. “The election is two weeks away. If you share my
beliefs for a strong America, if you share my desire for a prosperous
 America, if you share my dream for a free America, I ask you to
invest in the future of our great land. I ask you to contribute just
$100 to my campaign fund this very morning. My assistants will be
distributing the contribution forms to you in a few moments.”

Don’t feel limited to these final-thought devices. You can use a

combination of two of them or make up your own final statement format.
Remember to keep the final thought short and to the point, however. Don’t
ramble. Your final thought for a five-minute speech shouldn’t be longer
than 30 seconds.
Once you have completed your final thought, smile and pause for two or
three seconds and then walk back to your seat. If you are permitted a
question-and-answer period, remain at the podium and wait for the
applause to end. Once the applause has ceased, pause a second or two, and
then request questions from your audience. In either case, the pauses are
very important. It shows your audience that you are in control.

3.9 Constructing Your Speech Outline

Now that we have introduced the various components of the introduction,

body, and conclusion, we need to spend a few moments reviewing some
guidelines for writing a speech outline. Although some professional
speakers do not use any outline in the preparation of their talks, they are
few in number. The majority of speakers, both beginning and professional,
use some form of outlining to help them plan and test their speech ahead
of time. The outline is your most important tool in constructing a well-
developed and easy-to-follow speech.
The speech outline is a short, complete-sentence model of your speech.
From this outline, you can test the organization, logic, and development of
your entire speech. The total number of words in your outline shouldn’t
exceed 30 percent of the actual number of spoken words in your speech.

The wisdom of life consists in the elimination of nonessentials.

—LIN YUTANG
 Here are some guidelines that will assist you in your construction of a
speech outline:

Use a standard set of symbols. As you organize the body of your

speech, use a standard set of symbols. The main points of the speech
will be divided by roman numerals (I, II, III), subpoints will be
designated by capital letters (A, B, C), and minor headings will be
designated by Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3).
Use complete-sentence structure for major headings.
Complete-sentence structure for your major headings will help test
the logic and development of your speech structure. Although you
can use a keyword outline note card when you deliver your speech, a
full-sentence outline will permit an analysis of your main- and sub-
point structure.Each main point should reinforce or clarify
your specific purpose statement. This is one of the most
important tests of your speech outline. Does each main point
actually develop your specific purpose statement by reinforcing or
clarifying it? If a main point does not, it should not be included in
your speech.
Each main point and subpoint should contain only one idea.
If a main point or subpoint contains more than a single thought or
idea, it will confuse you and your audience. The logic of your speech
structure is weakened when you present multiple ideas in a main
point or subpoint. If you see an “and” in one of your main-point or
subpoint headings, you will need to decide on one of the two ideas to
present, or you can split them into two headings if it’s appropriate,
for example:

I. The second advantage that jogging offers is that it increases

your physical endurance and your psychological well-being.
(Incorrect—Notice the “and” in the sentence? Let’s change
it.)
II. The second advantage that jogging offers is that it increases
your physical endurance.
III. The third advantage that jogging offers is that it increases
your sense of psychological well-being.

Subpoints should support main points. Check to make sure that

 not only do your main points support your specific purpose
statement, but your subpoints support your main points as well. This
is called subordination of points. Each subpoint should be directly
related to the main point it falls under. If not, it needs to go, for
example:

I. The second floor of City Hall houses the city officials.

A. The mayor is located in the west wing of the second

floor.
B. The city manager is located next to the mayor.
C. The city records are located on the third floor.
(Point C does not relate directly to the main point. It
needs to be placed under another main-point heading
that deals with the third floor.)

Limit your main points to a maximum of four. Don’t

overburden your audience with too many main points. The average
listener cannot remember more than three or four main points,
regardless of the length of the speech. Three main points are usually
best for any speech.
Write the introduction and conclusion word for word.
Because the introduction is so important in capturing the attention
of the audience and the conclusion needs to bring your speech to a
concise ending, there is little room for ad-libbing or impromptu
speaking. Therefore, your introduction and conclusion should be
written out verbatim in the outline.
Limit the outline to 30 percent of the total speech wording.
The entire number of words in your outline, introduction, and
conclusion should not exceed 30 percent of your total speaking
words. More than 30 percent will make your outline resemble a
manuscript speech, and your final presentation will run the risk of
having a manuscript or memorized delivery style.

Later in this chapter, you will find a sample outline of a tribute speech.
Notice the various components of the speech—the specific purpose,
introduction, body, conclusion, and reference list.
3.10 Speaking Notes

When you’re delivering your speech, you might feel more confident having
a few notes up at the podium. If you do, here are some guidelines for
constructing and using your speaking notes.

Use Note Cards

Use either three-by-five- or four-by-six-inch index cards when

constructing your speaking notes. Don’t use regular-size paper, because
the size is more obvious and papers tend to make noise when handled.
Index cards are easier to manage and won’t fly off the podium if a breeze
comes up. Number your note cards on the upper right-hand corner so you
can quickly place them in the correct order if they get mixed up.

Use Key Words and Phrases

Your speaking note cards should contain only key words and phrases.
Unlike your formal outline, you don’t need complete sentences in your
speaking notes. Instead of writing your entire introductory attention getter
word for word, you can simply write, “Story about monks.” Your preview of
points can be a list of three words rather than the entire sentence. Instead
of writing out each main-point transition in the body of the speech, you
can simply write, “I. Workshops,” or, “II. Career.” In the same way, each of
your subpoints can also be represented by one or two key words. The
review of points in the conclusion can be listed once again as three or four
words, and your final thought might be shortened to a couple of words or a
phrase.
The purpose of the key-word approach is simply to jar your memory so
you can quickly recall the main points of your presentation without all the
details of your formal outline. You can also use your note cards to list the
essential information of any evidence you’ll be presenting. For instance,
you need only list the documentation and the actual statistic or expert
testimony you will present. Your note card can also indicate when you will
be presenting any visual aids in your speech.
Use Delivery Reminders

In addition to displaying key words and phrases, your note cards can also
remind you to pause, speak louder or softer, look at the audience, and a
variety of other delivery guidelines. You can make “//” notations to pause
before important points or simply write “PAUSE” in red ink. You might
want to use “<” to remind yourself to speak louder or “>” to speak softer at
certain points in your speech. Or you can write out the words “LOUDER”
and “SOFTER” on your note card. It’s usually a good idea to remind
yourself to “LOOK AT YOUR AUDIENCE” or “REMEMBER EYE
CONTACT” every once in a while on your speaking note cards. Some
speakers simply draw two eyes in red ink occasionally on their cards to
remind them to look at their audience.

Use Note Cards Sparingly

Remember, you’re not trying to get a manuscript speech or a formal

outline on these speaking note cards—just key words and phrases. One to
three words for every 15 seconds of speaking time is a good rule of thumb.
So for a five-minute speech, 20 to 60 key words at most ought to do it.

SAMPLE TRIBUTE SPEECH OUTLINE

A TRIBUTE TO GEORGE MC CLENDON

Specific Purpose: To pay tribute to George McClendon.

Introduction

Have you ever spent a weekend with a Trappist monk who runs
marathons? Well, I have! Today, I’d like to tell you about a man who
influenced my life in a significant way. His name is George
McClendon. George is a practicing Gestalt therapist in Watsonville,
and I met him two summers ago when I was enrolled in one of his UC
Extension courses. I’d like to tell you about his wonderful relationship
workshops, his 20-year career as a Trappist monk, and his marathon
running.

Body

I. The first thing I want to share with you is that George

McClendon teaches excellent relationship workshops.

A. His weekend relationship workshops for counselors

emphasize a Gestalt approach to systems theory.
B. George conducts his workshops with wisdom and
empathy.

II. The second thing I want to share is George’s 20-year career as

a Trappist monk.

A. George spent 20 years in an Oklahoma Trappist

monastery.
B. He helped build the monastery from the foundation to
the roof.

III. The final thing I want to tell you about is George’s newfound
interest in marathon running.

A. At age 53, he began jogging as a part-time hobby.

B. Six months later, he completed the Big Sur Marathon.
C. Randy Fujishin, in Gifts from the Heart, reminds us
that “We need to encourage our loved ones to grow—to
follow their dreams.”

Conclusion

Today, I’ve talked about George McClendon’s relationship workshops,

his life as a monk, and his marathon running. He is truly an inspiring
individual who has taught me to appreciate life and dream big
dreams. I hope you get a chance to meet him.

Reference
Fujishin, R. 2018. Gifts from the Heart. Lanham, MD: Rowman &
Littlefield.

Use Note Cards Openly

When referring to your note cards, don’t try to hide them or glance away
from your audience when referring to them. Be open about your use of the
cards. Just don’t rely on them too much. Simply place your cards on the
podium in chronological order from left to right and glance down at them
when you need to. That’s all. They’re in place if you need them, but they
shouldn’t prevent good eye contact and directness with your audience.

SAMPLE CORRESPONDING KEY-WORD

OUTLINE

Introduction

Weekend with monk? George. Workshops, career, running

Body

I. Workshops
Gestalt approach
Wisdom, empathy

II. Career
Trappist monk
Built monastery

III. Running
Marathons at 53
Big Sur Marathon
(Fujishin reference)

Conclusion

Workshops, career, running

Hope meet George

COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES

PERSONAL ACTIVITIES

1. Simplifying your life

Make a list of all the duties, responsibilities, and chores you
have to complete in the next week. Write down everything—
from going to that job interview to feeding the cats. Your list
should be substantial. Now, circle the three tasks that are the
most important—if you couldn’t do any of the others, these are
the top three you would need to complete. Now, underline the
next three most important tasks. Don’t cheat, only three of
them! Cross out the remaining tasks. That’s right; you have
only six tasks you can do. The rest will go uncompleted, at least
for the week. How would your life change if you could do only
these six things? How do you feel? What would your week be
like? On the day you die, you will leave 100 things undone.

2. Soothing the many sides of you

Get a piece of typing paper (or any 8.5-by-11-inch paper) and
fold it into thirds. Label the first column “BODY,” the middle
column “MIND,” and the third column “SPIRIT.” For each
column, take a few minutes to brainstorm a list of activities
that you enjoy or find rewarding. For example, for “BODY” you
might include bathing, eating, playing in the sand, flossing,
stretching, and skipping pebbles on water. Do this for each
column. Look at your lists. How does each feel? Have you done
any of these activities lately? If not, which ones could you do
today?

3. Organizing your life’s priorities

One of the most valuable life skills you can develop is your
ability to distinguish between what is important to you and
what is not. On a piece of paper, list 20 things you would like
to accomplish this year. Then rate each item using the
 following scale: 1 = Vital, do immediately; 2 = Essential, do in
the next week; 3 = Important, do in the next month; 4 =
Nonessential, do in the next year; and 5 = Disregard, eliminate
from the list. Limit your ratings to four of each of the five
rankings—in other words, only four 1s, four 2s, and so on. This
will force you to decide what is important and what is not.
How did this exercise go for you? What did you learn about
organizing your life by using priority rankings?

4. Organize your life

Go online and research the topic, “ways to organize your life.”
What kinds of content did you find in your search? Were there
any articles, websites, blogs, or apps that piqued your interest?
How might you better organize your life, both short and long
term? How would a more organized life benefit you physically,
psychologically, and emotionally? How might it affect the ways
you communicate with others?

CLASS ACTIVITIES

1. Group discussion: five words or less

Divide the class into groups of five or six. Each group is to
discuss for ten minutes some aspect of communication
suggested by the instructor. Students are free to express their
thoughts and feelings, except no one is permitted to use more
than five words during any given opportunity to address the
group—no more than five words at a time. It’s helpful in this
exercise to count each of your five words on your fingers. This
will give you a good feel for each word that comes out of your
mouth. How does this way of talking feel to you? How do the
other group members feel? Did you notice any communication
interaction changes because of this limit? This may be the first
time you have ever valued the currency of your language.
Remember, “the more you say, the less you say, and the less
you say, the more you say.” Be prepared to discuss your
reactions to this activity with the rest of the class.

2. Three highlights of your life speech

 Construct a formal outline detailing the speech topic (specific
purpose), “To inform the audience of the three highlights of
my life.” Remember to include supporting material in the
subpoints of the speech. Prepare, practice, and present a three-
to five-minute informative speech. Your speech should contain
an introduction, body, and conclusion.

3. The three sides of “me” speech

Prepare, practice, and present a three- to five-minute speech
about interesting aspects of your physical, intellectual, and
spiritual self. Review Personal Activity 2 in this chapter to get
some ideas on how to develop your points. Your speech should
contain an introduction, body, and conclusion.

Selecting Your Topic

Choosing Your Path

DOI: 10.4324/9781003162933-4

The basic considerations of your speech topic:

Select a topic you consider relevant and interesting

Brainstorm speech topics
Determine your speaking purpose
Identify two elements of your specific purpose
Explain the process of selecting your main points
List four areas of audience analysis
Explain intercultural sensitivity
 Discuss methods for gathering information about your audience
Construct a speaker request form

brainstorm
brainstorming
specific purpose
speaking purpose
speaker request form
interest
knowledge
attitude
demographics
ethnocentrism
individualistic vs collective communication style
high context vs low context communication style
competitive vs cooperative communication style

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the

following:

4.1 Explain the concept that it’s your choice

4.2 Explain brainstorming topics
4.3 Discuss determining your speaking purpose
4.4 Identify the two elements of your specific purpose
4.5 Explain selecting your main points
4.6 Summarize the four areas of analyzing your audience
4.7 Explain intercultural sensitivity
4.8 List ways to gather information about your audience
4.9 Construct a speaker request form

Tyler waited for the last student to leave the classroom before he
approached his teacher.
“How can I help you, Tyler?” The professor smiled.
“Well, I can’t think of a topic for my speech. I mean, there’re so many
possible topics, and yet I can’t seem to think of a good one.”
 “A little overwhelmed?” asked the teacher.
“I guess so.”
“Give me one topic you’ve been considering.”
“I could talk about Hamlet since I wrote a paper on that play last
semester,” Tyler stated happily. “Then I wouldn’t have to do any research.”
“You could.” The teacher nodded. “But convenience doesn’t always
provide you with the best selection.”
“What do you mean?”
“There are times in life when you need to choose with your heart—to go
beyond what is convenient, easy, or even logical,” suggested the professor.
“What moves your heart, Tyler? What makes you mad, glad, or even sad?”
“People who run red lights make me mad. And dads who leave their
families and don’t try to stay in touch with their kids make me sad.”
“I see,” said the teacher. “How about glad? What makes you joyous?”
“Well, I love going out for coffee with friends. I really enjoy my
advertising and marketing class. And I love playing my guitar.” After a long
pause, Tyler added, “I guess I’m most happy when I’m helping Pastor
Steve with the Junior High Youth Group.”
“Congratulations! Now you’ve got some topics worth speaking about—
topics that move your heart,” said the teacher. “And when you deliver a
speech with heart, it makes all the difference in the world.”
“A speech with heart.” Tyler smiled as he left the classroom.
The professor thought back to his first speech in college as he put papers
into his briefcase and whispered, “And a speech with heart can even lead to
a profession with heart.”

4.1 It’s Your Choice

Whether your speech is for a public speaking class, a sales presentation, an

awards dinner, or a retirement roast, you will rarely be assigned a specific
speech topic. It is more likely that you will be given a great deal of freedom
and latitude in your selection of a topic.
On the surface, this may sound desirable. But it often presents the
beginning speaker with one of the most challenging tasks in the public
speaking process—the sole responsibility to choose, from the hundreds of
thousands of possible subjects, one topic to speak on.
 Sound easy? Maybe not. Many experienced speakers report this is the
most difficult part of speech making—simply choosing something to talk
about. Individuals experiencing difficulty at this point complain there are
either too many topics or not enough. But no matter which of these two
predicaments they find themselves in, they do not choose a topic.
That is where the trouble begins.
We’re not going to examine the many possible psychological and
emotional reasons individuals have difficulty deciding on speech topics, or
anything else for that matter. It is apparent that indecision, and the
immobility that follows, hampers many of us in our daily lives. Should I
marry or not? Should I date this person or not? Should I leave the job or
not? Should I stay in school or not? And the list goes on and on.
Indecision is something we must contend with in our daily lives, as well
as in the speech-making process. But remember that indecision is a
decision in and of itself—the decision not to decide. And that’s okay. Many
people spend a great deal of their lives not deciding.
But that will not work for your public speaking life. You must decide on
a specific topic before you can begin preparing for your talk, so select a
topic that you feel strongly about—a topic with heart. In this chapter, we
examine the five steps involved in selecting your topic and choosing the
main points for your speech. The five steps are (1) brainstorming possible
topics, (2) determining your speaking purpose, (3) determining your
specific purpose, (4) selecting your main points, and (5) analyzing your
audience.

Give the world the best you have and the best will come back to you.
—MADELINE BRIDGES

4.2 Brainstorming Possible Topics

The first step is to brainstorm possible topics. The primary purpose of

brainstorming is to generate a large number of ideas without evaluation.
In other words, the goal is to not judge your ideas as you write them down
for consideration but simply to come up with as many ideas as possible.
This technique may feel strange initially because much of our daily energy
is spent evaluating and judging the rightness and wrongness, the goodness
and badness, the effectiveness and ineffectiveness of just about everything
we experience.
The first task in brainstorming is to get away to a quiet place that is free
from distractions and interruptions. You don’t want friends talking, the
telephone ringing, or the dog barking as you generate your list of ideas for
the speech topic. Once you’ve found a quiet, private place to work—such as
your office, kitchen, or dining room—get a pad of paper, a pen or pencil,
and a kitchen cooking timer.
Set the timer for ten minutes. The reason you need a timer is to focus
your efforts for a specific period of time. Remember, “work expands to fill
the time allotted,” so if you’re given three weeks to decide on a speech
topic, you’ll generally take the entire three weeks. Once the clock is set for
ten minutes, get comfortable with your pencil and pad and perhaps a cup
of coffee or tea, and you’re set.
The second task in brainstorming is to get crazy and write down
anything that comes to your mind as a possible speech topic. Most people
can think of one or two topics when faced with a blank sheet of paper, but
get really crazy and write down any idea that comes to mind.

Imagination is more important than knowledge.

—ALBERT EINSTEIN

The most important requirement of this technique is to free yourself

from self-evaluation or criticism. What will restrict and hinder you the
most in selecting a speech topic is your negative response to your own
suggestions and ideas. You need to give yourself permission to get a little
loose and generate ideas, any ideas, no matter how wild or crazy. Let your
handwriting get crazy, too. Throw out all the restrictions you normally
impose on yourself. As you get crazy during this second step of the
brainstorming process, keep in mind the following four suggestions:

1. Don’t evaluate or judge any of your ideas.

 2. Quantity of ideas is desired, not quality.
3. The wilder the ideas, the better.
4. Combine ideas to create new ones.

To give you a picture of what this process might produce, let’s pretend that
Yari has to speak on the topic of “public speaking.” Let’s see how many
brainstorming topics she can generate in ten minutes. Yari grabs a pencil
and takes a sip of coffee, and she’s off and running.

Fear notes
Being a president
Immigrants to America
Advantages of public speaking
Uses of public speaking training podiums
Training for public speaking
Talk show host
African-Americans in television
Making money speaking
Being a teacher

Learning to think logically

Being persuasive
Ways public speaking can help me grow personally
Being a tour guide
Hip-hop music
Speech contests

Speaking as a lawyer
Public speaking professions
Being a speech coach for the movies Being on radio
Tiger Woods
Being confident

Having people think I’m smart

Stage fright
Telling stories to others
Being funny
Getting a job as a sports announcer
 Going into advertising
Giving speeches for the church
Teaching people to not be afraid of audiences Middle East conflicts

Being a speech tutor

Sharing my feelings with others

Selling cars
Ways public speaking can improve my interaction with others

Buzz! The ten-minute alarm just went off. Pencil down, Yari. Good job!
Now finish off that cup of coffee while we count your brainstorming topics.
There are 37. A pretty productive brainstorming session. And who says
there’s nothing to talk about with the topic “public speaking”?
Now, you might have cheered for some of the items on her list and
sneered at others, but that’s your evaluating mind in action. And the first
rule of brainstorming is for you not to evaluate any of the ideas or
suggestions during this brainstorming process. Once you get the hang of
not judging, the process really takes off.
After you’ve generated a long list of possible topics, you’re set for the
selection stage. Your task is to select one topic from the list of topics. You
might want to take some time, a few hours to a couple of days, between
your brainstorming session and the selection step. Your brain may need a
rest after that ten-minute brainstorming session, and it’s good to leave the
list for a while, just to give your unconscious time to mull it over.
After you feel rested, it’s time to examine your list of possible topics and
select the one that you’d like to speak about. As you look over your list,
cross out the topics that you’re not interested in or that might not be of
interest to your particular audience. If possible, select topics you have
previous experience with or knowledge of. Also, select topics you would
enjoy researching.
Now Yari is set to begin this part of her task—eliminating the weak,
flimsy, or unsound topics from her list. As she looks over the list, she
eliminates the vast majority of brainstorming possibilities because she
isn’t interested in them or she doesn’t possess a great deal of previous
experience or knowledge of them. Yari finally selects three topics she finds
interesting and is willing to spend time researching. The topics are “Being
a speech coach for the movies,” “Ways public speaking can help me grow
personally,” and “Uses of public speaking training.”
After a day or two, she finally decides on “Uses of public speaking
training” as her speech topic. That’s a topic of interest to her and of
possible interest to her audience (college students in the beginning speech
class).
We finally have a topic for the speech. We are now in a position to
determine our speaking purpose, the second step in the process.

4.3 Determining Your Speaking Purpose

Once you’ve determined the topic of your speech, you must decide what
effect you want to have on the audience. It’s important that you decide on
that effect because it will determine how you phrase your specific purpose
statement and the selection of your main points.
As you will recall, the three purposes of speaking are to inform,
persuade, and entertain. Although a speech may contain a little of each
category, you will need to decide which primary effect your talk will have
on the listeners. Will it be to inform? Persuade? Or entertain?

Nothing is particularly hard if you divide it into small jobs.

—HENRY FORD

For the topic we’ve chosen, “Uses of public speaking training,” we could
choose any one of the three primary purposes for speaking. We could
inform the audience about the uses of public speaking training. We could
attempt to per suade our audience that public speaking does have many
practical uses. Or we could entertain the audience by sharing humorous
uses of public speaking training.
Yari chooses to inform her audience about the uses of public speaking
training. She doesn’t want to persuade her audience or entertain them.
Her speaking purpose is to inform. Now she’s ready to go to step 3.
4.4 Determining Your Specific Purpose

Now that you’ve decided on your speaking purpose, you must determine
your specific purpose. The specific purpose states exactly (1) what you
want to do with your audience and (2) what you want to tell them. For
instance, the specific purpose “To persuade my audience to get annual
physical examinations” specifies both goals. First, it states what you want
to do with the audience—“to persuade.” And second, it states what you
want to tell them—“to get annual physical examinations.” Notice that the
specific purpose is stated in the infinitive form of a verb (to …), so it clearly
stipulates which of the three speaking purposes it is setting out to
accomplish.
Here are some examples of specific purpose statements under their
respective headings.

Speaking To inform.
Purpose
Specific Purpose To demonstrate how to change a flat tire.
To report the results of a recent survey.
To explain the art of flower arranging.
Speaking To persuade.
Purpose
Specific Purpose To motivate my audience to jog a mile a day.
To convince my audience to buy life insurance.
To increase my audience’s willingness to vote.
Speaking To entertain.
Purpose
Specific Purpose To amuse my audience by explaining how to pig
out.
To amaze my audience with a demonstration of
magic.

Let’s return to Yari’s speech topic—“Uses of public speaking training”—and

put it into a specific purpose statement. Because she wants to inform her
audience, Yari needs to state her specific purpose using the infinitive. The
specific purpose becomes the following:
 “To inform the audience about the uses of public speaking training.”

In the first part of the specific purpose, she specifies what it is she wants to
do with the audience— “To inform the audience.” In the second part of the
specific purpose, she specifies what she wants them to know—“about the
uses of public speaking training.” After we have selected the main points
of a speech, we will reword this second section of the specific purpose to
reflect the actual main points we will use in the speech.

4.5 Selecting Your Main Points

Now that you have your specific purpose, you need to begin brainstorming
possible main points for the body of the speech. The main points are those
two or three supporting thoughts or ideas you wish to present in the body
of the talk. These main points make up the skeleton or structure of the
speech body and provide the direction the speech will take.
A common mistake beginning speakers make at this point of the process
is settling for the first two or three main points that come to mind. They
don’t think of any other main points. They stop the process right there and
call it quits.
This is a mistake. Your first thoughts are not always your best, and this
method of selecting main points runs the risk of missing better main-point
possibilities that would surface only after you’ve researched the speech
topic sufficiently. It is only after you have spent considerable time and
effort researching your subject that the main points of your speech begin
to appear. From this collection of researched information, you will begin to
brainstorm the main points of your speech. The process of researching
your speech topic will be covered fully in the next chapter.

Brainstorming Main Points

After researching your topic, the brainstorming technique you just learned
can be extremely helpful. Instead of brainstorming possible speech topics,
use the same technique to generate possible main-point ideas for your
topic. Yari can begin the brainstorming process by using the specific
purpose she has selected: “To inform the audience about the uses of public
speaking training.”
With a second cup of coffee in hand, Yari has set the alarm for ten
minutes, and, once again, she begins the brainstorming process. But this
time, she’s generating main points from the material she’s gathered in her
research efforts.

Improves your speaking

Get to listen to speeches
Get to meet people in class
Satisfy the oral requirement for State College
My friend is in the class

Learn to speak up in my other classes

Become more skilled in my interpersonal interactions
Appear more attractive to the opposite sex
My parents will be proud of my speech
Improves self-image

Learn to relax when under pressure

Improves presentational skills
Improves my oral interpretation skills
Makes me a better salesperson Makes
me more persuasive

Maybe I’ll get a date

Learn about speaker credibility
Improves effectiveness in business
My friends will want to have me teach them skills
Be more effective in beating traffic tickets

Get a summer job

Income will go up in the years to come
People will like me
My grades will improve
My boss will like me

Makes me more pleasant

Learn to think more quickly

Buzz! That’s ten minutes. Yari puts the pencil down and takes a sip of
coffee. She generated 27 items or possible uses for learning public
speaking. Each item could serve as a main point that could support her
topic—“The uses of public speaking training.” Once again, some ideas are
better than others, but the goal in brainstorming is quantity, not quality.
The next step, as in the brainstorming process for topic selection, is to
examine the list and eliminate the weaker items on the basis of speaker
interest, previous knowledge and experience, and possible audience
interest in the main points.
After completing the elimination process, Yari ultimately decides on
“Improves presentational skills,” “Improves effectiveness in business,” and
“Improves self-image.” She finally arrives at the following tentative outline
for her speech:

Specific Purpose: To inform the audience about three uses of public

speaking training.

Main Points

Public speaking improves your presentational skills.

Public speaking helps you become more effective in business.
Public speaking improves your self-image.

The speech topic and main-point structure do not mysteriously appear.

Their creation takes some time and effort by you, the speaker. It involves
the commitment to sit down by yourself and brainstorm possible topics
and main points. It requires making decisions about the topic and main
points you are going to be working with as you research, outline, and
practice before you present your speech. Some people are not prepared or
willing to make this commitment, like the young man in the professor’s
office at the beginning of this chapter. The choice is always yours.

4.6 Analyzing Your Audience

There was a young man who desired to win the heart of a certain woman in
his neighborhood. He wanted to make a good first impression, so he
purchased a few gifts to make his introduction all the more impressive. He
went to the store and bought a case of onion-flavored chips, his favorite
food. He bought every CD ever recorded by Alan Jackson, his favorite
singer. Although he knew that most people purchase and download music
online, he wanted to impress her with music that she could hold and
handle. And finally, he went to the animal shelter and purchased two
young hound dogs, his favorite kind of dog.

Often the most creative people are also the most prepared.
—LEE IACOCCA

The young man was now ready to present these gifts to the woman and
ask her for a date. So he grabbed the case of onion-flavored chips, carefully
stacked the Alan Jackson CDs on the top of the case, and clutched the
leashes of the two barking dogs and wobbled down the street to her house.
As he knocked on the young woman’s front door, the dogs began
jumping on his chest, spilling the CDs off the case. As he reached for the
CDs, the case of chips fell to the ground, and the dogs began biting the case
and tearing into the bags of chips. When the young woman came to the
door holding her cat, the dogs began snarling at the cat, and the woman
screamed, “Get those horrible monsters off my steps! I hate dogs! And
what’s that horrible onion stench? I’m allergic to onions!”
As the young man tugged on the leashes, trying to get the barking dogs
off the porch, the woman yelled, “And take these wretched Alan Jackson
CDs with you—that man’s got no talent! Plus, I don’t even own a CD
player.”
“Does this mean you don’t want to go out with me?” shouted the young
man.
The woman slammed the door as hard as she could while her cat hissed
a final warning behind the window.
Now, you’re probably asking yourself: What does this story have to do
with public speaking? Or with anything, for that matter? Actually, plenty.
Like the young man in the story, we often view the world and others
through a self-centered perspective—what we think, what we feel, what we
like, what we want—rather than putting ourselves in the shoes of others. In
our lives, we will connect more effectively and more meaningfully when we
take the time to learn about and understand others.
This journey from self to others is a lifelong journey; it is a journey
toward maturity. Without this ability and willingness to see the world
through others’ eyes, we will be hampered in our attempts to understand
others, to connect with others, to establish lasting relationships, to get a
date, and even to give a speech.
Audience analysis is the process of trying to understand your audience
so that you can improve your communication with them. In other words,
you need to learn as much about your audience as you can so you can
adapt your speech in ways they will receive, understand, and appreciate.
No barking dogs, spilled CDs, crushed chips, or hissing cats for you!
It’s important to remember that without the audience, there is no
speech, and there is no speaker. The audience is the reason for the speech.
Too often, the beginning speaker isn’t even conscious of this fundamental
truth. He spends an inordinate amount of time and energy worrying about
how he will be perceived by the audience, without even once stopping to
consider exactly whom he will be talking to.

Talk about what interests your listeners and you’ll discover an

interested audience.
—DALE CARNEGIE

Analyzing your audience is essential to your entire speech process.

Without doing so, your chances of selecting, researching, and presenting
an interesting and captivating speech are severely limited. The process of
audience analysis should guide your inquiry and decisions regarding your
topic selection, the points you pick, the material you gather, and the
manner in which you present your content.
Therefore, the analysis should begin immediately as you select your
speech topic and main points. There are four areas of audience analysis
that you should examine as you select your topic and main points. They are
audience interest, knowledge, attitude, and demographics.

Audience Interest

Will the audience be interested in this topic? Ideally, you, as the speaker,
will be interested in the topic you are considering. But will your audience
be interested? It was once stated that “there are no uninteresting topics,
only uninterested listeners.” The topic of flower arrangements might be an
extremely boring topic to the folks at a BMW motorcycle convention but of
great interest to a convention of florists. However, the topic of motorcycle
valve adjustment techniques would most likely have every member of the
motorcycle convention hanging on the edge of her motorcycle seat,
whereas the florists would have long walked out of the auditorium.
It’s vital that you consciously shift your attention to your audience and
their interests and not stay stuck on what only interests you. One
definition of a bore is someone who can talk about things that interest only
him. So begin thinking in terms of the other person—the listener in your
audience. This emphasis on being sensitive to what others are interested in
is helpful in your personal life as well.

Audience Knowledge

The second area you need to examine as you analyze your audience is their
knowledge of the topic. After you’ve determined that your audience will be
interested in the specific topic you would like to speak about, you have to
determine the audience’s knowledge of that topic.
You don’t want to speak below their knowledge level of the topic. That
could bore and perhaps even insult your audience. If you spoke on the
topic of “basic oil painting strokes” to a group of experienced oil painters,
you might not only bore them, but you also run the risk of insulting them.
However, you don’t want to speak above their knowledge level either. To
speak on the topic of “the joys of advanced calculus” to a group of students
enrolled in beginning algebra would likely only confuse and frustrate
them, since they have no knowledge and experience in calculus.

Audience Attitude

The attitude of the audience is the third area of examination. What is the
attitude of the audience regarding your topic? Are they in favor? Are they
opposed? Or are they neutral in attitude? If they are neutral, how might
you present your material to arouse their interests? Or if they are hostile to
your topic, how might you neutralize or lessen their hostility? You may
even decide to eliminate the topic altogether if their attitude toward it is
hostile or unreceptive.

Audience Demographics

The final area of analysis is audience demographics. Will the audience be

male, female, or a mixture of both? What is the average age of the
audience? What is the age range? What are the occupational backgrounds
of the audience members? What is the educational background? Is their
income high, low, or average? Is there a group affiliation? Are the
members associated with a particular political, professional, or interest
group?
One of the most important demographic factors you need to consider is
the cultural backgrounds of your audience. No longer are the audiences of
the United States strictly Anglo-European; now, they are a mixture of
many cultural heritages. African American, Asian American, Mexican
American, Native American, and numerous other cultural backgrounds
populate the audiences you will be addressing now and in the years to
come.
Adopting and developing a spirit of cultural awareness and sensitivity is
necessary and desirable if you are to be an effective speaker. It is not the
intent of this book to describe the cultural differences of these various
groups, but there is, however, one specific area of audience demographics
that needs to be discussed in more detail here, and that’s intercultural
sensitivity. As the United States population becomes more diverse and as
the Internet shrinks our world, your attention should increasingly focus on
the possible cultural differences that might present themselves in your
audience. It is to that consideration that we turn our attention in this next
section.

4.7 Intercultural Sensitivity

Perhaps the most important advice in speaking to this global audience

would be to develop a sense of sensitivity and respect—an awareness of
and sensitivity to differences among people from diverse cultures and
respect for others who are unlike you. When speaking to an intercultural
audience, it is important for you to suspend judgment and prejudice and
speak to your audiences in an open, sensitive, and respectful manner.
All cultures teach their members the “right” or “preferred” way to
behave and respond to the world. These “preferred” ways are often labeled
“natural” and “appropriate,” and other ways of behaving and responding
are often viewed as “different,” “odd,” and even “inferior.” This belief that
one’s own culture is central and superior to all other cultures is called
ethnocentrism. It is the learned belief in cultural superiority.
Members of every culture believe that their concepts, behaviors, and
artifacts are the “correct” and “natural” ones, and other cultures are
different, odd, and often inferior. The degree that we, as public speakers,
are ethnocentric is the degree to which we risk being ineffective,
insensitive, and even insulting to individuals in our audience from
different cultural backgrounds. To increase our awareness and sensitivity,
we will examine three intercultural dimensions—individual vs collective,
low context vs high context, and competitive vs cooperative.
Perhaps the most significant and deep-seated value that separates one
culture from another is the individual vs collective dimension—the degree
to which the individual or the group is perceived and regarded as being
most important. In an individualistic culture, the individual is regarded as
being of the greatest value. The United States, Australia, England,
Germany, and Canada are countries that value the individual over the
collective.
On the other hand, a collectivist culture views commitment to the group
as the most important value. In a collectivist culture, the theme is “we,”
not “me.” The emphasis is placed on the group, whether it’s the family, the
community, or the nation, not the individual. In fact, the individual is
expected and encouraged to use his talents for the good of the group and
not for the good of the self. Self-expression, self-promotion, and self-
actualization are often perceived as selfish and even disloyal to the group.
Perhaps as much as 70 percent of the world’s population lives in
collectivist cultures, such as China, India, Japan, Latin America, Africa,
Indonesia, and Taiwan.
The second dimension that cultures can differ is in their communication
styles—low-context vs high-context cultures. Individualistic cultures, such
as the United States and England, use what is called a low-context
communication style. A low-context communication style is message
content oriented, in which the listener is assumed to know very little and it
is the speaker’s responsibility to tell the listener everything. Words are
very important. Verbal communication is very direct, precise, explicit, and
literal. The nonverbal aspects of the context or setting of the
communication act are not regarded as important, whereas the words are
viewed as supremely important.
On the other hand, the high-context communication style has a message
context orientation. The cultural context or setting of the communication
act is important. Verbal communication is indirect, subtle, implicit, and
figurative. Silence can be perceived as the preferred behavior rather than
talking endlessly. In a high-context communication style, you are expected
to understand the implicit rules and the unspoken rituals of the culture.
You are expected to “read between the lines” and understand what the
speaker is intending to communicate without being told or instructed in
explicit detail.
The third dimension of culture is that of competition vs cooperation. A
competitive culture values individual competition and victory. In an
individualistic culture like the United States, winning is prized above all
else. We are taught that winning is good and losing is bad. And it is
competition that separates the two. If we don’t win the competition and
finish at the top, there’s something wrong with us. This winning attitude
can be seen in people wanting to present arguments, debate others, win
arguments, and get in the last word of a discussion. The United States is
one of the most competitive nations on earth.
A collective culture values cooperation among its members. Collectivist
cultures are far more cooperative than individualistic cultures,
emphasizing working together rather than competing with one another. In
Asian, Latin American, and Native American cultures, cooperation among
individuals is expected and encouraged. The individual cooperates with
others to help the group realize its goals. Children help the family, relatives
support one another, workers pitch in to assist co-workers, and even
strangers are more inclined to lend a helping hand to those in need. The
family is more highly valued than any one individual within the family, and
this value permeates all social interaction within that culture.
As you become more aware of these three cultural dimension
differences, they will hopefully remind you to be more sensitive to and
respectful of your global audience members. Here are some suggestions
that will provide you with a more inclusive and respectful approach to
delivering speeches to your intercultural audiences in the future.

Dress up. As the speaker, you should dress up for your speaking
occasion. Dress for the specific speaking occasion. A helpful
guideline is for you, the speaker, to be the best-dressed person in the
room. Audience members from high-context cultures will most likely
perceive your more formal attire as showing respect for the occasion
and for them as audience members. Dress up a notch or two. You
can always slip back into your lounging or hiking clothes after your
speech has been delivered.
Speak slowly. Let the audience follow your speech without having to
feel rushed or left behind. Your normal speaking rate in your native
language might be incomprehensible to a non-native speaker.
Enunciate your words clearly. Pronounce your words clearly,
without a regional accent. Try not to slur your words. Don’t mumble.
Avoid decreasing your speaking volume at the ends of phrases or
sentences. And establish eye contact with your audience so they can
see your mouth and face as you speak. This will help your non-native
speakers follow you more effectively.
Avoid slang, jargon, and obscenity. Diverse audiences may not
understand or appreciate slang or jargon from a given country.
English phrases such as “cool your jets” or “she’s a babe” might be
easily understood by you the speaker but could be sources of
confusion to a segment of your audience. And don’t use obscenities
of any kind. They can offend many of your audience members, both
non-native and native speakers.
Use metaphors carefully. Many metaphors that are appropriate in
one culture might be offensive in another culture. A sports metaphor
in one country might not refer to a sport that is played or popular in
another country, and phrases or sayings that are humorous in one
culture might be offensive in another culture. If you must use a
metaphor, be careful that it will be understood and not offensive to
other audience members of other cultures.
Be mindful of your nonverbal behavior. Posture, gestures, and
eye contact communicate significant amounts of information, and
what is acceptable and taken for granted in one culture might be
 offensive in another culture. Use moderate gestures, mannerisms,
and posturing when you’re speaking. Look at the audience in
general, but avoid staring at individual audience members for more
than a brief glance. Moderation in all nonverbal behavior is an
effective guide when addressing a global audience.
Use “we” instead of “me.” Pay attention that you don’t place an
overemphasis on yourself when you speak—your beliefs,
experiences, and desires. Rather than representing our American
individualism, think in terms of the collective and what would be the
best for the greatest number of people in your audience. This
sensitivity to the group should not only influence your speech topic
selection and supporting material, it should also be reflected in your
language. Use “we” more than “me,” “our” more than “mine.” Your
focus on others rather than yourself will make you a more aware and
sensitive intercultural speaker.
Most importantly, be respectful. If there is one bit of advice you
should remember when addressing an online intercultural audience,
it should be this—be respectful. In your words and actions, respect
the dignity of every member of your audience. In what you say, how
you say it, and how you behave when you’re speaking to a group of
people, your goal should always be to honor all those in your
audience.

4.8 Gathering Information About Your

Audience

Now that we’ve discussed the four areas of audience analysis, let’s examine
four different ways you can gather information about a particular
audience. You can learn more about your audience by direct observation
and from surveys, interviews, and the contact person.

Direct Observation

The first way you can gather information about your audience is by direct
observation—by looking at and listening to them. If you have access to the
audience you will be speaking to, you can attend one of their meetings and
simply look around and observe. How many people are there? What is
their gender makeup? Mostly men? Mostly women? How about the age of
the audience? Young? Older? Mixed? And how about the ethnic makeup of
the group? One particular ethnic group? Or a mixture of many? Remember
to take notes as you observe the group so you can refer to them later as you
prepare for your speech. If you’re giving the speech to your college class,
you enjoy a tremendous advantage because you’ve had plenty of
opportunity to observe the other students in past class meetings. Take
advantage of that.
In addition to visual observation, you might keep your ears open, too. By
simply listening to what’s going on during your visit, you can learn a great
deal. What are the discussion topics of their meeting? What are the
audience members’ responses to the discussion topics? What are the topics
of their conversations before and after the meeting? What are the things
they talk about and like? What are the things they don’t like? What is the
attitude of the group? Did you happen to hear anything that would indicate
their level of knowledge concerning your particular topic or their attitude
about your topic? You can learn all of these things just by listening.
Remember to take notes on any important thoughts and feelings that
might be helpful as you prepare your speech.

Surveys

The second way you can gather information about your audience is to
survey them. A survey is a collection of questions that the audience can
respond to that provides you with valuable information. Keep the survey
brief, maybe three to five questions, so the people will be more willing to
fill it out. Who wants to answer 30 or 40 questions?
There are three primary types of survey questions. Closed questions
require brief one- or two-word answers. Questions such as “Do you know
what a hound dog is?” or “Do you like hound dogs?” are closed questions
since they can be answered by a simple “yes” or “no” response. Open
questions such as “What things do you know about hound dogs?” or “What
are the characteristics of a good pet?” require a more developed response.
You can see how the responses to open questions can involve much more
than just yes-or-no answers. The third type of survey question is the
categorical question, which measures responses by degrees. Here are two
examples of categorical questions:

“What best describes your knowledge about hound dogs?” ____ None ___ Little ___
Some ___ Considerable ___ Expert

“What is your attitude toward hound dogs?” ____ Hate ____ Dislike ____ Indifferent
____ Like ____ Love

Did you notice how the information gathered from categorical questions
can be helpful not only in determining if an individual possesses
knowledge about your topic or his attitude toward your topic but also in
providing the degree of knowledge or attitude? This information can be
extremely beneficial in determining speech content, structure of main
points, and even whether your topic should be presented at all.
The secret is to limit your survey questions to five. More than that will
discourage respondents from completing it. And make certain that you
include questions that measure the level of knowledge and the attitude
toward your speech topic. These two items are crucial to your research and
preparation for any speech. Your audience’s level of knowledge will help
determine your speech content, and their attitude about your topic will
assist you in choosing the most appropriate speech structure for your
topic.
Your survey questions should be on one single sheet of paper, and it’s
best if audience members complete the surveys anonymously, ensuring
more honest responses. You need not survey the entire audience, although
that would be ideal. Even 25 percent of the audience would provide
valuable information. It’s best if the surveys are distributed, completed,
and collected as soon as possible to enable you to begin your research once
you gather and interpret the data.

Interviews

The third method for gathering information is the interview. If it’s

possible, arrange to interview a few members of your audience before you
begin researching your presentation. Conduct five-minute interviews with
two or three of the audience members, using both open and closed
questions to collect information about their interest, knowledge, and
attitudes toward your topic. Keep the interviews brief since you’re trying to
get a general idea of the audience you’ll be addressing. Open questions are
most useful, especially when you ask for the interviewee’s perceptions of
the group’s interest, knowledge, and attitude levels. Keep in mind that the
individuals you interview will provide only a sampling of opinions and
positions, but they usually will provide a general outlook or direction that
can be helpful in your speech construction.

The Contact Person

The final source of audience information is the contact person for the
speaking event. Your contact person usually possesses an intimate
knowledge of the audience you have been asked to address and can also
provide you with a wealth of information about their demographics,
interests, knowledge, and attitudes. In addition to answering your
questions, the contact person can provide specific information regarding
the speaking event itself, such as the speaking occasion, your placement on
the agenda, time limits, available equipment, size of audience, your seating
location, and a host of other essential bits of information.
Audience analysis is essential to constructing and delivering an effective
speech. Without learning about your audience and tailoring your message
so that it will be received by them in the most productive fashion, your
speaking efforts just might be as successful as the young man with the
onion-flavored chips, Alan Jackson CDs, and two barking hound dogs.
Don’t let that be your fate. Get to know your audience—what they like,
what they know, and how they feel. It will not only make your speaking
more successful, but it also might even enhance your relationships with
others.

4.9 Speaker Request Form

The specific requirements for your in-class speaking assignments will be

clearly outlined by your instructor, but for your speaking in the future, you
might want to consider using this helpful Speaker Request Form in the
process of considering and preparing for your presentation.
Speaker Request Information Form

Thank you for your inquiry into my availability to speak at your event. I am
honored to be asked to speak.
In order for me to thoughtfully consider your request, please answer the
following questions and e-mail your request to my e-mail address below.

1. What is the name of the event?

2. Who will sponsor the event and for what purpose?
3. Contact name:
4. Phone number:
5. E-mail address:
6. Website address:
7. Event date and time:
8. Location of the event:
9. When is the exact time of my speech?
10. What is the subject or speaking topic you are requesting?
11. What is the maximum time limit for the speech?
12. How many are expected in attendance?
13. What is the general age of the group of attendees?
14. Will there be media support for my presentation?
15. Will there be an honorarium given for participation in your event?

Please feel free to list any other pertinent information: Thank you for
providing the requested information. It will definitely be a great help to me
as I consider your invitation.
Please send completed request to: _____________________ (your
e-mail address)

COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES

PERSONAL ACTIVITIES

1. Brainstorming about yourself

Make a list of the positive things about yourself following the
brainstorming rules, giving yourself ten minutes for the
activity. Remember not to evaluate—quantity is the goal. How
did it feel to brainstorm all of these wonderful things about
 yourself? A little different and strange? We need to do things
like this more often. It’s good for our self-image.

2. Interviewing for intercultural speech topics

Conduct an informal ten-minute interview with a student in
class or an individual at work who is from a different cultural
background than yours. Ask this person to brainstorm a list of
topics that make her mad, glad, or sad. Once the individual has
completed the list, invite her to explain any of the items in
terms of cultural relevance or interest. Don’t judge or evaluate
her comments. Simply listen and learn.

3. Personal appreciation list

One of the real challenges for any public speaking student is to
come up with speech topics. Even though you know the
brainstorming steps, it can be a frustrating process, which can
result in you throwing up your hands and admitting that you
can’t think of even one idea. If this is your experience, try
completing this appreciation list. It might help you discover
some interesting things about yourself and point to some
possible speech topics.

1. Your favorite class is (was) _________________.

2. Your favorite book is _________________.
3. Your greatest personal achievement is
_________________.
4. The historical figure you’d most like to share dinner
with is _________________.
5. Your favorite hobby is _________________.
6. The most fascinating or enjoyable place you ever visited
is _________________.
7. An organization or group you volunteered or worked
for is _________________.
8. The person, idea, or belief you would die for is
__________.
9. The most interesting or fascinating fact you know is
_________________.
10. If you had six months to live, you would
 _________________.

4. Research another culture online

Go online and research another culture that is very different
from your own. You can search for a YouTube video, podcast,
or online article that focuses on that culture. After you
complete your research, was the culture individualistic or
collective, high-or low-context, and competitive or
cooperative? How would you modify or change your speech
topic and delivery if you were to address this particular
culture?

CLASS ACTIVITIES

1. Increasing your cultural awareness through reading

Select one magazine, periodical, or newspaper that represents
a specific cultural group. Your college library will have a
number of such publications. Thumb through one magazine or
newspaper and read two articles of interest. What is the
perspective or point of view of the articles? Is it different from
yours? How is the perspective similar? How did you feel about
the articles? Be prepared to share your responses in class.

2. Group discussion: brainstorming speech topics

Divide the class into groups of five or six students. Have each
group brainstorm possible speech topics of interest for ten
minutes. All group members are to record the suggestions so
that everyone will have a list of possible topics. Remember the
rules of brainstorming—no evaluation, quantity not quality,
the wilder the better, and combine ideas. Have fun with this
activity. Be creative in your thinking!

3. Group discussion: audience analysis

Divide the class into groups of five or six students. The task is
to brainstorm five reasons an audience would purchase a new
vacuum cleaner from the group. Each group is to brainstorm
five different reasons for each of the following four audiences:
a fraternity, a group of elementary schoolteachers, a
motorcycle club, and a retirement home. Be prepared to
 discuss your lists with the class.

Gathering Your Material

What You Sow Is What You Reap

DOI: 10.4324/9781003162933-5

Explaining speech material and research:

Identify seven categories of speech information

Explain where to look for sources of information
Explain how to record your speech information
Discuss how to help the audience understand your speech information
List ways to prepare and present your speaking notes

definitions
examples
explanations
comparisons
literal comparisons
figurative comparisons
contrast
statistics
expert testimony
visual aids
drawing
sketches
library resources
 electronic resources
library database
virtual libraries
Internet
key-word search
interviewing
Evidence Three-Step

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the

following:

5.1 Identify seven things to look for when gathering your speech
material
5.2 Explain where to look for speech information
5.3 Explain how to record your research information
5.4 Discuss how to help the audience understand your evidence
5.5 Discuss the various ways to prepare your speaking notes

The icy wind blasted against the thin walls of the tent as sheets of snow fell
from the black sky above. Huddled in their warm tent, three Sherpa guides
calmly sipped their tea in silence as they listened to the groans of nature
outside. In their silence, they contemplated the ascent from the base camp
to the first rim of Mt. Everest the next morning. During the hours that
followed, not one word would be exchanged among the three men. Each
would sit comfortably in the silence. At ease with one another and within
themselves, they had nothing to say, and only the sounds of the storm
filled the tent as they sat.
The three Americans in the tent beside theirs were busily discussing the
departure from the base camp. They talked about the weather conditions,
hoping the storm would subside by early morning. They reminisced about
past expeditions. They noisily exaggerated their earlier achievements as
they argued over which of them was the most skilled climber. The tent was
filled with the heated words of their good-natured arguments as the storm
raged outside.
 When asked by one of the Americans many weeks after the expedition
why he didn’t always feel the need to talk, one of the Sherpa guides replied,
“There is no need to talk if there is nothing to say. I am comfortable with
my silence.” The American who posed the question couldn’t really grasp
the import of the Sherpa’s answer.
Many years ago, Dionysius warned, “Let your speech be better than
silence, or be silent.” Much of our American public speaking, in the
classroom as well as in the public forum, often resembles the mindless
chatter of our televisions. Superficial topics and unimportant issues
characterize a great deal of what we bring to our podiums. This tabloid
mentality of the mass media permeates our daily conversation.
We need to occasionally be silent in this noisy culture of ours. We need
to quit talking and listen—really listen to others without constantly
interrupting. We need to listen with our whole being and not just with our
ears. We need to turn off the television. We need to turn off the car stereo
and simply hear the hum of the car engine as we drive. We need to turn off
the iPod and listen to the rustling of the leaves and the wind in the trees.
We need to experience silence and see what it has to teach us about
others and ourselves. All of nature and life is singing to us outside our
tents, and we need to take the time to simply listen. Maybe then our
speech will reflect a deeper understanding of life and all it has to offer.
Giving a speech involves much more than confidence, delivery practice,
and direct eye contact. It requires that what we share with our audience be
indeed important, interesting, and ultimately life enhancing. This chapter
will help you in this area of speaking. We will examine the process of
gathering the content material for your speech—what to look for, where to
look, and how to record the information.

The secret of success is to know something that everyone else doesn’t.

—HENRY FORD

5.1 What to Look For

As you begin researching your speech topic, you must know what types of
supporting material to look for. Although there are a variety of systems
that classify supporting material, most speech experts agree on the
following seven classifications: definitions, examples, explanations,
comparisons, statistics, expert testimony, and visual aids.

Definitions

One of the most helpful and readily accessible forms of supporting

material is the simple definition. The novice speaker often overlooks the
dictionary on her desk as she begins the process of gathering material for
her presentation. Yet a definition is not only a powerful tool in clarifying
terms for the audience’s understanding; it also helps focus the speaker in
her research and preparation for the speech itself. A practical use of a
definition might be seen in a husband’s attempt to convince his wife they
should take a one-week vacation to Hawaii: “You know, Janet, Webster’s
Dictionary says a vacation should be ‘a period of suspension of regular
work or study.’ I would define a vacation as eight days and seven nights in
Hawaii. How would you like to vacate for a while?”
You should always define the most important term or two for any
speech. For example, if you were to give a talk on “honesty in
relationships,” you would want to define the term honesty and include that
definition in the introduction or the first main point of the speech. You
could simply say, “And what do I mean by honesty? Well, Webster’s
Dictionary defines honesty as ‘the quality or fact of being truthful, sincere,
or frank’.” It’s always worthwhile to define your terms early in the speech
to clarify and limit the scope of your presentation.
One thing you might keep in mind is that a definition should not confuse
the audience. Try to avoid technical terms that themselves need defining
or definitions that are too lengthy. Select definitions that are brief and
easily understood. You don’t want to lose your audience before you even
get started.

Examples

We use examples every day to support our assertions and positions. If we

tell a friend he’s usually late for lunch dates, one of the first things he’ll
most likely say is, “Oh, yeah? When have I ever been late?” In other words,
he’s asking us to give an example to support our assertion.
One of the most widely used supporting devices is the example. The
example is a specific instance of a generalization or assertion. The Random
House Dictionary (we’re using a definition already) defines example as
“One of a number of things, or a part of something, taken to show the
character of the whole.” Remember the husband attempting to convince
his wife to visit Hawaii a few paragraphs ago? Well, he could use an
example such as “Honey, you’re going to love Hawaii. It’s such a beautiful
place to relax. I was there once when I graduated from high school, and I
was impressed with the lushness of the vegetation and the warmth and
clarity of the water. I was never more relaxed in all my life.”
A good rule of thumb is to have at least one example in each of your
main points in the speech. The example is a powerful tool the speaker can
use to paint a specific picture in the minds of the audience.
Examples can be brief or detailed, factual or hypothetical. If an example
is factual and familiar to your audience, you need only refer to it briefly, as
your audience is acquainted with the incident. If you’re speaking about
famous sports achievements, you could briefly refer to the example of “US
swimmer Michael Phelps’s eight Olympic medals at the 2008 summer
games.” If the audience is not familiar with an example you are using, you
will need to develop it in more detail, with names, dates, and facts. A more
detailed example is often called an illustration. These illustrations can take
the form of anecdotes, personal experiences, stories, or parables.
A factual example is an incident that actually took place. Suppose you
are speaking about the advantages of buying flood insurance. Your
example could be drawn from a family whose flood-damaged home was
replaced after Hurricane Katrina in 2009, where the bill was paid by the
insurance company.
A hypothetical example can also be impressive. You might put the
audience in the shoes of an imaginary homeowner whose home was
destroyed by a flood but was not covered by flood insurance: “Suppose you
own a home and choose not to purchase flood insurance. And suppose
your home is destroyed by a flood. How do you pay for the thousands of
dollars in damage? How will you cope with the stress of the added
financial burden?” A hypothetical example is also called a hypothetical
situation. It can be extremely effective in getting your audience to consider
a situation from a different point of view.

Explanations

An explanation is used to make an idea clear and easily seen in the mind’s
eye of the audience. Once again, the husband could use an explanation
when convincing his wife to visit Hawaii: “I’m convinced you’ll love Hawaii
because you enjoy beautiful scenery, you like to swim in warm water, and
whether you admit it or not, you do like to get away from the kids.” How
could she turn this down? But she’s still holding firm to her refusal to go to
Hawaii.
Well, let’s leave those two for a while and examine the three types of
explanations you can use: analysis, exposition, and description.
Analysis is the process of explaining or studying something by
examining its parts. You might want to explain to your audience how to
bake a cake by breaking the process into three parts: gathering the
materials, mixing the ingredients, and, finally, baking the cake.
The purpose of exposition is to give your audience information that will
increase their knowledge of a topic. Much of any speech is devoted to
expounding or explaining so that the audience understands more about
the topic. A speech on how to make money selling real estate, grow a
garden, or improve communication within a marriage may use exposition.

It is harder to conceal ignorance than to acquire knowledge.

—JOHN DEWEY

Description uses the five senses of taste, touch, sight, smell, and hearing
to let the audience know what is being presented. Often, the use of
description is the most powerful method of painting a picture for your
audience. Suppose you are trying to describe a beach scene to your
audience. Instead of simply saying, “It was a beautiful beach,” you might
describe the scene by saying, “Imagine yourself sitting in the warm sand
(touch), and the sound of the waves lapping on the shore (hearing) relaxes
you. You smell the salt air (smell), and the blue ocean stretches out as far
as you can see (sight).” Which one describes the scene in more detail? The
use of description can have a powerful effect on the minds of your
audience.

Comparisons

A comparison presents qualities or features that are similar. One of the

most effective ways to present a new idea is to compare it to something the
audience is familiar with. Often, comparisons attempt to show the
connection between what the audience knows and what they do not know.
The husband in our continuing vacation saga could use a comparison such
as “Hawaii’s water is like Florida’s, only clearer. The climate of Hawaii is
like Southern California’s. And the people of Hawaii are as friendly as our
own family.”
A comparison can be either figurative or literal. Figurative comparisons
describe similarities between things that are otherwise different. “He’s as
slow as molasses” and “The heart is like a pump” are examples of figurative
comparisons.
A literal comparison is an actual comparison. This type of comparison
gives your listeners a clear mental picture of what you’re talking about.
You can tell your audience that the airplane weighed as much as seven
pickup trucks or that the tomato was the size of a softball.
Contrast is a way of noting differences between two things. Here, the
emphasis is on differences rather than similarities. An example of contrast
can be seen when a mother tells her daughter that when she was 20 years
old, annual college tuition was $3,000. But now, an annual tuition bill of
$30,000 is not unusual. Things sure have changed.

Statistics

Many of your listeners will be interested in and impressed by statistics.

Statistics are numerical facts, such as one in four Americans will
experience some form of cancer in his or her lifetime; 50 percent of all
marriages will end in divorce; and Z-Company stock has doubled in the
past five years. Once again, in his attempts to persuade his wife to go to
Hawaii, the husband might use a statistic: “One of every three Americans
prefers vacationing in Hawaii to any other place in the world.”
Wisely used, statistics can have a powerful impact on your audience.
Unwisely used, they can bore, confuse, and even deceive the audience.
When using statistics, try to keep them simple and easily understood by
the average audience member.
There are some important rules to keep in mind when you use statistical
information in your speech:

1. Ensure the accuracy of the statistics you are using. You

should take statistics from reliable sources. Is the magazine, book,
journal, newspaper, or website a trusted and proven source? Is the
author or the researcher of the statistics credible? Verify these
things before using the information.
2. Your statistics should be recent. What may have been true just
five or ten years ago could be outdated now. Try to have your
statistics reflect research that is no more than five years old. The
more recent, the better.
3. Limit your use of statistics. Once you have researched a topic
thoroughly and have collected reams of statistical information
about your subject, there is a tendency to want to use all of the data
in your speech. If you did, you would run the serious risk of
overwhelming your audience. You must realize that your listeners
can accept and remember only a few statistics during the course of
a speech. It is better to have a few well-placed statistics in your
speech than to overload your listeners with an avalanche of
numbers. Choose those statistics wisely.
4. Use your statistics for comparative purposes. For instance,
when discussing the number of lawyers in America, you might tell
your audience that in 2008, 1 of every 308 Americans was a lawyer.
But the picture changes when you compare that statistic to 1967,
when only 1 of every 1,210 Americans was a lawyer. The
comparison gets even more interesting if you compare our statistics
with those of Japan, where in 2008, only 1 of every 5,330 Japanese
citizens was a lawyer.
5. Round off your statistics. Present your statistics in a way that
will make them easy for your audience to understand. Instead of
saying that the average annual wage of a field worker in Chile is
 $388.73, round off your statistic so that it will be more easily heard
and remembered by the audience. Thus, the average wage of the
field worker in Chile becomes $390 annually. Much easier to hear
and remember.
6. Use visual aids to present your statistics. For many people, it
is difficult to visualize even the simplest statistic as it is being
rattled off by the speaker. If the speaker mentions too many
statistics and numbers, the audience often will simply tune out. If
you have a lot of statistics to present, you might try presenting
them in the form of a visual aid—a chart, graph, table, or diagram.
We examine this in more detail later in the chapter.

The harder you work the luckier you get.

—GARY PLAYER

Expert Testimony

The testimony of an expert or authority on a particular subject adds

credibility to your speech. The most important benefit of expert testimony
is to show your audience that you are not alone in your thinking—that your
ideas and convictions are also held by experts in the field.
You’re probably wondering if that wife has decided to visit Hawaii yet.
She hasn’t. What will it take to convince her? Maybe the husband could
present some expert testimony: “Sylvia Bass, our travel agent, told me that
of all the places she’s vacationed in the world, Hawaii is her favorite.” The
wife is smiling but still shaking her head. Well, while she’s deciding, let’s
discuss whom to interview if you plan to offer expert testimony in your
speech.
You may find it helpful to turn to experts or authorities when
researching your speech topics. If your subject is drug abuse, your
attention turns to the medical doctor and the drug abuse therapist. If your
subject is inflation, your attention turns to the economist. If your subject is
engine repair, your attention turns to the auto mechanic. The source of
expert testimony changes with each topic.
 There are two ways you can support your views with the expert
testimony of others. You can quote them word for word, or you can
paraphrase what they have said in your own words. You can paraphrase
the expert’s testimony if the material is longer than a couple of sentences
or to simplify the statement in an accurate manner. The shorter the
quotation, the greater the impact it will have on your audience.
Because the information you are presenting is not yours, you must give
credit where credit is due. You must orally document the testimony by
telling the audience who said it, where you got the information, and the
date of the testimony. It may be stated as simply as, “In the April 2007
issue of National Geographic, James McBride states …” or “Dr. Richard
Talcott, in the May 2007 issue of Astronomy, expresses his belief that …”
You can add more credibility to your expert, especially if your authority
is not well known to the audience, by presenting some background
information before you give his testimony. For example, with the first
quotation from James McBride, you could preface his remarks by adding
that McBride is the “author of numerous books and articles on the
subject.” Keep in mind that your documentation and background
information on your expert have more impact if you present them before
you give the testimony.

Visual Aids

The old Chinese saying, “One picture is worth a thousand words,” holds
true in public speaking as well. The final category of supporting material is
visual aids. Visual aids can improve your speech by focusing the attention
of your listeners, making your ideas easier to understand, and helping your
listeners remember what you said.
This is our husband’s final attempt to convince his wife to vacation in
Hawaii. He will use a series of visual aids: “Honey, just look at these recent
photos Sylvia took on her last vacation to Hawaii. Look at the beautiful
water. Doesn’t the sand look clean? Can you imagine yourself on that
beach right now?” She finally says, “Yes!” The visual aids did the trick!
She’s going to Hawaii. But we’re not, so we need to examine different
visual-aid forms.
The various forms of visual aids include the speaker himself, a chalk-
board, objects, models, drawings and sketches, charts, and electronic
media. Let’s examine each of these forms of visual aids in more detail.
The speaker himself can be a very powerful visual aid. Not only do dress
and appearance help provide the audience with a strong visual message
and a means of evaluating the overall message of the speaker, but body
movement, gestures, and facial expressions also can play an important role
in helping the audience visualize the speech.
For example, the speaker’s body can demonstrate how to move when
skiing, dancing, or kicking. His hands and gestures can show how to
massage a neck, hold chopsticks, or throw a football. His face can display a
range of emotions that can help the audience visualize a scene from a story
or anecdote. Don’t be afraid to act out or demonstrate portions of your
speech that can be appreciated and understood only when they are seen by
the audience.
A chalkboard or whiteboard is another readily accessible visual aid that
may help the audience visualize portions of your speech. Chalkboard use is
best for impromptu speeches, when the speaker has no time to construct a
prepared drawing or chart. The disadvantages of chalkboard use are many.
Often, the speaker will speak to the chalkboard and not the audience. And
the speaker’s body will partly obscure much of what is being put up on the
board. The chalkboard should be used only as a last resort. If you prepare
properly for your speech, you will have adequate time to construct a
prepared drawing or chart that will prove much more valuable to the
audience.
The object itself is an excellent visual aid. Showing the audience the
actual computer, quilt, vase, or surfboard that is the topic of your speech
leaves little to misinterpretation. Often, however, the actual object is
impractical to bring to the classroom or auditorium.
A model makes a helpful visual aid. A model is a representation that
serves as a manageable copy of the object itself. If you were giving a speech
on airplanes, A-frame cabins, or the water molecule, a model could serve
as an effective visual aid. One thing to remember about models is they
don’t have to be works of art. One speaker spent more than $40 having a
plastic model of a jet engine constructed, when a balloon would have done
just fine. Make sure that your model is large enough for your audience to
see and that it gives your audience a rough idea of what you’re talking
about.
Drawings and sketches are perhaps the easiest of all visual aids to
construct. Now, you might be thinking, “I’m no artist,” and skip the rest of
this paragraph. But hold on for a moment. As in model construction, your
drawing or sketch doesn’t have to be a work of art. With a few felt-tip pens,
a compass, a straight edge, and some patience, you can create a drawing or
sketch that can add clarity and dimension to the speech.
Keep your drawings simple. Don’t overload the audience with
unnecessary details when a stick figure sketch would suffice. Make your
drawings, sketches, and lettering large enough so that the people in the
back row will be able to see them. After you’re done with the first draft of
the drawing, move as far away from the drawing as the back row of your
audience will be and give it a glance. If the drawing can be seen from there,
fine. If not, it’s back to the drawing board for a larger version.
The colors used in your drawing or sketch should stand out at a distance.
Colors such as black and red on white cardboard are easily seen. Pink and
yellow on a white background cannot be seen. Use a two-by-three-foot
white poster board (the kind you buy at stationery stores for three or four
dollars) for drawing your sketches; they stand up better on easels than
sheets of regular paper do.
Charts permit the speaker to present a wealth of information in very
little space. Word charts, number charts, steps in a process, organizational
flowcharts, and maps add important visual dimensions to any speech. Line
graphs, pie charts, and bar graphs can also be used to present statistics so
that large amounts of data can be seen at one glance.

Many public speakers can talk for hours without any notes—or
knowledge.
—MELVIN BELLI

When constructing a chart, keep it as simple as possible. The lettering

and numbering should be large enough to be seen by everyone in your
audience. Using letters and numbers so small that only the speaker can see
them is a common mistake made by those speakers who forget the chart is
for the audience to see, not for the speaker.
PowerPoint is an excellent software program that can be helpful in
designing and constructing much more elaborate visual aids and
multimedia presentations to go along with your speeches. This relatively
simple-touse computer-assisted graphics program allows you to design
and combine highly professional looking charts, graphs, slides,
photographs, and video clips. You might consider enrolling in a computer
applications class or workshop that teaches you how to use this program.
Although PowerPoint is used by the vast majority of speakers and
presenters worldwide, there is a vast array of other presentational
applications available that are worth considering. Here are a few that
might fit your presentational needs.
Apple’s Keynote is another widely used presentation program that is
fast and reliable. It’s easy to use. Control and display panels let you create
elegant, eye-catching slides with smooth transitions and animations.
Keynote interfaces with Apple’s Pages and Numbers effortlessly, so
anything you have on those programs can be easily put into your Keynote
presentation.
Although Keynote doesn’t do all the things PowerPoint does, it offers all
the same basic capabilities with greater beauty and intuitive commands.
One of its strongest features is that it can open PowerPoint presentations
and can export Keynote presentations into PowerPoint formats. If you love
Apple devices, Keynote is worth considering when you need a presentation
program.
If you’re collaborating with others on a presentational program, you
might consider Google Slides. The capability to share and
simultaneously edit a Google Drive document with other people as you
create your Google Slides presentation is its biggest advantage over other
presentation programs. Google Slides is designed and built for
collaboration. Google Slides isn’t as powerful as PowerPoint or Keynote,
but it has all the basics that your collaboration team can work with online
simultaneously. This is the biggest selling point for individuals who are
working on a group presentation but are not physically located near one
another.
In addition to the collaboration benefit, Google Slides, by its very nature,
encourages simple slide designs. Without the more complex user interface
of PowerPoint or Keynote, Google Slides gives you fewer production
options, but you generate much simpler and easier to follow and
comprehend slides. And since Google Slides is a browser-based application
stored in the cloud, it makes accessing your Slides presentation from any
smart device easy.
And finally, if you’d like to use something really different from most
other presentation programs on the market, you might consider Prezi.
This unique presentation program uses the concept of pathway points or
stepping stones rather than slides to give you greater visual appeal and
holistic command of your message or story. Prezi uses the visual concept of
“Zoom” and the transition to new pathway points on the slide. Rather than
going from slide to slide, Prezi highlights and expands a series of
developmental pathway points visually on the slide, allowing for additional
information to develop that pathway point. This allows the viewer to see
the overall pathway of the message development rather than being
subjected to a series of single slides with very little recall of the big picture
of the presentation. Prezi provides its users with a very different approach
to presentational programs that is unique in a field of linear slide
presentations.
When you decide to use a computer-generated presentational program
such as PowerPoint or any of the other programs presented here, keep
these suggestions in mind:

1. Be brief. Computer-generated presentational programs should be

used to enhance your speech, not replace it. Limit your
computerized presentation time to no more than 15 percent of your
total speaking time. A helpful rule of thumb is to present one slide
for every two minutes of speaking time.
2. Be simple. Keep your presentations simple. Allow your program’s
design wizards to help you select the designs, colors, and print type.
Don’t reinvent the wheel each time you speak.
3. Be consistent. Use consistent lettering, transitions, and bullets
throughout your presentation. Too much variety can be distracting
to the audience.
4. Be focused. Use one to three words per bullet. Don’t use more
than five or six bullets per slide, or you’ll lose your audience. Limit
each slide to one thought or idea. You don’t want your audience to
spend the entire time reading. This is a speech, not a book.
5. Be prepared. Practice your speech with your computerized
program. Mark the places in your note cards where you will use
your computer slides. Time your practice sessions so that you’ll be
 within the time limits.
6. Be flexible. As you practice your presentation, be flexible enough
to edit your presentation if it’s running too long or too short. Omit
certain slides if you think they’re unnecessary or don’t contribute to
the presentation. Change the font, font size, color, or background
patterns if they’re distracting or unsatisfactory. You’re the boss!
7. Be ready. Set up any equipment you’ll need well before your
speaking time. Test the computer program, check the room
lighting, and test anything else you might be using for your speech.
8. Be forewarned. In the event of computer or electrical failure, be
prepared to give your speech without the computerized visual aids.
Unlike poster boards, computer programs depend on properly
working computer and electrical sources, so be forewarned that
electrical disasters occasionally do happen.
9. Be generous. Remember that you can print out graphs, tables,
lists, outlines, and more from your computerized program for
distribution to your audience. It can be helpful for your audience to
have some hands-on material to take home and refer to long after
your presentation is complete.

Finally, the use of electronic media, such as video playback recorders,

overhead projectors, and slide projectors, can also be considered when
planning the visual-aid portion of your talk. When you consider their use,
remember that electronic media may not be appropriate for some
speeches. If you have only five minutes to get a group of people to vote in
tomorrow’s election, electronic media may not be the best approach to
convince your audience, because five minutes do not give you adequate
time for preparation. However, if you’re trying to convince a group of
teenagers not to drink and drive, and you are given adequate preparation
time, a video of a fatal car accident scene may have an impact on your
audience that words cannot provide.
After considering the advantages and disadvantages of using electronic
media, it would be wise for you to practice with the device ahead of time.
When you practice your speech, include the use of the machine. There’s
nothing more embarrassing than trying to figure out how a machine works
in front of an audience.
Suggestions for Using Visual Aids

If you decide to use any visual aids in your speech, here are some
recommendations you may find helpful:

1. Devote time to the process. If you decide to use any visual aids
in a speech, set aside adequate time to design, construct, and
practice using whatever aids you select. Too often, speakers will
decide on a visual aid as almost an afterthought the morning of the
presentation, not devoting enough time to its design and
construction. The results can be embarrassing, both to the speaker
and the audience. So if you decide to use visual aids, begin early in
the speech process and give your visual aids the time and energy
they deserve. Your audience will appreciate your efforts, and so will
you.
2. Make the visual aids large enough. When designing and
constructing your visual aid, keep your audience in mind—
especially those seated at the back of the room or auditorium. If it’s
possible, visit the room you’ll be speaking in, stand at the very back,
and look at the podium. How large will your visual aid have to be so
that it will be seen easily even by people seated way back there?
Bring a friend, a newspaper, and a large red marking pen. Have
your friend hold up an unfolded newspaper at the podium and see
how much of it you can make out from the back of the room. Then
have your friend write your name in five-inch letters with the large
red marker on one of the newspaper sheets and see if you can make
out the name from where you’re standing. If you can’t, have your
friend repeat the process with larger letters until you can see the
letters easily. Remember to take your friend out for dessert
afterward. It’s always good to take care of those who take care of
you!
3. Make the visual aids simple. Visual aids should clarify or
reinforce a point you are trying to make. The goal is for the
audience to see and understand your visual aid within 3 to 5
seconds—not 30 to 40 seconds. Just three to five seconds. You
don’t want to overload them with too much visual information.
Here, less is more. Decide what it is you really want to emphasize
 with each visual aid and design it with that in mind. Don’t clutter
your visual aid with 15 statistics, 20 bullet points, or 25
photographs. Very few people will be motivated enough to look at
them, and even fewer will remember anything you showed. Save
yourself and your audience time and effort; focus on what is
essential, and keep your visual aids simple.
4. Limit the number of visual aids. Your visual aids should not
become the primary focus of your presentation. A speaker during a
three-minute introduction speech will quickly be overshadowed by
her 35 well-intended, fully animated PowerPoint slides with all the
bells and whistles. Limit your visual aids to no more than 15
percent of your total speaking time. So in a five-minute speech, the
time devoted to using visual aids should be about 45 to 60 seconds.
Remember, you are the speaker, so don’t get lost behind a
mountain of visual aids.
5. Show your visual aids only when you’re talking about
them. Keep your visual aids hidden from the audience until you
want to display them. Novice speakers will often set up and display
all of their visual aids before they begin their introduction.
Although this can be a relief to the speaker, it is usually a
distraction to the audience. Who could pay attention to the
speaker’s introductory remarks when faced with a three-by-five-
foot picture of an injured family in an automobile accident or a list
of the 15 most common mistakes made on a first date? Keep your
visual aids out of view until you need them. Then you will receive
the audience’s undivided attention.
6. Maintain eye contact. The most common mistake made by
speakers using visual aids is that they lose eye contact with their
audience when focusing on their visual aid. The speaker will read
word for word what is displayed on the chart or screen, talk to the
visual aid, stare at the object he is speaking about, or simply gaze at
his chart as he tries to remember his next point. Above all else,
maintain direct eye contact with your audience. Do not look at or
talk to your visual aid. Your lack of eye contact can communicate a
lack of interest in your audience. (The same can hold true with your
romantic interest!) So above all else, keep what’s most important in
sight.
7. Don’t pass your visual aids around. You’ll be tempted to let
your audience handle your visual aids. Don’t—even if they’re
begging on bended knees! If you do, it will mark the beginning of
the end for your presentation. You’ll lose their attention. Even the
people not holding your pet lizard, the silk floral arrangement, or
your collection of 55 square-dancing magazines will still be
watching the others fondle your treasures with envy, waiting for
their turn to come. No matter how mature or sophisticated your
audience appears, they’re kids at heart, and you’ll lose them once
you turn them loose with your visual aids. Maintain control and the
audience’s attention.
8. Practice with your visual aids. Always practice and time your
speech using the visual aids you’ve prepared. This means that your
visual aids are already completed and ready to go before you begin
your timed practice sessions. Remember to keep the visual aids out
of view until you are ready to discuss them. Speak to your
imaginary audience and not to your visual aid. This part of your
practice is vital to a successful speech. Don’t talk to or look at your
visual aids during your practice sessions. Keep your eyes on the
imaginary audience. Whatever you do in practice is what you’ll do
during your actual speech, so keep your eyes on the audience. And
as you evaluate your practice speech times, determine if you need
to trim some of your visual aid segments. Often, visual aids will
take longer to use than you might imagine before you practice, so
keep track of your times.
9. Have a great life anyway. No speaker or speech is perfect. Take
this to heart as you use your visual aids in your speech. Things
happen to us all. That’s life. So don’t scream, frown, apologize, or
even sigh if something goes wrong with your visual aids when you
present the speech to a live audience. Charts fall off easels, the 55
square-dancing magazines may scatter all over the floor, and your
PowerPoint file might freeze. When things like that happen, pause,
take a breath, and smile. Pick up the chart, gather the magazines, or
just gently kick the computer, and keep the show going. Audiences
will appreciate your calm, gracious response to these minor
mishaps. Remember, it’s only a speech, and you’ll have a great life
anyway.
5.2 Where to Look for Speech Information

Now that you have an idea of what to look for when you’re researching
your speech, we need to spend some time discussing where to look for this
information. There are four primary areas to explore: your own experience
and knowledge, library resources, electronic resources, and interviewing.

Your Own Experience and Knowledge

Most people rush offto the library when they are faced with the prospect of
researching a speech topic. And by doing so, they overlook one of the
richest sources of speech information—their own experience and
knowledge.
If you sit quietly for a moment or two and scan your prior experience
and knowledge of the speech topic you’ve selected, scenes from the past,
bits and pieces of knowledge from old lectures or conversations, and
anecdotes from personal experience will run through your mind. Each one
potentially provides unique and interesting information for the content of
your speech. A woman giving a speech on parenting may remember stories
about her parents, movies that depicted the struggles and rewards of
parenting, a sitcom that revolved around raising children, and an anecdote
or two about raising her own children. This information from past
knowledge and experience serves as an original and colorful source of
speech information.

Just to be is a blessing. Just to live is holy.

—ABRAHAM HESCHEL

The brainstorming technique can be utilized here when surveying your

past experience and knowledge. Simply jotting down every related
experience and piece of knowledge—no matter how small or trivial—will
provide a springboard from which you can begin your research.
Library Resources

The library might not be your first choice for exciting places to visit on a
Friday evening, but it does serve as one of the most rewarding sources of
speech information. Every library, regardless of size, usually provides
sources of information such as the following that you will find helpful in
researching your speech.
The library’s computer catalog indexes all of the library’s information by
author, title, and subject. This catalog is your primary guide to the books in
the library. If you are unfamiliar with its operation, ask the librarian on
duty for assistance.
Magazines and periodicals are another source of information for your
speech. The Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature will be your most
valuable resource for locating magazine and periodical articles that are
related to your speech topic. The advantage of magazine or periodical
information is that it is generally more current than information in books
and encyclopedias. The Reader’s Guide indexes the articles of more than
130 US journals on a wide range of topics. In addition, you may wish to
consult other indexes, such as the Education Index, for topics related to
education or the Index to Behavioral Sciences and Humanities.
Quotation books provide another rich source of information for your
speech. Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations, a reference book containing more
than 1,500 pages of quotations on every topic imaginable, is one of the
most popular collections of quotations. One-third of the book is an index
to help you find a suitable quotation on just about any topic. Your library
should have a copy of Bartlett’s, along with several other similar reference
works. A quotation often provides an ideal beginning or ending to your
speech.
Your library should have one or two of your local daily newspaper
indexes, in addition to the New York Times Index. Although newspapers
don’t always provide the most scholarly writing on a given topic, the
articles can be a source of recent and local information for your speech.
After you’ve taken a look around your local library and maybe even talked
with a librarian, you can now turn your efforts to electronic resources in
your search for speech topic material.
Electronic Resources

Having ready access to the Internet from home, school, and cell phone,
you might be tempted to begin your speech research with search engines
such as Google, Yahoo!, or Bing, but this approach can often decrease your
effectiveness in gathering relevant information. By using these popular
Internet search engines, you can easily become overwhelmed by the sheer
number of websites generated, the biased and false information presented,
and the number of reputable sources that are excluded or overlooked.
That’s why it’s usually a good idea to begin your speech research with your
college, school, or local library’s database.

Library Database

To begin your search of electronic resources, use your library’s database or

portal, such as ProQuest, EBSCOhost, or InfoTrac. These are commercial
databases containing sources of information that have been selected and
edited by experts to provide quality research material. ProQuest provides
indexes and archives of hundreds of sources of information, such as
newspapers, periodicals, and dissertations. It contains more than 125
billion digital pages. EBSCOhost provides more than 300 full-text and
secondary databases, which include full-text journals, magazines, books,
monographs, reports, and other publication sources. InfoTrac College
Edition offers more than 20 million articles from nearly 6,000 reputable
sources, with articles added daily. No matter which commercial database
your school, college, or local library offers, you can be certain that the
sources of information are selected and edited by experts, and the material
you collect from them is credible.

Virtual Libraries

From the convenience of your own computer, you can access a rich
collection of informational sources from virtual libraries. With the click of
your mouse, you can enter into these Internet libraries and browse their
collections of books, periodicals, magazines, journals, directories, and
newspapers. Here are four of the more comprehensive virtual libraries:
Virtual Library (www.vlib.org), Internet Public Library (www.ipl.org),
Digital Librarian (www.digital-librarian.com), and the Library of Congress
(www.loc.gov/rr/index.html). Even if you don’t have a topic to research,
these virtual libraries are fun to explore from the comfort of your own
home.

The Internet

After you have searched your library’s database and toured a virtual library
for your speech topic research, you can also access a broader-based
collection of information sources on the Internet using web search
engines. A search engine is designed to search for information on the
World Wide Web and presents its results as a list of web pages,
information sources, images, open directories, and a variety of other
different types of files. There are a number of helpful search engines
available to you, but remember that no search engine will find all of the
available sites that are on the Internet, and many search engines allow
business sites to purchase top ten rankings on their search results. Unlike
your library’s commercial database, a search engine’s information results
are not screened, selected, and edited by experts, and so it can occasionally
list biased, misleading, or false information. Here are some of the best
search engines available:

Google
Bing
AOL
Yahoo!
Ask

Key-Word Search Guidelines

Your Internet researching will be more effective if you follow some simple
guidelines. First, avoid using general or vague subject terms when you
search for information. Terms such as “car,” “love,” and “disease” will
result in far too many hits from your commercial database or search
engine. Using Google’s search engine, the term “car” results in
941,000,000 hits, which is much more than you can skim in an hour.
Second, use specific terms in searching for supporting speech material.
Instead of the term “car,” try the more specific key word that relates to
your speech topic, such as “Porsche,” which results in 81,400,000 hits. An
even more specific term, such as “Boxster,” gives us only 3,200,000 hits,
eliminating all those millions of web pages that don’t contain information
related to your speech topic, Porsche Boxster. How’s that for a time-saving
suggestion?
Third, use Boolean operators to increase your search effectiveness.
Boolean operators are words or symbols placed between the key words of
your topic search, such as AND, OR, NOT, +, and −. These words and
symbols can narrow or expand your key-word searches. Use AND to
narrow your topic search. “Boxster AND engine” eliminates all those web
pages that don’t contain information about both the Boxster and engine.
You can expand your search by allowing results that contain alternative
terms by using OR between words. “Boxster OR Carrera” will result in web
pages that contain either the Boxster or Carrera models of Porsche. NOT
restricts your search by excluding certain terms or words, such as “Boxster
NOT Carrera.” This restrictive search will give you web pages that contain
Boxster but not Carrera. Finally, the symbols “+” and “–” placed directly in
front of your key word indicate the inclusion or exclusion of that term,
such as “+engine −Carrera.”
Fourth, you can use your Help pull-down menu or Advanced Search
button on your search engine to access more advanced filters or search
criteria. In addition to many of the Boolean operator functions listed in the
preceding paragraph, you can narrow your search by language, file type,
domain ranking, region, copyright usage, results per page, numeric
rankings, and so on. The more you can narrow your search, the more
effective your electronic research will become. Think small.

Researching Beyond Google

Now that you have an idea how to conduct a search on the Internet, it’s
always wise to gather information from a variety of search engines. Most
speakers will use only Google’s search engine and feel satisfied that they’ve
covered all the information that pertains to the topic they’re researching.
Although Google is the most frequently used search engine on the
Internet, it is not one that is necessarily designed to survey academic,
scientific, and scholarly sources of information. There are other powerful
Internet search engines available for you to explore and utilize that will
more effectively serve your purposes for more scholarly research. Here are
five search engines that will make your academic research for speeches
much easier, more effective, and more productive.

iSEEK (iseek.com)

This search engine is designed specifically for students, teachers,

administrators, and caregivers. It searches through hundreds of thousands
of resources from colleges, government agencies, and noncommercial
providers and organizations on just about any topic you wish to research.
What’s especially useful with iSEEK is that you can further specify your
search results by a wide variety of variables, including sources, subject
areas, research types, grade level, places, people, and organizations.

Virtual LRC (virtuallrc.com)

Have you ever wanted a global learning resource center at your finger-tips?
Well, Virtual LRC gives you just that. No matter what topic you’re
researching, this search engine indexes thousands of the finest academic
information websites used by instructors and librarian professionals from
around the world. Virtual LRC will provide you with the most up-to-date
information and resources for any topic you need to research.

Refseek (refseek.com)

Refseek provides you with search results on any topic from over 1 billion
documents, including journals, newspapers, books, encyclopedias, and
web pages. This search engine makes academic research simple with its
easy-to-read design and search functions. Plus, Refseek offers
comprehensive subject coverage without the clutter and confusion
presented by sponsored links and commercial ads. One powerful feature of
Refseek is that it filters out all sources and documents that are not related
to academia, science, or research.
MetaCrawler (metacrawler.com)

MetaCrawler is a metasearch engine that surveys most of the topic search

engines, including Google, Yahoo!, Bing, and Ask.com. Although Meta-
Crawler doesn’t focus solely on scholarly or scientific research, it does
provide you with an easy way to search for web documents, images, videos,
news, and even shopping information related to just about any topic you
need to research. MetaCrawler is especially helpful when you’re trying to
gather images, videos, and news clips for your speech.

Evaluating Electronic Source Material

Now that you’ve begun searching electronic source material for your
speech, here are three criteria you can use when selecting information.
First, is the author of the web article or document clearly identified? Is this
person an expert in the field? Are her credentials and qualifications
provided? Second, many documents on the Internet are published by
organizations, rather than specific authors, so you must evaluate the
credibility of the particular business, agency, or interest group whose
article you are considering. And finally, you must take into account the
timeliness of the document you are evaluating. A good rule of thumb is to
consider only those articles that have been published in the past three
years. If any web article fails one of these criteria, don’t use it. There are
too many other more credible and reliable documents from which to
choose.

Education is not a handful of facts, but knowing how and where to

find them.
—HERBERT SPENCER

Interviewing

The final source of speech information we will discuss is the interviewing

of experts. Although many speakers are reluctant to ask for an interview
from a local expert, the rewards of doing so can go beyond those of simply
giving a well-researched speech. Many a friendship, both professional and
personal, and many a job have blossomed because of a 15-minute
interview.
For a given speech, don’t interview more than one or two experts,
because the interview process involves more time and effort than you
might imagine.
The first step in conducting an interview is to decide with whom you
want to talk. If your speech is about sleeping pills, you may want to speak
with a pharmacist or a physician. If your topic is automobile engine repair,
you may want to talk with an auto mechanic who specializes in engine
overhauling. Or if your speech is on the planet Jupiter, you may want to
interview an astronomy instructor at a local college or university.
The second step is to request an interview. Whether you request an
interview in person, over the telephone, or in a formal letter, keep your
request brief and friendly. Let the person know who you are, that you are
researching a topic for a speech in her field of expertise, and that you
would like a 15-minute interview at her convenience (not yours). If the
person cannot or will not grant an interview, thank her for the time and try
the next candidate. If he agrees to the interview, great!
The third step is to write a list of questions for the interview itself. This
should be done only after you have researched the topic from your own
knowledge and experience and have conducted your library search for
material. This prior research will enable you to ask more enlightened,
specific, and articulate questions.
The fourth step is the interview itself. Be punctual. Nothing is more
annoying to your interviewee than for you to arrive late to a meeting that
you requested. Dress up for the interview. Don’t arrive in a tank top and
old jeans. Show some respect. And stick to your time limit of 15 minutes.
You can cover a lot of territory in that period of time, as long as you stick to
the task at hand. Bring your list of questions and a pen to jot down
noteworthy remarks. At the end, thank the interviewee.
Finally, after you’ve returned from the interview, take a moment to write
a brief thank-you card or letter to the person you interviewed. The few
minutes and the cost of the stamp will add that touch of class that few
interviewers ever consider.
5.3 How to Record Your Research
Information

Now that you have a better idea of what to look for and where to look for it,
let’s briefly discuss how to record the information you will be using.
In your research, you will find a variety of examples, quotations,
statistics, and comparisons that you will want to collect. You may not use
all of the information, and you may not even know the order in which you
will present it. So, you will have to find some way of recording all these
data. People have used everything from professional calligraphy paper to
the clean side of a McDonald’s hamburger wrapper to record their speech
information.
But not you. The best way to record your speech research is on your
iPhone, Android, Blackberry, or other smartphone or mobile devices, using
one of the many note-taking applications specifically designed for them.
And since you’ll be researching a speech and not a 25-page research paper
or academic thesis, there are two free, easy-to-use, and powerful note-
taking programs that are available to you. Notes and Evernote Basic are
application programs that will enable you to record any type of research
you will need for your speeches.

Notes

Notes is a free note-taking application that comes with all iPhones, iPads,
and OSX El Capitan Macs and with iCloud.com on the web. It’s one of the
simplest note-taking programs available that will let you record any
information or speech evidence in a variety of formats you create. Notes
lets you store, organize, label, and easily access huge volumes of
information with a few easy strokes. It also lets you make lists in a variety
of organizational patterns, turns the lists into interactive checklists, and
enables you to check them off as you complete them. But what makes
Notes really attractive is Apple’s Siri voice activation feature, which lets
you dictate information without typing one word.
With Notes, you can also add a photo, a map, or a URL directly into your
note. There are also a variety of artistic tools available on Notes that let
you write or draw with your finger in a variety of brush strokes and colors,
and it even has a ruler to keep your lines straight and your technical
drawings accurate. All in all, Notes is all you’ll need for recording your
speech information.

Evernote Basic

Evernote Basic is a free note-taking application that’s available for iPad,

iPhone, Android devices, Macs, PCs, Windows Phone, and Amazon
devices. Evernote comes in two higher versions, Plus and Premium, but
they require monthly fees for their use. For recording and accessing your
speech information, Evernote Basic is more than you will ever require to
meet your needs.
Evernote Basic lets you record, store, label, and retrieve a vast amount of
information for your speeches. It also lets you record voice reminders,
create lists in a variety of formats, snap photos, and save URLs and other
clips from the Web directly into a note. Evernote and Notes share many
similar features, but Evernote does have one feature that Notes does not.
Evernote lets you share and discuss your notes with other Evernote users.
This is one important advantage Evernote provides for those who want to
collaborate in their research and speech preparation.

Simplenote

For those who don’t require fancy note-taking features like images,
attachments, URLs, or collaboration with colleagues, then Simplenote
might be all you’ll want or need to conduct your speech research.
Simplenote offers a clutter-free space for typing your notes, and that’s
about it. The founder of Simplenote, Matt Mullenweg, says, “You don’t
open a letter with a chain-saw.” And with Simplenote, you don’t get a
chainsaw. For some, that’s the height of function and beauty.

Index Cards

For those of you who prefer using pen and paper instead of an electronic
device to write things down, run down to your local CVS or Walgreens and
pick up a pack of three-by-five-inch index cards for a dollar, and you’re all
set to record your research information.
When recording your research material, list the author’s name, followed
by the title of the book, magazine, newspaper, periodical, or website
address. Also include the date of the publication. For information from the
Internet, indicate the most recent update of the article being presented.
If you are using information from an interview you have conducted, give
the interviewee’s name and professional background and the date of the
interview. Your documented information (statistic or quotation) can now
be written after your documentation. A finished evidence piece should look
something like this:

Knowledge is knowing a fact. Wisdom is knowing what to do with it.

—OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES

Randy Fujishin

Natural Bridges, 2020

“You either enlarge or diminish others with every interaction.”

How much information should you research for your speech? A helpful
rule of thumb is to gather about three times the actual amount of evidence
you will present. For a six-minute speech, you would devote two minutes
of actual speaking time to your documented evidence—statistics, expert
testimony, and quotations. So, given the “three times rule,” you would
want to gather enough evidence to fill six minutes of speaking time,
knowing you will select only two minutes of material for the actual speech.
It’s always a good idea to gather more information than you’ll need so you
can choose the most relevant evidence for your particular audience.
Regarding the number of sources you should consult, present at least
three different sources of information. Three is the minimum. Fewer than
that would not ensure sufficient depth or breadth of research.
A final word of caution would be to begin your research as soon as
possible. Most people tend to procrastinate and let things slide to the last
minute. But tardiness in your research will only increase your anxiety and
wreak havoc on your sleep. Don’t wait until the night before you are
scheduled to speak to begin your research. That will only make you old
before your time.

5.4 Helping the Audience Understand

Your Evidence

It’s been said that “people don’t care how much you know. They want to
know that you care.” In many respects, this holds true for your audience
when it comes to presenting evidence in your speeches.
Though it is necessary to present an adequate amount of evidence in
your speeches, don’t overdo it. Include only the most informative and
compelling evidence you could find, but not all of the data you collected.
Remember, you’re not competing in a debate tournament; instead, you’re
giving an informative or persuasive speech to an interested audience. So
invest some effort into the way you present your evidence.
Your audience will be more receptive to and more likely retain your
evidence if it is presented in a way that’s easy to follow and understand. To
accomplish this goal, you can use the “Evidence Three-Step” technique.
These simple three steps for presenting a piece of evidence will help your
audience understand and remember the testimony or statistic. Let’s look at
this technique.

Evidence Three-Step

Step 1: Cite the source.

Step 2: State the evidence.
Step 3: Restate the evidence.

Step 1: Cite the Source

The first step is to cite or document the evidence you are presenting. You
want to establish the credibility of your information first so that your
audience will be more receptive and willing to consider the evidence. State
the author’s name, the source, and any other pertinent background
information you feel will be helpful.
“According to Randy Fujishin in his book, Natural Bridges …”
“Dr. Vijai Sharma, in his Mind Publications blog, states that …”

Step 2: State the Evidence

The second step is to state the evidence. Keep your evidence short and to
the point. There’s no need to go on and on with expert testimony or
statistics. It’s more difficult for you to remember, and you run the risk of
losing your audience’s attention. Keep it short. Restrict your expert
testimony to 20 words or fewer if possible. You can memorize a brief
quotation, and note cards won’t be necessary. Here are examples of a short
quotation and a brief statistic.
“You either enlarge or diminish others with your communication.”
“Over 90 percent of people report some degree of stage fright when they
face the prospects of a public performance.”

Step 3: Restate the Evidence

The final step is to restate the evidence in your own words. The purpose of
this third step is to provide the evidence in words that your audience will
understand and appreciate. Often, evidence is stated in technical or
specialized language, which can be difficult for your audience to grasp.
Your goal is to bring the expert testimony or statistic to a level that every
member of your audience can understand and appreciate. So restate your
evidence in simple language. This will show that you care about your
audience. Here are two examples of restatement.
“In other words, the author is saying that every time you interact with
another person, you either make that person feel a little better or worse
than they felt before they talked with you.”
“Another way of understanding Dr. Sharma’s statistic is that in this
class of 30 students, 27 of us will experience some level of stage fright or
anxiety as we prepare for our first speech.”
Now let’s look at one example using the entire “Evidence Three-Step”
technique:

(1) According to Randy Fujishin in his book, Natural Bridges, (2) “You either enlarge or
diminish others with your communication.” (3) In other words, the author is saying that
every time you interact with another person, you either make that person feel a little
better or worse than they felt before they talked with you.

When you restate the expert testimony or statistic in your own words, the
audience will more clearly understand and appreciate your evidence. More
important, they will know that you cared enough to go that extra step.

5.5 Preparing Your Speaking Notes

After you have selected your speech topic, researched your subject, and
outlined your presentation, the next step in the process of preparing your
speech is to prepare your speaking notes. Very few speakers can speak
without some kind of notes, so let’s look at four ways you might want to
consider as you prepare your notes.

Index Cards

The use of three-by-five-inch index cards, whether you prefer lined or

unlined, provides a number of advantages as speaking points reminders
for the speaker. If you like the feel of hard stock paper, the comfort of
seeing your own handwriting, or the familiarity of always having used note
cards, that’s understandable in this day and age of high-tech everything.
Plus, note cards are cheap and accessible.
But note cards also have some time-tested advantages. First, if you have
a limited amount of note cards, you can spread them out on the podium in
chronological order from left to right and have a visual reminder of where
you are in the speech. Second, they don’t look clunky and obvious like
regular-sized 8.5-by-11-inch printing paper and are less apt to fly away in
the breeze. The third reason is that they don’t need batteries like a smart
device, they won’t freeze up on you if the application goes screwy, and it
saves you some expense since you can purchase 100 index cards for a
dollar.
When you prepare your index cards, keep these tips in mind. Don’t write
a manuscript speech on 30 index cards for your five-minute speech. Use
key words or bullet points to record your main points or structural flow of
your talk. Print or write with large lettering so you can easily view the
words from three to four feet away. Use different-colored cards and
different colors of ink to help you distinguish main points or types of
information. You should be able to key word or bullet point a five- to
seven-minute speech with three to five index cards. Don’t overdo the
details. Remember, this is not a manuscript speech. Number each card in
the upper right-hand corner in case they get mixed up. And remember to
practice with your cards. They will become your friends as you practice
your speeches. Finally, if you’re neurotic, make an identical set of speaking
index cards, with the same markings and coloring, and bring them along to
the speaking event, just in case.

Digital Presentation Notes

If you’ve chosen to use PowerPoint or some other presentation application

or software for your speech, they have some kind of presenter notes
capability that can be easily seen by you, the speaker, on your computer or
laptop monitor but hidden from the audience. For speakers who use these
presentation applications, the speaker notes capability can be useful and
make note cards or smart device notes unnecessary.
If you decide to use the presentational speaker notes function, keep
these tips in mind. Don’t write a lot of notes or develop with too much
detail for each slide. There’s a tendency to go overboard with the words,
ending up with a manuscript speech. Rather than using complete
sentences, use key-word phrases or bullet points and double or triple space
between each phrase or bullet point. This will make your words stand out.
If the application permits, increase font size as well. This again will help
your words stand out and make viewing easier. Position your laptop chest
level if possible so you’re not looking down when you look at the screen.
Finally, remember to talk to your audience and not at your notes. There’s
nothing more boring than looking at the top of someone’s head for long
periods of time.

Smart Device Notes

Every laptop can be used for speaking notes by simply making a Word
document with your key-word or bullet-point speaking notes. If you keep
your notes to a minimum, you’ll probably only need one to three pages to
scroll through as you speak. With an iPad and similar devices, you simply
have to swipe the screen to the left to go to your next page of notes. Once
again, follow the tips offered for digital presentation notes in the previous
paragraph. One last thought—use an iPad or tablet and not a smartphone.
The screen on a smartphone is much smaller than that of a tablet or laptop
and more difficult to read. In addition, speakers have a tendency to hold
their smartphone in one hand while they’re speaking, raising it up to their
eyes when referring to their notes, and this can be distracting to both
audience and speaker. Plus, it restricts the speaker’s gestures to only one
hand.

Teleprompter

If you want to bypass holding a smart device or tablet and would rather not
be bothered with even having to swipe the screen two or three times
during your speech to go to the next page of notes, you might consider
using a teleprompter application. There are several teleprompter
applications available for speakers.
Teleprompter Lite by JoeAllenPro is one of the many free teleprompter
applications that can be downloaded to your smartphone or tablet for free.
It allows you to write your key-word phrases, bullet points, or, if you
haven’t been trained in effective public speaking, your manuscript and use
the tele-prompter function to run your notes or manuscript on a
teleprompter, similar to the ones you’d see in a movie.
Teleprompter Lite lets you determine font size and color, background
color, playback direction (forward or backward), and, most impressively,
speed of scrolling. It’s a miracle of technology for free. JoeAllenPro offers
more advanced systems for a monthly price, but its free version is all any
speaker would ever need. Give it a try, if only for fun. It’s worth a test
drive.

No Notes at All
There’s a final method of speaking, and that’s speaking with no notes at all.
Not even one note card. If you keep your speech limited to a basic
structure of two or three main points, a simple introduction story, and one
final thought or call to action, you might easily deliver a speech without
any notes.
This may sound impossible, but many speakers deliver speeches without
the aid or distraction of any kind of notes, paper or digital. One famous
TED Talk speaker (Carmen Gallo, “Talk Like Ted”) refers to it as “owning
your speech,” where you feel strongly about your topic and have
internalized every facet and detail about what you want to share with your
audience. He believes that when you believe in your message this strongly
and deeply, you actually take ownership of all of its content and structure.
Another TED Talk speaker has suggested that memorizing the main
points of your speech is possible if you can remember your first, middle,
and last name without notes. Now that’s an idea worth pondering.
Whether you decide to use notes or not, keep in mind that the purpose
for your speaking is to make the lives of your audience better in some way.
If your entire speech could be reduced or condensed down to one brief
sentence, what would that sentence be? In the end, that’s probably all your
audience will remember in the days after your speech—one sentence.
So make your speaking matter. Focus on the one sentence or thought
that will improve the lives of those who listen to your words, and perhaps
you will come closer to “owning” your message.

COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES

PERSONAL ACTIVITIES

1. What happened on the day you were born?

Have you ever wondered what was going on the day you
entered the world? Here’s a fun research project. Go to the
library and look up a New York Times newspaper published on
the date you were born (month, day, and year). You may have
to go into the back of the library and use the microfilm
machine, but be of good cheer. It will be well worth your
efforts. Who says research is boring?
 2. Whom do you trust?
Make a list of three magazines, newspapers, or other
publications you trust in terms of the reliability of their
information and reporting. Would you have listed these three
publications ten years ago? How about ten years from now?
What publications would you not accept as being reliable or
truthful?

3. Whom would you have dinner with?

If you could interview (over dinner) anyone (either living or
dead) for three hours, who would it be? That’s any human
being who has ever lived or is now living! Why did you select
this individual? Would you have interviewed this person ten
years ago if you were given this fantasy choice? How about ten
years from now? What do you think you would learn during
the interview?

4. Research the importance of public speaking online.

Go online and research the “importance of public speaking in
your personal life.” You might be very surprised at the many
ways your public speaking skills can improve your
relationships with friends and loved ones. Name three ways
you discovered in your online research that your speaking
skills could be beneficial in deepening your relationships with
others.

CLASS ACTIVITIES

1. Your dream home speech

Take a moment and pretend you have just inherited $5
million. You can live anywhere in the world. Where would you
choose to live? Pick a specific location (for example, the city of
Hilo, Hawaii, as opposed to “somewhere in the Pacific”). Once
you’ve decided on a specific place, go to the library and see if
you can locate three sources of information on your dream
home location. After you have read about this place, does it
still hold its appeal? What did you learn about this place?
What did you learn about yourself? Prepare, practice, and
 present a three- to five-minute speech discussing three
interesting facts or facets about this dream location. Your
speech should include an introduction, body, and conclusion.

2. Overcoming-my-fear speech
There’s a good chance at this very moment, in the back of your
mind somewhere, that you’re fearful or worried about
something. It might be a small lump on your neck, the
possibility of a relationship breakup, or anxiety over being late
on a credit card payment. No matter what your fear or worry
is, make a research project out of it. Think of one or two people
you could talk to or interview who are experts, or at least
experienced, in your area of concern. Whom did you
interview? What did you learn about your fear? What actions
can you take to eliminate, decrease, or accept this fear?
Prepare, practice, and present a three- to five-minute speech
on three insights you discovered about this fear. Your speech
should include an introduction, body, and conclusion.

3. Intercultural speech
Select a culture, other than your own, that you would like to
learn more about. Research at least three written sources and
interview one individual from the culture you selected.
Prepare, practice, and deliver a three- to five-minute speech
presenting three interesting facts you learned about this
culture. Your speech should include an introduction, body, and
conclusion.

Listening to Others
Being Good to the Speaker
DOI: 10.4324/9781003162933-6

The fundamentals of listening:

Explain the listening process

List the barriers to effective listening
List the bridges to effective listening
List the benefits of listening
Demonstrate impromptu speaking

listening
receiving
attending
interpreting
evaluating
responding
external noise
rapid thought
frame of reference
attention span
nonverbal cues
appreciating others
evaluating speeches
appreciating others
impromptu speaking

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the

following:

6.1 Explain the listening process

6.2 List some barriers to listening
6.3 Explain some bridges to listening
6.4 List some benefits of listening
6.5 Impromptu speaking
Laurie grudgingly enrolled in the public speaking class to satisfy the
college’s oral requirement for graduation. She had waited until her senior
year to finally face her fear of giving a speech and was surprised that the
class wasn’t as bad as she once thought it would be. It taught her more
than how to give a speech. It taught her to be a better person.
One night after Laurie finished her homework, she walked into the living
room and saw her mom reading on the couch.
“Well, how’s your life going, Mom?” Laurie asked as she plopped down
beside her mother.
“Okay, I guess,” her mom said as she searched her daughter’s face. “Is
everything okay with you, Laurie?”
“Of course, but what good things are happening in your life?” Laurie
continued.
“Well, there’ve been lots of good things,” her mom said thoughtfully. “In
fact, one of the best things is you.”
“Me?”
“Yes,” continued her mom. “I’ve noticed a big change in you this
semester. You actually ask me questions. You don’t normally do that. But
I’ve noticed you’ve been asking Dad and me questions. Good questions.
And you listen to what we have to say.”
“Well,” asked Laurie, “that’s good, isn’t it?”
“Of course. It’s just that I’m used to you always talking.” Her mom
smiled. “You’ve always been a talker, since you were a little girl. But now
you’re different. You ask questions and you listen—actually listen.”
“My public speaking teacher always tells us to place others first and not
always focus on ourselves. She tells us to shift our focus of attention away
from ourselves and direct it to others by asking questions. She says
questions are like can openers.”
“Your teacher says that in a public speaking class?”
“Not only that,” Laurie continued. “She says that you also need to listen,
to pay careful attention to what others say as well.”
“Well, you’ve been doing that and more,” her mom said. “You used to
talk about yourself all the time. But now you’re interested in others.”
“In my public speaking class, I’ve learned to do more than just listen to
speeches.” Laurie sighed with a smile. “I’ve learned to listen in my real life
—to ask questions and really listen to what people say—to listen to the
hearts of others.”
 “Here I thought your speech class would make you talk even more!” Her
mom laughed. “But it’s actually taught you how to talk a little less and
listen more. Now, that’s a good thing.”
“My listening skills have changed me,” Laurie said.
“They have,” said her mom as she hugged her daughter. “They have.”
One of the most important skills you will learn in a public speaking class
has little to do with what you say or how you say it but rather how you
listen. Now, you might be thinking, “I already know how to listen.” But this
assumption might not be true. In fact, very few of us have ever been taught
to listen effectively.

No one can develop fully without feeling understood by at least one

person.
—PAUL TOURNIER

From your childhood, your assumption was most likely that you knew
how to listen—you were born with the skill to listen, just as you were born
with the ability to cry and eventually babble out a string of words to the
delight of your parents. This assumption was reinforced by important
people in your life. After you impressed your parents with your speaking
skills, it wasn’t long before they were shouting, “Haven’t you been listening
to me?” Your teacher would be ordering you to “Listen up!” And a friend
was soon complaining, “You need to listen to me for a change.” Each of
these statements or questions assumed that you actually knew how to
listen. But in reality, very few of us do.
Both as a speaker and as an audience member, effective listening is
critical to your success and enjoyment of public speaking. So let’s begin by
looking at the basics of the listening process.

6.1 The Listening Process

In our daily lives, we spend more time listening than we do speaking,

reading, or writing. Of all the communication skills, listening is the one we
use most often. Studies show that we spend 45 percent of our
communication time listening and only 30 percent speaking, 16 percent
reading, and 9 percent writing. And, not too surprisingly, studies also
suggest that we remember only a fraction of what we hear. Listening is
important, and we don’t do it very well. So how can we improve our
listening?
Let’s begin by defining listening. Listening is the process of receiving,
attending to, and assigning meaning to aural stimuli. In other words, it’s
the process of making sense out of the sounds we hear. This process can be
better understood by examining the five steps of listening: receiving,
attending to, interpreting, evaluating, and responding.

Receiving

The first step in the listening process is that of receiving or hearing sounds
from the environment. Hearing is limited to the physiological process of
receiving and processing these sounds. At any given moment, you can be
hearing the words of a speaker delivering a speech, the hum of the air
conditioner, the muffled whispers of the people around you, and the
rumblings of your own stomach. All of these sounds and more are
bombarding your ears at the same time, all competing for your attention.

Attending to

The second step is selecting or attending to primarily one of the sounds

from the many you are receiving and disregarding or filtering out all the
others. For instance, you might choose to focus your attention on the
words of the speaker in class and filter out the sounds of people
whispering, the rattle of the air conditioning, and even the rumblings of
your stomach. Listening requires, as does life, that we choose from the
many and focus on the few. Whether it is objects, possessions, goals,
friends, or a spouse, you must choose from the many. The purpose of life is
not to attend to everything but to focus on only those few things that you
find meaningful.

Take a tip from nature; your ears aren’t made to shut, but your
 mouth is.
—MALCOLM FORBES

Interpreting

Once you’ve selected the focus of your attention, the third step in the
listening process is interpreting or assigning meaning to the sounds you’ve
selected. When listening to a speaker, you must determine the meaning of
the words or encode what the speaker is attempting to communicate in the
speech. In addition to the actual words themselves, you will also weigh the
speaker’s verbal cues, such as tone of voice, vocal variety, and rate of
speech. Interpretation will also involve your sense of sight and monitoring
the non-verbal behavior of the speaker. All of these considerations are
necessary for effective message interpretation.

Evaluating

The fourth step of listening is evaluating the message you have heard. Not
only are you required to understand what the speaker is attempting to
communicate, but you must also think about the message in more critical
terms that include evaluating the reasoning used, the accuracy of the
information given, and the credibility of the evidence presented. Listening
is more than just understanding what the speaker has said; it involves the
evaluation of the speech content as well. This evaluation process can also
involve judging the qualifications and credibility of the speaker. Did the
speaker sound and appear honest, sincere, and trustworthy? This fourth
step in the listening process is often the most difficult to learn and develop,
but it’s essential to becoming an effective and responsible listener.

Responding

The final step in the listening process is responding to what you have
heard. You might not always agree with or accept what the speaker is
saying, but you can communicate that you are listening and understand
what is being said. Eye contact, smiling, and nodding can communicate
interest, encouragement, and agreement. Frowning, shaking your head
from side to side, or long glances at your watch can convey disagreement
or boredom.
You can also respond to the speaker’s message by asking questions at
the conclusion of a speech, engaging in a discussion with the speaker after
the event is over, or even following the speaker’s invitation to enroll in a
class, donate to a political party, or volunteer at a charitable organization.
One of the most significant responses you can have to any speech is to
remember the message after the applause has finished. Since the vast
majority of what you hear is soon forgotten, a message that is
remembered, perhaps for a lifetime, is a successful message indeed.

6.2 Barriers to Listening

Listening is a difficult process, especially given the requirements placed

upon the listener in the public speaking setting. Here are several common
barriers to listening in this setting.

Abundance of Messages

The first barrier to listening is the abundance of messages that bombard us

every day, messages crying out to be heard, such as sounds from your iPod,
cell phone, or television; conversations; business meetings; voice mail and
phone conversations; and the list goes on. There are just too many things
to listen to even when we’re listening to a speaker giving a presentation.

External Noise

External noise or interference from outside sources is the second barrier to

listening. Some examples of external noise are traffic, barking dogs,
machinery, and the music from our neighbor’s stereo. These external
noises make listening difficult. In the public speaking class, external noises
can come from other students whispering next to you, a loud air-
conditioning fan, or people talking right outside the classroom windows.
Rapid Thought

The third barrier we experience is rapid thought. We can understand an

individual’s speech up to 500 words per minute, while the average person
speaks approximately 125 words per minute. With all of this spare time on
our hands, our thoughts can drift; we can think about our response to what
is being said or just daydream. Our rapid thought can be a barrier to
listening.

Judgmental Frame of Reference

We often have a judgmental frame of reference when it comes to listening

to others. Questions that flood our minds as we listen to others are focused
on our evaluations of what is being shared. Does this subject interest me?
How does this affect me? Do I agree with what is being said? In public
speaking, this judgmental frame of reference can be a barrier to effective
listening because it can easily make us tune out the words of the speaker if
we are uninterested in, disagree with, or don’t like the topic he is
presenting. This is one of the most common barriers to effective listening.

Short Attention Span

Another common barrier to effective listening is a short attention span. In

addition to devoting less attention to topics we find uninteresting,
disagreeable, or distasteful, we are also conditioned to expect and respond
to rapidly changing messages provided by our technology. The cell phone,
especially with text messaging, is a tool that permits and encourages an
endless barrage of rapid-fire exchanges from a variety of individuals from
the moment we get up until the moment we sleep. Instant messaging, e-
mail, and chat rooms also make your computer, laptop, or smartphone
another example of technology that enables lightning-quick interaction
and exchanges of messages. Even television helps reduce our short
attention span by its endless split-second cuts between the actions and
conversations of those who entertain us.
These miracles of technology keep us connected and entertained in ways
that were inconceivable just decades ago. But there is a price for this
never-ending connection, and that price might be our inability and
unwillingness to simply sit still for a few minutes and listen to another
human being speak without feeling the desire to tap out a message or
shout out a response. This ability to sit still and simply give someone our
undivided attention is becoming a rare skill in this ever-changing world of
ours.

Effort

The final barrier to effective listening is that listening requires effort. As

you learned earlier in this chapter, effective listening requires that you
invest effort in five specific tasks—receiving, attending to, interpreting,
evaluating, and responding to the speaker’s message. Each one of these
factors demands that you place your attention and energy into these
important undertakings and put aside other competing needs and desires.
It’s often easier to drift off and think about those activities you’d prefer to
be doing or people you’d rather be with or maybe just zone out and drift
into a comfortable nothingness. But as an audience member, you have a
responsibility to choose to be present, attentive, receptive, and responsive.
All of these activities require your effort. But remember that your efforts to
listen can increase your knowledge, widen your scope of understanding,
and bless the speaker in ways you can’t begin to imagine. You don’t learn
anything new when you’re talking.

Man’s inability to communicate is a result of his failure to listen

effectively.
—CARL ROGERS

But when you’re listening—really listening—your life can change for the
better. It’s worth the effort.

6.3 Bridges to Listening

As we’ve seen, there are many barriers to effective listening. But there are
actions you can take to improve your listening skills and actually bridge
the gaps and shortcomings that would normally prevent you and the
speaker from connecting in a meaningful way. Let’s now turn our attention
to building bridges to successful listening.

Prepare to Listen

The first thing you can do to be an effective listener is to prepare to listen

before the speaker even begins to talk. If you know the topic of the speech
ahead of time, you might want to briefly research it—nothing big or in
depth, but enough to know the basics. This is where the Internet is helpful.
Just Google the topic and scan the web articles for basic information that
you find helpful or interesting. It’s surprising how much you can learn
about a topic with just a few minutes of research. Your preparation in this
area can also benefit you in following, analyzing, and even discussing the
presentation after the speaker has concluded.
Another way you can prepare to listen is to arrive at the auditorium or
classroom early so you can find a seat in the front. The closer you are, the
easier it will be to hear and see the speaker. Avoid the back and the sides of
the room, since noise and activity from outside the room through windows
and open doors can be distracting. Turn off your cell phone and any other
electronic devices you may have. And whatever you do, don’t text one of
your friends during a speech. That’s not only distracting to the speaker and
to those seated near you, it’s rude. And if someone seated near you talks on
a cell phone or begins texting, politely and quietly request that the person
stop. The speaker and those seated around you will thank you. Be
courageous in your courtesy.

Keep an Open Mind

Even before the speaker begins speaking, remind yourself to keep an open
mind. Be gentle as you receive the speaker’s message. One of the primary
barriers to listening is our tendency to evaluate others. And this evaluation
begins before the speaker even says a word. We observe the way the
speaker walks to the podium, the clothing she wears, the expression on her
face, the way she stands, and even the amount of time she takes before she
utters her first word. By the time the first sentence is finished, we normally
have formed some initial judgments about the speaker.
To provide a bridge of connection for the speaker, suspend your
evaluation a little longer than normal. Put the transmission in neutral for a
short period of time. Just like when you are watching a sunset, simply
observe and take in the scenery. Receive the speaker’s initial words openly,
without asking questions of yourself, such as “Do I like the way the speaker
looks?” “Is the speaker’s voice pleasant?” “Would I dress like that?” or “Do
I agree with the speaker’s opening remarks?” Be willing to be spacious as
you listen. Give every speaker the respect, openness, and support you
would desire.

Support the Speaker

This might sound strange, but as an audience member, you are in a

position to do more than just listen openly to a speaker; you can also
support the speaker’s attempts to communicate with you. This doesn’t
mean that you have to agree with the speaker’s message. It does mean,
however, that you can focus your attention on the speaker, smile your
acknowledgment of his efforts, and nod occasionally with statements you
agree with or find interesting. You don’t have to stand up and cheer, but
you can support any speaker with your eye contact and smile. You’d be
surprised at the large number of audience members who don’t support a
speaker in any observable way, even when they agree with what he is
saying. So put some effort into consciously efforts will be noticed and
appreciated by the speaker. In fact, your support might be remembered by
the speaker long after his words have fallen silent.

The first duty of love is to listen.

—ERICH FROMM

Identify Specific Purpose and Main Points

The purpose of public speaking is for the speaker to communicate a
message to the audience. As an audience member, your willingness and
ability to identify the specific purpose and main points of a speech are
among your primary responsibilities as you listen to the speaker’s words.
Your first goal is to discover the specific purpose or theme of the speech.
Usually the speaker will state the specific purpose in the introduction of
the speech. The title of the speech often provides the central idea or
purpose of the presentation. Whether the specific purpose is clearly stated
or implicit in the body of the speech, your goal as a listener is to ask
yourself the question, “What is the central idea or specific purpose of this
speech?” This should be your focus of attention, especially during the
introduction of the speech.
Once you’ve identified the specific purpose, you should try to recognize
the main points of the speech. These are the three or four main ideas or
reasons the speaker uses to develop the body of the speech in an attempt to
inform or persuade the audience. The main points are usually previewed in
the introduction and reviewed in the conclusion. In the body of the speech,
the speaker might also identify each main point by stating transitions that
are clearly pointed out or numbered. For instance, the speaker might say,
“Now my second point is …” or “The third reason is …” Numbered
transitions make the identification of main points easy.
In the event that there are no clearly stated transitions, you can ask
yourself questions such as “What am I supposed to know, think, or do
because I listened to this speech?” “What are the main categories of
information the speaker is presenting?” or “What are the main reasons the
speaker is providing?” You can also ask, “What supporting material or
information is the speaker giving for each point?” to discover details and
examples that develop the speech.

Recognize Nonverbal Cues

You will listen more effectively if you attend to the nonverbal cues of the
speaker, because the messages given by the speaker can be communicated
as much by the speaker’s tone of voice, facial expressions, and body
movement as by the words themselves. In fact, many times, we tend to rely
more on the nonverbal cues of the speaker than the verbal content when
we interpret the communication of others. The speaker’s nonverbal cues
should match and reinforce her verbal communication. If the speaker is
telling her audience that they’ll enjoy volunteering as a Big Sister, her tone
of voice and facial expressions should reinforce her words. She should be
smiling and speaking with enthusiasm and conviction. But if she’s
speaking with a frown on her face and in a monotone voice, you might
question her sincerity and conviction. A speaker’s nonverbal cues will
provide important information that you must interpret and weigh as you
listen.

Take Notes

Another important way you can build a bridge to better listening is to take
notes on the speech. Note taking can be an active way to become more
involved in the listening process. Here are some guidelines for effective
note taking.
First, limit your note taking to only the important points of a speech,
such as the specific purpose, main and subpoints, and significant or
interesting details of the speech. Don’t feel obligated to write down every
word of the speech. Second, use your own words. Don’t get hung up on
trying to get the exact wording or phrasing. Paraphrase and summarize
what you think the speaker is attempting to communicate. You’ll recall the
information more readily if you write it down in your own words. Third,
use some form of outlining or bullet point organization when taking notes.
Use one word or short phrases for the bullet or outline points. It saves time
when writing and is visually easier to comprehend and recall when
reviewing your notes later. Fourth, if you fall behind in your note taking,
skip a few lines and resume taking notes on what the speaker is currently
saying. You can always go back and fill in the missing information if you
can remember it. If not, don’t worry. You can’t remember everything. But
it’s important to follow the speaker and not get left behind. Just the main
points, remember? You don’t want to spend your entire time as a listener
with your head buried in your notebook. Enjoy the speech. See the
speaker. Pay attention, and show your support and appreciation by
maintaining eye contact, smiling, and nodding your head in
acknowledgment every once in a while. There’s more to life than taking
notes.
Identify Personal Benefits

The final way you can become a more effective listener is to be personally
invested in the speech. That is, ask yourself questions such as “How can
this speech topic make me a better person?” “How will this speech improve
my life?” or “How can I use this speech to be beneficial to others?”
Fundamental questions such as these will enable you to become more
involved in the speech and in the speaker, because you will frame the event
as an opportunity for self-improvement and improving the lives of others.
This might be the highest calling of every speaker—to make this life and
this world just a little better because of an attempt to communicate a
message of significance to the audiences. And as an audience member,
your highest calling might be to discover how any speech might make you
a better person.

The most basic of all human needs is the need to be understood.

—KARL MENNINGER

6.4 The Benefits of Listening

Now that we’ve examined the process of listening, let’s explore some of the
benefits of listening that you will experience in the public speaking
classroom. Some of these benefits include learning about new topics,
appreciating others, evaluating speeches, becoming a better speaker, and
being good to others.

Learning About New Topics

One of the most obvious benefits of listening in a public speaking course is

learning about a vast array of topics that will be presented by the other
students in the class. Not only will you be given the opportunity to share
topics that interest you, but 20 to 30 other people will be given the same
opportunity to share their interests and passions as well. In a sense, it’s
like attending a wonderful potluck meal every time your public speaking
class has speeches, getting a taste of what other folks like to cook up and
enjoy in their lives. The topics will surprise, fascinate, and even inspire
you. Their speeches might make you cheer or shed a tear and maybe even
motivate you to try an activity you would never have dreamed of doing just
minutes before. To live a good life, we need to continue to learn new things
and venture forth boldly as we get older. So keep an open mind and heart
to the topics presented by others. They just might be some of the finest
gifts you’ll receive during this season of your life.

Appreciating Others

Not only will you be given the opportunity to learn about new topics, you
also will be given the chance to meet and appreciate new people. You
might not have thought about this benefit when you enrolled in your
public speaking course. Most likely, you were focused on the uncertainty
and anxiety you imagined such a class might arouse in you. Yet one of the
most surprising and deeply pleasing benefits of listening to other people
share their interests and passions is the appreciation, camaraderie, and
even friendly affection you will experience toward many of the other
speakers in class.

Evaluating Speeches

Your ability to critically evaluate speeches is another benefit you will

receive from listening. That doesn’t mean you’ll become mean spirited and
criticize every speaker who delivers a speech. Instead, you will be able to
examine and analyze the reasoning, information, and evidence presented
in a speech. It’s one thing to know if you’re bored or engaged or persuaded
or unconvinced as you listen to a speech. But it’s quite another thing to
know the reasons a speech held your attention or motivated you to action.
Your ability to know what to look for and how to analyze what is being said
will give you the knowledge and confidence that your responses to
speeches are based on more than just your emotional reactions to the
speaker’s delivery. Instead, your responses will be based on the critical
evaluation of sound reasoning, reliable information, and trustworthy
evidence. This ability to effectively evaluate what you hear will serve you
well for the rest of your life.

Becoming a Better Speaker

Not only will you learn about new topics, have a greater appreciation for
other people, and sharpen your analytical skills, but you will also become a
better speaker yourself by listening to other speakers. Paying careful
attention to the delivery, content, and organization presented by the other
students in class will enable you to incorporate these same strengths into
your own speaking. We become better skateboarders by skateboarding
with those who are more skilled than we are. We become better tennis
players by playing tennis with those who can show us a thing or two. The
same holds true for public speaking. Just by watching more skilled and
talented speakers, we are influenced, encouraged, and even inspired to do
better ourselves. That’s why it’s usually a good idea to spend time with
friends whose character and faith you admire, whose generosity and
warmth you appreciate, and whose maturity and trustworthiness you
respect. You become like those you associate with over time, so select your
friends carefully. In their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, you could be
catching glimpses into your own future.

There are no gifted or ungifted. There are only those who give and
those who withhold.
—MARTIN BUBER

Being Good to Others

Just as a speaker can have an effect upon the audience, the audience, in
turn, can influence the speaker. This fact is one of the most important
lessons an audience member can learn. As a listener, you can make a
difference in how the speaker feels about his presentation and even how he
feels about himself long after the speech has ended. You can be good to the
speaker.
 You might not think of yourself as having a great deal of influence over a
speaker when you’re sitting in the audience. But you certainly do. If you
doubt your power to influence the speaker, try smiling really big the next
time you catch the eye of the speaker and see what happens. Flash your
smile four or five times during the speaker’s presentation and see the
result. Most likely, you’ll get an almost confused smile from the speaker in
return. You might even get a smile of appreciation, especially if the rest of
the audience isn’t being supportive or responsive.
Another way you can have a positive influence on a speaker is to offer
verbal and nonverbal encouragement before she goes up to speak. If you’re
sitting next to the speaker, you can pat her on the shoulder when she gets
up to speak or give her the thumbs-up sign if she’s seated farther away.
You can always say something positive and encouraging if you’re within
speaking range, such as “Do a great job!” or “You’ll do fine!” as the speaker
approaches the podium.
You can also be good to the speaker after the speech has been delivered.
As the speaker returns to her seat, you can say, “I loved your speech!” or
“You did a fine job!” It’s also an encouragement to shake her hand or pat
her on the back if she’s taking her seat next to you. As an audience
member, you can be good to a speaker before, during, and after the speech.
Most of the time, the audience politely listens to each speaker and offers
mild applause, but you can offer more. You can be good to any speaker by
choosing to invest extra effort to acknowledge, encourage, and cheer the
speaker on. Many listeners regard their role of an audience member as
passive and receptive, but you can enlarge the role of the listener to
include acknowledgment, support, and even inspiration to the speaker.
You can choose to be good to others.

6.5 Impromptu Speaking

As your abilities and willingness to listen to others improve, let’s return to

your journey to becoming a better public speaker. Before we look at formal
speaking that requires researching a topic, outlining your content, and
practicing your speech, let’s begin by learning the basics of impromptu
speaking—speaking without prior preparation or practice.
The majority of your future public speaking will most likely be
impromptu—speaking without prior preparation and practice. You will not
always be given an opportunity to research, outline, practice, and deliver a
formal speech. Much of your speaking in public will be informal, less than
one to two minutes in length, and delivered without preparation or
practice. Every day, you will be asked to present your ideas, opinions, and
feelings during informal speaking situations. So before we learn to prepare
and present a formal speech, let’s turn our attention to impromptu
speeches—the One-Point Impromptu Speech and the Standard Impromptu
Speech.

The One-Point Impromptu Speech (One Minute)

Whether you’re presenting your opinion at a city council meeting,

responding to a question at a business meeting, or giving a toast at a family
gathering, your speaking will most likely be spur of the moment. These
impromptu speeches will usually be about one minute in length, so your
effort and focus must be extremely specific—no time to develop a full-
blown introduction, body, and conclusion as we’ve been learning and
practicing in this book. These brief, spur-of-the-moment responses to
questions, inquiries, or requests can be referred to as One-Point
Impromptu Speeches. The One-Point Impromptu Speech contains three
parts—statement of the point, development of the point, and restatement
of the point.

1. State the Point

The most challenging task in the One-Point Impromptu Speech is just that,
to decide on the one point (not two or three) you want to make to your
audience. Once you’ve decided upon the one point, state that point clearly
and concisely. Avoid using well-developed attention getters to open your
impromptu speech. If you do, the audience might expect you to deliver a
more developed body and conclusion, which is not the goal of the One-
Point Impromptu Speech. Brevity is the goal. “I believe tax breaks will help
the economy,” “I disagree with the city council’s proposal,” and “Class
attendance is a positive incentive to student success” are examples of one-
point statements.
2. Develop the Point

Once you’ve stated your point, you need to develop that point. Most likely,
you will not have documented information, statistics, or expert testimony
on the tip of your tongue, but you can give an example, illustration, or
anecdote from your personal life to develop your point.
Your personal experience is the richest source of developmental material
for your One-Point Impromptu Speech. “I’d like to develop this point with
a brief story about how my tax break allowed me to purchase …,” “I once
lived in a community that did exactly what our city council is suggesting in
its proposal, and I’d like to share the dreadful ramifications of such an
unfortunate decision,” and “When I went to college, I had an experience
that convinced me that class attendance is a positive incentive to class
success …” are the beginnings to anecdotes or illustrations that support the
point the speaker is attempting to make. You can also use examples or
illustrations you’ve read about, heard from others, or seen in a movie. This
section of your speech should constitute 90 percent of your One-Point
Impromptu Speech.

3. Restate Your Point

Conclude your speech with a simple restatement of your original point. No

need for a review of your developmental material or some impassioned
emotional appeal. Simply remind your audience of your own point. “I
believe tax breaks will help the economy,” “I disagree with the city
council’s proposal,” and “Class attendance is a positive incentive to student
success.” Keep it simple—the One-Point Impromptu Speech.

The Standard Impromptu Speech (Two or More

Minutes)

Although most of your impromptu speaking requires that you present only
one point in a brief fashion, opportunities may arise to deliver a more
developed impromptu speech. If additional details are requested, a longer
response is desired, or your public speaking instructor wants to develop
your speaking skills, the Standard Impromptu Speech can be very helpful.
The Standard Impromptu Speech is similar to the extemporaneous speech
you’ve learned about in an earlier chapter, with its introduction, body, and
conclusion. The speech length is generally two or more minutes, and it
provides a means to present two to three points in the body rather than
just one. Here are the five steps that make for effective Standard
Impromptu Speeches.

1. Select One Thought

Your first step in the Standard Impromptu Speech is to select one thought,
idea, or theme. We’ll divide that thought into smaller parts later. But first,
select just one thought you wish to communicate to your audience. It can
be as simple as “Greg has been kind to us” or “Speech training is helpful.”
Many experienced impromptu speakers use a quotation or proverb as their
main idea or thought, such as “Love your neighbor” or “A stitch in time
saves nine.” No matter what topic you’re given, try to think of a one-
sentence (a short one at that) idea or thought to work with—the shorter the
better.

2. Organize Your Thoughts Into a Pattern

Once you’ve decided on a main thought or idea, the second step in the
impromptu process is to organize it into a pattern. Here is a list of some
ways you can organize your topic:

Chronological Order: past/present/future, then/now

Topical Order: three characteristics about …, two reasons we should
…
Spatial Order: near/far, up/down, kitchen/bedroom
Problem/Solution: crime/education, inflation/reduce deficit

Let’s try to organize the topic of “money” into the four organizational
patterns just listed.

Chronological Order I. Money I had in the past.

II. Money I currently have.
 III. Money I will have in the future.
Topical Order I. Money is difficult to earn.
II. Money is easy to spend.
Spatial Order I. Inflation rates in America.
II. Inflation rates in Brazil.
Problem/Solution I. Saving money is difficult.
II. Enroll in a payroll-deduction program.

Notice how a single topic, such as “money,” can be organized in a variety of

patterns. With some practice, you can organize any topic into a number of
patterns without much difficulty.

3. Support Your Points With Specifics

Once you’ve selected your topic and have organized it into some pattern,
you are ready to move to the third step of supporting the main points of
your Standard Impromptu Speech. You can develop your main points with
definitions, comparisons, specific examples, anecdotes, personal
illustrations, statistics, facts, or quotations. One of the easiest methods of
support is to reach back into your own life experience and share brief
anecdotes or illustrations that relate to the point you are trying to make.
This method helps the audience feel more involved with you, the speaker.

4. Construct an Introduction

Now that you’ve selected an impromptu topic, organized the topic into a
main-point pattern, and developed each point with supporting material,
you’re ready to construct a brief introduction for your talk. The
introduction will consist of an attention getter and a preview of main
points. Your entire introduction should take no more than 10 to 15 seconds
for a two-minute Standard Impromptu Speech. The attention getter can be
an audience question, a personal statement of belief, or a brief anecdote. A
preview of main points should follow your attention getter. This is simply a
one-sentence statement of the two or three main points you want to
present in your talk, for instance, “I’d like to tell you about two of Jane’s
wonderful traits—her dedication to her job and her dedication to her
family.”

5. Construct a Conclusion

Your conclusion should contain a review of main points and a final

thought or quotation. For a two-minute Standard Impromptu Speech, the
conclusion should be about 10 to 15 seconds long. The review of main
points should be a one-sentence review of the two points you presented in
your talk, for example, “This evening, I’ve told you about Jane’s dedication
to her job and her dedication to her family.” After you’ve reviewed your
points, you end your speech with a final thought or appeal.
One point to remember about your conclusion is to know when to end.
Your conclusion should be short and to the point. Don’t ramble. This is not
the time to begin another point or share a second speech. Know when to
put your impromptu speech to bed.

There is enough time. I have exactly the right number of hours,

minutes, and seconds to accomplish and do everything that I need to
do in my lifetime.
—CLAIRE CLONINGER

Standard Impromptu Speech Outline

Look at the outline of the impromptu speech that follows. Review each
part of the outline to make sure you understand and visualize the function
of each component. This basic outline can be used in all speeches,
regardless of length.

Introduction (10 to 15 seconds) Attention getter

Preview of main points
Body I. Main point (45 seconds)
Example, anecdote, or evidence
Main point (45 seconds)
 II. Example, anecdote, or evidence
Conclusion (10 to 15 seconds) Summary of main points
Final thought

Some Helpful Suggestions When Giving Impromptu

Speeches

Keep Your Speech Short

If you are ever asked to give an impromptu speech, keep your speech short.
If television advertisers are willing to spend hundreds of thousands of
dollars for a 30- or 60-second advertising spot because they believe the
message will reach their target audience, you should be able to get a
thought or two across to your audience in one or two minutes.

Keep to Your Point

Untrained speakers seem to wander and ramble in their speeches. When

you give an impromptu talk, stick to your points. This is not a time for
digressions or tangents. The old saying “The more you say, the less you
say; the less you say, the more you say” applies here. Stay focused.

Keep It Organized

Follow the simple outline presented here. It will save you a great deal of
decision making as you walk up to the podium. You won’t have to think too
much. Just fit your thoughts into the outline format, and you’ll do fine.
Simplicity is the basis of all beauty.

Keep It Colorful

When you support your two or three main points with developmental
material, remember to use colorful, descriptive language. Pretend that
your audience is blind and that your responsibility is to paint mental
pictures in their minds as you speak. This technique will help you utilize
colorful language.

Keep It Conversational

Use your regular conversational voice, but enlarge it a little so you will
project to the people in the back of the audience. Don’t try to sound like
anyone else. Be yourself. Just enlarge it a bit. No one in the entire world
has a voice pattern identical to yours, so enjoy your uniqueness.

Keep Your Cool

The natural tendency is to rush your impromptu speech, so remember to

slow down. Walk to the podium slowly—there’s no hurry. It will also give
you time to organize your thoughts and locate supporting material from
your life experience.

Winston Churchill devoted the best years of his life to preparing his
impromptu speeches.
—F. E. SMITH

Use pauses between the introduction, main points, and conclusion. Use
pauses before and after important words or phrases. The use of pauses is
one of the most powerful signs of speaker confidence.

Keep It Natural

Your delivery—your voice, body movement, gestures, and facial expression

—should be natural and relaxed. You should talk to the audience as if you
are talking with friends. Remember, the audience wants you to succeed.
Relax and enjoy the experience. Be yourself.

Keep It in Perspective
This speech is only two minutes out of your entire life. If you live to age 72,
you will have experienced 37,324,800 minutes. Okay, so 12,614,400 of
them are probably spent sleeping, but that still leaves you with at least
24,710,400 minutes of waking time. In round numbers, that’s 25 million
minutes! Your impromptu speech is only two minutes in length. That’s
only 0.000000001 percent of your life. With all that time left, maybe you
should give two impromptu speeches before you leave the planet. Anyway,
in light of eternity, it’s not a big deal. Keep it in perspective.

6.6 Impromptu Word List

The following list of topics can be used for impromptu speaking practice.
Select a number and decide on one of the two topics that follow it. Give
yourself a few moments to prepare your speech using the five steps
suggested. Then give your impromptu speech. You’ll do well!

1. summer, friend
2. police, season
3. tool, universe
4. love, boy
5. mistake, home
6. talk, fun
7. ship, film
8. monster, foreign
9. holy, nation
10. lamp, truth
11. illness, shoe
12. plastic, wonder
13. telephone, sin
14. spirit, family
15. crisis, travel
16. star, computer
17. happiness, salt
18. boundary, heart
19. watch, store
20. passion, boat
21. shock, passage
22. furniture, car
23. doctor, regret
24. nature, divorce
25. energy, book
26. money, food
27. habit, philosophy
28. people, newspaper
29. secret, bill
30. church, power
31. plant, vacation
32. weep, picture
33. miracle, toy
34. marriage, ball
35. weather, hair
36. gun, earth
37. body, college
38. single, door
39. moral, soap
40. water, country
41. gift, school
42. temper, color
43. hate, furniture
44. music, path
45. army, fear
46. animal, bed
47. wish, floor
48. ground, fish
49. ocean, art
50. brother, map
51. logic, magazine
52. freedom, girl
53. history, mood
54. city, sensitive
55. teacher, clothes
56. dog, society
57. farm, tax
58. insect, jewelry
59. father, hope
60. parade, recess
61. personality, bat
62. joy, sister
63. paper, sex
64. crime, carpet
65. change, plane
66. worry, lamp

COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES

PERSONAL ACTIVITIES

1. Effective listeners you know

On a sheet of paper, identify three individuals whom you
consider effective listeners—people who withhold evaluation
and let you share your ideas and emotions. List specific
behaviors that each person has demonstrated. If possible,
thank these individuals for their positive contribution to your
life.

2. Communicating in other cultures

Ask an individual from a different cultural background about
her listening behaviors and attitudes. How do these behaviors
and attitudes differ from your own? How are they similar?
How did you feel about communicating with a person from a
different cultural background about listening behaviors and
beliefs?

3. Seeing your communication improvements

On a sheet of paper, list three specific ways you can improve
your listening. How do you feel about each behavior? How can
each improvement change your impact on the speakers you
will listen to in the future?

4. Record an impromptu speech with your cell phone

With the help of a friend or a tripod, record yourself delivering
 a one-point impromptu speech. Review the directions on
giving a one-point impromptu speech in this chapter and
record yourself delivering an impromptu speech on the topic,
“The most enjoyable use of my smartphone.” Give yourself a
few minutes to prepare your impromptu speech, record and
deliver your one-point impromptu speech, and then watch
your speech. How did you do? What did you like best about
your impromptu speech? How might you improve your
content or delivery?

CLASS ACTIVITIES

1. Reporting audience behavior

Have one student stand in front of the class and simply report
verbally what the audience is doing at the moment.
Observations such as, “I see you smile,” “I see you nodding
your head,” and “I hear you laughing” will make the student
aware of the audience without having to memorize a speech or
be concerned about effective delivery. The purpose of the
activity is to encourage the speaker to pay attention to the
audience. Have five students volunteer to stand and report
audience behaviors for only 60 seconds each. As a class,
discuss your thoughts and feelings about this activity.

2. Cheering on the speaker

Have one student stand in front of the class and give a short
60-second impromptu speech about one achievement he has
experienced. As the speaker talks, have the audience
spontaneously cheer, clap, or shout something positive to the
speaker. Have five different students volunteer for this activity.
As a class, discuss your thoughts and feelings about this
activity.

3. Listening to a loved one

Take your mother, father, or friend out for dessert (you buy, of
course) and ask questions about life, love, and this person’s
pursuit of happiness during this lifetime. The goal of the time
together is for you to be a good listener. Focus your attention
 on listening, not telling your own story. Paraphrase important
points and keep the focus on the speaker. Remember, you’re
the listener. What was it like to focus your efforts and energy
on listening to someone you love? What was that individual’s
response to your improved listening?

Delivering Your Speech

Being Yourself

DOI: 10.4324/9781003162933-7

The basics of speaker delivery:

List the three characteristics of good delivery

List the elements of good delivery
Explain the guidelines for speech practice
Discuss speaker evaluation
Discuss the concept of delivery between speeches
Handling speaking day challenges gracefully
Explain taking the opportunity to view your speeches

delivery
enlarged conversational quality
desire to communicate
speaker naturalness
body, gestures
eye contact
facial expressions
 breathing
vocal characteristics
pitch
volume
inflection
enunciation
articulation
pronunciation
slurring
omission of sounds
speech practice
viewing your speech

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the

following:

7.1 Explain three characteristics of good delivery

7.2 Summarize the elements of good delivery
7.3 Explain some guidelines for speech practice
7.4 Discuss the speaker evaluation list of questions
7.5 Explain the concept of delivery between speeches
7.6 Discuss handling your speaking day challenges gracefully
7.7 Explain taking the opportunity to view your speeches

Mike enrolled in a public speaking course during his first semester at the
University of California at Santa Barbara. As a freshman, he was surprised
to discover that the majority of students in the class were seniors who had
avoided the public speaking course until their final year of college.
There was one senior in the class, named Ron, who spoke with authority.
Mike would sit mesmerized by the sound of this voice. Ron would stand
behind the podium, almost motionless, with only the slightest twist of the
wrist or a subtle tilting of his head to accentuate a point or ease the
audience into his next thought. What confidence! What command! Mike
now had a role model for speaking.
 As he practiced his third speech of the course, Mike spent hours trying
to lower his voice to match Ron’s deep, resonant, musical notes. As he
practiced his talk, his body wanted to dance, as it had during the first two
speeches, but Mike restricted his movements, so he could match Ron’s
subtle and almost aloof gestures and posturing. As he practiced, Mike
became more and more excited. His practice was paying off. He was
speaking and moving just like Ron. It was working.
Mike’s third speech, however, was a bomb. He didn’t really know what
had happened that morning in class when he got up to speak. His voice
was deep like Ron’s. His posture was motionless like Ron’s. And his
gestures were as subtle as any Ron had presented. In fact, Mike felt like he
was Ron! But something wasn’t right.
It wasn’t until after class that Michelle, one of the other students, came
up to Mike in the hallway and said, “I liked the ‘friendly’ Mike more.” That
was all she had to say. Michelle liked the “friendly” Mike more. She liked
the old Mike, and not his imitation of Ron.
Mike took Michelle’s comment to heart, and two weeks later, he
delivered his next speech in a more relaxed and conversational tone of
voice. He talked and moved naturally. He was being himself and not acting
like somebody else. And it felt right. This was one of the most important
lessons Mike learned in his public speaking class—to be himself by
speaking naturally.

7.1 Characteristics of Good Delivery

The content of your speech is what you say. Delivery is how you say it.
Delivery is the overall “who” that you present to the audience, not the
“what” that you say. Delivery is more than just the volume, rate, and pitch
of your voice and the way you enunciate words. It includes your
appearance, posture, body movement, hand gestures, eye contact, and
facial expressions. In other words, delivery is all of the nonverbal
communication you express to your audience when you speak.
The adage “It’s not what you say, but how you say it” merits serious
reflection, especially in light of current research. Studies have shown that
nonverbal communication has a greater impact than verbal
communication when we receive and interpret messages. One such study
asserts that only 7 percent of our emotional response to another person is
determined by the verbal component of what is said, whereas 93 percent of
our response is shaped by the speaker’s nonverbal behavior!

Naturalness and simplicity are the truest marks of distinction.

—SOMERSET MAUGHAM

What does this mean to you as a public speaker? Obviously, it suggests

plenty. The most thoroughly researched and well-organized speech will
have little impact on an audience if the speaker’s delivery lacks a
conversational quality, a desire to communicate, and speaker naturalness.

Enlarged Conversational Quality

The majority of impressive professional speakers you have observed in

person or heard on radio or television were speakers who probably
sounded more like formal orators; they were people whose voices boomed
rather than whispered, whose gestures painted grandiose scenes, and
whose bodies illustrated every phrase. Often, these speakers were
addressing large audiences, and such delivery might have been appropriate
for the occasion. But for our public speaking purposes, the most effective
speaking style is an enlarged conversational quality.
An enlarged conversational quality of speaking means talking with the
same naturalness and quality of voice you would use when speaking with
another person, only enlarged just a little. To do this, you increase the
volume of your conversational tone of voice so people in the back of the
room can hear you, and you expand your gestures and movements a bit so
all the audience can see them. The primary goal of using an enlarged
conversational quality is that your audience will get the feeling that you are
talking to them in a natural fashion, not talking at them with calculated
and rehearsed gestures.
How can you speak with an enlarged conversational quality when your
body stiffens, your hands freeze, and your voice tightens even at the
thought of addressing an audience? The most useful way to achieve this
enlarged conversational quality while planning and practicing your speech
is to imagine that you are talking to just one person.
See this person in your mind’s eye as you prepare the wording of your
outline and practice the delivery of your talk. Try practicing your speech
with the mental image of someone you feel safe with. You don’t need a
photograph of the individual, only the mental image. If you can do this
successfully, you will begin to acquire the correct conversational tone.

Desire to Communicate

It’s been referred to as “speaker directness,” “speaker presence,” “focus,”

“love for the audience,” and “immediacy.” We’ll simply refer to it as the
speaker’s desire to communicate. This desire to communicate is the feeling
the audience senses when a speaker really wants to be there sharing her
message. The audience knows the speaker really desires to communicate
with them. She wants to be there and not somewhere else. The speaker is
not forced to talk; she wants to talk.
With this desire to communicate, the speaker also communicates an
awareness of and a sensitivity to her audience. The speaker’s eyes are
focused on the audience, not on her notes. She is aware of the audience’s
feedback and is sensitive to their responses. They get the sense that she
sees them, feels them, and is with them in body and spirit.
This sounds like a description of the behavior of someone who loves you
—the immediacy, the focus, the concern, and the sensitivity. No, you’re not
required to fall in love with your audience; however, you are encouraged to
forget yourself and focus your attention, your thinking, and your energy on
being there with your audience and showing your desire to communicate
with them.
Ideally, you are a speaker who wants to be there sharing with the
audience. They may soon forget most of your words, but they will
remember you and your desire to communicate.

Speaker Naturalness

There’s an old Jewish proverb that wisely asks the question, “If you can’t
be yourself, who can you be?” A common and disturbing problem that
prevents us from living a free and healthy life is our inclination to try to
act, think, and be like someone else—awkward attempts to be someone we
are not. Granted, imitation is one of the basic tools in learning, whether for
language acquisition or writing style. But as a template for living, it can be
hazardous.
When Mike was trying to imitate Ron, he was uncomfortable and
awkward. For 18 years, Mike had spoken like Mike. He had talked and
behaved in a manner that was natural for him and no one else. Mike was
comfortable with the way he communicated. His voice may not have been
as deep as Ron’s, but it was friendly and warm. His gestures may not have
been as smooth as Ron’s, but they were expressive. And his body
movement wasn’t as controlled as Ron’s, but it showed his enthusiasm and
desire to communicate.
Over the years, Mike has improved the quality of his voice, the
smoothness of his gestures, and the movement of his body. And so will
you. But Mike is fundamentally the same speaker he was back then. The
big difference now is that Mike has come to appreciate and develop his
own natural speaking style. He isn’t trying to be someone else. And neither
should you.

The only time you touch the hearts of your audience is when you’re
being yourself.
—BURL IVES

No one else in the world speaks exactly as you do. And no one else in the
world feels, acts, or thinks exactly as you do either. Your individuality is
what makes you, you. That’s what makes life so stimulating and exciting—
the differences, not the similarities. Perhaps your individuality or
naturalness is the most precious possession you can share with another
person.
As you speak to your audience, let them see the real you. Don’t hide
behind the voice of someone else. Don’t disguise the rhythms of your
gestures. And don’t conceal your body’s true dance. The audience has you
for only a few minutes of their lives; let them hear the real you, not
someone else.
“If you can’t be yourself, who can you be?”
7.2 Elements of Good Delivery

Now that we’ve examined the three characteristics of good delivery, we can
look at its specific elements. Those elements include your body, gestures,
eye contact, facial expressions, breathing, and vocal characteristics.

Body

Your body communicates a great deal about you to others. The first thing
your audience will notice about you is your overall appearance as you step
up to the podium or take center stage. Your appearance in terms of dress
and grooming will have a significant impact on an audience.
A speaker’s attire can enhance or detract from the effectiveness of the
presentation. Somewhat formal dress can often increase a speaker’s
credibility with an audience, whereas flamboyant, shabby, or enticing
attire can actually distract, annoy, and even anger the audience. You don’t
necessarily have to suit up in a tux or evening gown, but you should
carefully and thoughtfully consider the audience and the occasion and
dress accordingly.
Grooming should also be an important consideration when preparing
for your talk. A hot shower and just a splash of cologne or perfume will not
only enhance your appearance but also make you feel better about
yourself.
Once you’re up there at the podium, your audience will check out your
overall posture. Before you begin speaking, pause at least three seconds to
center your weight evenly on your two feet. Don’t lean on one foot more
than the other. Equal weight, that’s what we want here. And your feet
should not be spread more than shoulder’s width. A little less would be
fine. Keep your back straight, and square your shoulders to the audience.
Don’t aim a shoulder at the audience—square those shoulders.
Let your hands hang at your sides freely as you take your three-second
pause before speaking. A common error made by novice speakers is that
they don’t pause and get set before speaking. They simply run up and
begin talking nervously even before they reach the podium. That sends a
loud message to the audience. It says the speaker is nervous, anxious, and
literally out of control. Take those three seconds to center yourself. It will
pay off for the remainder of your talk.
When an individual faces an audience, the normal response is to freeze—
not move. But a rigid, motionless delivery style would be monotonous to
watch for even a short period of time, and it will only serve to make you,
the speaker, tenser and more nervous. Body movement has been shown to
attract the attention of an audience. You don’t need to do cartwheels
across the stage or backflips off the podium, but there are some body
movements that are helpful in sustaining audience interest and
emphasizing important points.
Speaking of podiums, try moving away and speaking from the side of the
podium to communicate a more informal speaking style. This more
informal and natural speaking style is beneficial in most speaking
situations. If the audience can hear your voice without the use of the
podium microphone, step away from the podium when you’re speaking.
This will give you more room for body movement and gestures.
You might also find it useful to walk two or three short steps to your
right or left when you state a main-point transition or stress an important
phrase in your talk. This is called walking into your points. This walking
movement recaptures the audience’s attention and visually reinforces the
transition from one point to another. Walk slowly when you do this. Don’t
rush. Stroll slowly into your next point.
If you want to get more intimate with your audience, walk a few steps in
their direction. Be careful not to fall off the stage, but stroll toward the
audience. This movement works really well when you’re giving the punch
line to a joke or the climactic ending to a story. You can do just the
opposite—that is, walk away from the audience—when you want to voice
strong emotion. Just a few steps back is all you need.
A final word on body movement. Too much movement, unrelated
movement, or repetitious movement can distract an audience. Use your
body movement to direct attention and emphasize points during your talk.
Use it carefully.

Gestures

Your gestures consist of your hand and arm movements during your
speech. One way your delivery can be enhanced is to use your hands and
arms to help you express and reinforce the points you are trying to
communicate. Unlike a magician, who often uses the gesture and
movement of one hand to distract the audience’s attention, you can use
gestures to focus their attention and reinforce nonverbally the message
you’re trying to express. Here are two primary ways you can use gestures
when you speak.
The first way is to reinforce or visually demonstrate the point you’re
trying to make. You can raise your hands over your head to demonstrate
an effective basketball defense posture or slowly move your hand from the
left to the right on an even plane to reinforce how calm the ocean was as
you tell a story. The second way you can use gestures is to focus the
attention of the audience by pointing to an object, visual aid, or television
monitor or by holding an object in your hand.
There are two categories of gestures. The first is symmetrical gestures,
where both hands and arms are doing the identical movement—gestures
that mirror each other. Symmetrical gestures are the most common
gestures used by speakers. When you want to add some variety to your
speaking, use asymmetrical gesture by gesturing with only one hand. This
can be helpful in emphasizing points, directing attention, and adding
emphasis to your point.
Here are some helpful hints when using gestures. Anytime you’re
speaking, try to match the size of your gestures to the size of your
audience. If you’re speaking to an individual or audience of five, your
gestures should be small. But when addressing a larger audience of a
hundred, your gestures should be big and bold to match your louder voice
and increased enthusiasm.
No matter what size of an audience you’re speaking to, keep your
gestures open and broad. When you use open gestures, you demonstrate
an openness to the audience that will increase your warmth and
friendliness. Your broad gestures will make you appear larger, more
confident, and worthier of your audience’s attention.
One caution is not to gesture all the time. Variety will make your
delivery more dynamic and alive. So use a variety of gestures, and be
careful not to repeat a specific gesture too often. That can become boring
and distracting. When you’re not gesturing, keep your hands to your side.
Don’t cross your arms or glue your hands to the sides of the podium. Keep
your arms at your sides, and then raise your arms and hands again to
express your points.
 Movements are as eloquent as words.
—ISADORA DUNCAN

Your use of gestures will enhance your delivery and increase the
effectiveness of your communication efforts. Your speaking effectiveness
requires much more than just your words. It demands your body as well to
communicate to your audience, and your gestures are one of the most
powerful ways to connect with your audience and express your points.

Eye Contact

The manner in which eye-contact behavior is interpreted varies from

culture to culture. But in US culture, you are expected to have direct eye
contact if you are to be perceived as interested, honest, and credible. If not,
you run the risk of being seen as uninterested, reticent, or even devious.
When you speak to an audience, this principle holds true also.
Direct eye contact with your audience serves a variety of positive
functions for the speaker. First, it establishes contact with the audience.
How can a relationship be established if you don’t even see them? Second,
eye contact holds the attention of the audience. You don’t need to look into
the eyes of every one of your audience members to keep their attention,
but spread your eye contact around the room. Look at the front, the back,
and the sides. Don’t get stuck on one section of the room. Avoid looking at
your notes, the floor, or the ceiling. Third, eye contact is the best way to
receive feedback from the audience. Do they look bored? Are they
interested? Are they confused? All of these questions can be answered
quickly and silently by glancing around the room. Finally, eye contact
suggests honesty. The adage “A person won’t look you in the eye if he or
she is lying” seems to be true in public speaking as well.

Facial Expressions

Research has found that once a relationship has been established, the face
is the area at which most people look to observe and evaluate the
emotional responses of another person. As a public speaker, your facial
expressions are important in your communication. Although many of the
audience members in the back rows may not be able to see your
expressions in detail, all of your listeners will develop a sense of how you
are feeling and who you are by your facial cues. In addition to your eye-
contact behavior, your ability to use your mouth and face to emphasize,
stress, and illustrate emotions cannot be overlooked.
Facial expressions and habits are one of the most difficult movements to
change or modify, primarily because we are so unaware of them. Like the
sound of our voice, our facial expressions have a life all their own, a life
outside of our conscious awareness. We simply cannot see our face as we
go about our daily life. Sure, we can view it in a mirror, a photograph, or
even on videotape, but those are indeed brief moments. So our faces are
literally strangers to us.
If you want to try something really unusual, stare at your face in a
mirror for five minutes without looking away—no distractions, no one else
in the room. Just look at your own face for five minutes. See what happens.
The image in the mirror becomes almost unrecognizable after a few
moments of studying the detail of your own face. Who are you, anyway?

Never bend your head. Hold it high. Look the world straight in the
eye.
—HELEN KELLER

Here’s one specific suggestion for your facial expressions while you give
your speech. Smile. This suggestion may sound trite, and yet it needs
repeating. You need to smile. Did you know it takes less muscle effort to
smile than to frown? No wonder we get so exhausted when we’re frowning
during our bad moods.
Smile during the first three seconds you’re in front of your audience, as
you get your posture centered. Even if you are going to present a very
somber topic, you can still invest three seconds for smiling. It’ll relax both
you and your audience. You’ll discover when you smile during this initial
phase of the speech that you’re more likely to loosen up and express a
variety of emotions during the remainder of your talk.
 But what if you’re not a person who smiles by nature, or you happen to
feel a little down that day? Fake it! Yes, fake it! Life’s too short. You owe it
to your audience to be “up” for your talk. You can frown for the rest of the
day. But give your audience the best you have. This is not therapy; it’s your
speech, your gift to the audience. Make it a good one!

Breathing

An entire book could be written on the importance of breathing, but we’re

going to spend only three paragraphs stressing its pivotal role in making
you an effective speaker. For starters, if you didn’t breathe once during a
five-minute speech, you’d most likely pass out and maybe even die. How
about that for being important? You could go through an entire five-
minute talk and never once look at one person, give one gesture, state one
transition, or wear a stitch of clothing, and not much would happen to you.
Maybe speaking naked would cause something to happen, but overall,
nothing much would. Yet without breathing for those five minutes, you
die. It’s that simple.
More than 2,000 years ago, Lao Tzu said, “It is not wise to rush about.
Controlling the breath causes strain.” Did you know that when you’re
frightened or anxious, you hold your breath? When you’re speaking before
an audience, you have a tendency to hold your breath. You see it in just
about every beginning speaker—the rapid rate of speech and the run-on
sentences, punctuated occasionally by huge gulps of air. Remember, even
when you’re under extreme stress, your body knows enough not to kill
itself.
What can you do to breathe properly when speaking to an audience?
Three things, really. First, begin breathing in deep, even breaths about a
minute or two before you are called to speak. Don’t hyperventilate and
pass out. Just slow, deep, even breaths. Second, while you’re smiling and
centering your posture during the first three seconds in front of your
audience, draw in three deep breaths while you’re doing your “one
thousand one, one thousand two, one thousand three.” This will give you
air to begin your speech. Third, breathe after each long sentence during
your speech. Breathe from the stomach, not from the throat. Inhale with
your stomach. Pause often during your speech. Pause long enough to
inhale deeply and exhale completely. This will seem like an eternity when
you’re up in front of all those people, but it will save you. It will save not
only your life but your speaking style as well.

Vocal Characteristics

There are six aspects of your voice worth mentioning here. Vocal
characteristics are made up of rate, volume, pitch, inflection, enunciation,
and vocal variety.
Your speaking rate is the speed at which you talk. It’s generally
measured in number of words per minute. The average speaking rate is
about 110 to 130 words per minute. Some people speak more slowly, others
more rapidly. If you speak too slowly, you run the risk of losing the
attention of your audience. If you speak too quickly, you make it difficult
for your audience to understand you. In addition, an extremely rapid rate
of speech can annoy or irritate an audience. Find a rate of speech that is
comfortable for you, but don’t feel that it is best to stick to this speed. One
of the marks of an experienced speaker is the ability to vary the speaking
rate. The most common error is for the beginning speaker to speak too
rapidly. In that case, you should pause more after long sentences and
phrases and take deep breaths. Another helpful aid is to occasionally mark
in red the word “SLOW” on your note cards.

The human voice is the most beautiful musical instrument.

—JUDY COLLINS

Volume is the loudness of your voice. In public speaking, you have to

speak loudly enough so that your listeners in the back row can hear you
without straining. If the people in the back appear to be having difficulty,
stop your talk and ask them if your voice can be heard. Speak louder if they
can’t hear you. A soft voice not only makes it difficult for the audience to
listen to your speech, but it also can be interpreted as a sign of reticence,
weakness, or fear.
If you discover that you need to develop more volume in your speaking,
you might try practicing the backyard yelling exercise. You’ll need a friend
for this one. Anyone will do. Have your assistant sit in a chair in the
backyard, in the parking lot of your apartment house, or anywhere you
have 30 feet of free space where you won’t get hit by traffic. Pace offabout
30 feet between you and your assistant. Begin your speech. If your friend
cannot hear you, have him raise his hand for you to increase your volume.
Increase your volume, even if you feel as if you’re screaming. Your
assistant will lower his hand when he can hear you. This goes back and
forth until you reach a volume that is loud enough for your assistant to
hear from 30 feet. If you can pass this test, you’ll be heard in any room.
Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of your voice. It can be thought of
as the placement of your voice on a musical scale. Each individual has a
natural pitch level. The movement of pitch either upward or downward
from this natural pitch level is known as inflection. Inflection is used to
give emphasis to certain words or phrases. A speaker who never varies her
pitch (inflection) is said to speak in a monotone fashion. A monotone voice
is a boring voice after a few minutes.
One way to get inflection into your voice is to emphasize important
words in your sentences. Read aloud the sentence that follows while
emphasizing a different word with each reading. Begin with the emphasis
on the first word, and read the sentence. Then read the sentence again,
with the emphasis on the second word. Repeat the process until you’ve
read through the sentence seven times.

I would love to see you again.

The meaning of the sentence changes with each different reading, doesn’t
it? Inflection is a powerful verbal tool in speech emphasis, and it is one of
the most effective cures for a monotone delivery.
One last method for changing a monotone voice is called the singing
exercise. You simply sing your words as you practice your speech. In a
standing position, deliver your speech by singing every word. Make up a
melody as you go along. Don’t sing to the melody of a song you know. Just
let the words and melody flow. It may feel foolish initially, but who cares?
The point is to break your monotone habit.

I have found that if you love life, life will love you back.
—ARTHUR RUBINSTEIN
 Enunciation consists of articulation and pronunciation. Articulation is
defined as the ability to pronounce the letters of a word correctly, whereas
pronunciation is the ability to pronounce the entire word correctly. There
are three common causes of articulation problems: sound substitution,
slurring, and the omission of sounds.
Sound substitution happens often in speaking. Many of us say “budder”
instead of “butter,” or “dat” instead of “that.” In the first case, we
substituted the sound of “d” for “t,” and in the second example, we
substituted the sound of “d” for “th.”
Slurring is usually caused by a rapid rate of speech or a running
together of words. We often say, “I’ll getcha a hot dog,” instead of “I will
get you a hot dog.” Be aware of slurring your words when you speak.
The final cause of articulation problems is the omission of sounds. We
sometimes say “flowin’” instead of “flowing,” or “singin’” instead of
“singing.” Don’t get lazy when you pronounce your words.
The final characteristic of your voice is vocal variety. Vocal variety
refers to the variance or range you give to the rate, volume, and pitch of
your speech. You’ll recall that inflection is the variance or change in pitch.
This gives your voice vocal variety. Variance in your volume and rate also
plays an important role in keeping your speech interesting and lively.
Vocal variety in your pitch, volume, and rate prevents a monotone speech
delivery, and nothing puts your audience to sleep faster than a monotone
voice.

7.3 Speech Practice

No one is born with public speaking skills, no matter what you think. The
outstanding speakers are those individuals who invest countless hours of
practice time improving their skills. Nothing comes without a price.
This book isn’t worth a penny if you don’t actually take the time and
effort to practice the skills that we have been discussing up to now. The
choice is ultimately yours. It’s always yours. When you practice your
speech, consider these guidelines for a productive practice session.

Complete Your Outline Before You Practice

Begin your practice sessions only after you have typed your final outline.
Read through your outline a number of times so you become familiar with
the content and structure. Then make your four-by-six-inch note card of
main points and key words so you can quickly refer to it during your
practice sessions.

Choose a Private Practice Site

Select a room in your house or apartment that will give you adequate space
to walk three or four steps in any direction. Don’t practice in your car
during a rush-hour commute. Select a real room that is free of
interruptions and distractions such as telephones, children running
around, a noisy television, or even Grandma knitting quietly in the corner.
After you’ve selected the room, set up three chairs, side by side, to
represent your audience. You should be standing about eight feet away
from the chairs, facing in their direction. Remember to have about three or
four steps of clear space all around you so you can walk into your
transitions.

Practice in a Standing Position

There are people who practice their speeches in a prone position, in a

sitting position, and even in the lotus position. But you will be standing
when you deliver your speech to your audience, so you should be standing
when you are practicing. If you won’t practice from a standing position,
you might as well just squirt lighter fluid on this book right now and set a
match to it. Please practice your speech in a standing position. Anything
short of this is a sin.

Loosen Up Before You Begin Practicing

As you stare at the three chairs representing your audience, get a mental
picture of one of your favorite people in the world sitting in the chair on
your left. Don’t worry about the chair on your right. As you visualize that
person, begin your deep breathing. Breathe for a minute or two with your
eyes open. Take deep, even breaths from your stomach. Shake your hands
vigorously at your sides. Keep breathing. Roll your head to the right a
couple of times and then to the left a few more times. Sing a song or just
talk gibberish for a minute or so, starting out with a low volume and then
going up in volume until you almost reach a shouting intensity. Keep this
up until you feel like you’re loose and ready to go.

Practice in Small Increments Initially

Practice your introduction all the way through two or three times until you
get it right. Then move on to your first main point. Practice it by itself two
or three times until you’re satisfied with your command of the material.
Then move on to the second main point. Continue the process until you’ve
completed the conclusion. Just one section at a time. Small increments for
now. Once you’ve moved through the entire speech, section by section, go
back to the introduction and first main point, and see if you can get
through both of those parts combined. Try it again until you feel satisfied.
Then add the second main point to your cluster. Then add the third main
point and finally the conclusion. There, you’ve got the entire speech.

There is no such thing as an insignificant improvement.

—TOM PETERS

Time Your Speeches

A stopwatch is a wonderful aid when timing your speeches, but any watch
with a sweep second hand will do. Time your small-increment practice
sessions. You should be able to figure out roughly how long each section
should be. As you practice and check your time, you might have to add a
little here and cut a little there. But that’s what this is all about. When you
are comfortable with each section, time the entire speech and edit your
talk so that it’s within the required time limit. With timed practices, you
should know within 30 seconds either way how long your final
presentation will be. Now that’s preparation!
Practice the Entire Speech Five Times

At one practice session, practice your entire speech two times. A few hours
later or the next day, practice your speech another two times all the way
through, referring to your note cards only when necessary. On the morning
you are scheduled to speak, practice your speech only once all the way
through. And that’s it. No more practice. If you practice your speech too
often, you run the risk of it sounding memorized. Five times, no more.

Don’t Practice in Front of a Mirror

You won’t be speaking into a mirror when you deliver your speech, so don’t
practice with one. Mirrors have a tendency to confuse the speaker. They
can distract more than help. So don’t even think of practicing in front of
one.

Record Your Practice Sessions

If you’re really serious about conducting practice sessions that are

worthwhile, invest $30, pick up the cheapest audiocassette recorder you
can find, and record your five full-speech practice sessions. This takes a
little guts and some money, but there’s nothing quite like it for evaluating
your performance and progress. Don’t practice with a videotape unit just
yet. It’ll overwhelm you with visual stimuli, and you won’t be focusing on
your speech patterns. Save the videotape for later speeches. For now, just
the audiocassette, okay? When listening to your recording, check for
naturalness, the desire to communicate, and an enlarged conversational
quality. Also check your voice for proper volume, rate, pitch, and vocal
variety. Did you have too many verbal pauses, such as “ah,” “um,” and “you
know”? Observe your energy level. Did you sound enthusiastic or dead?
See how helpful this $30 recorder can be in your speech practice regimen?

Evaluate Your Speech

Before you deliver your speech to an audience, evaluate one of your

practice speeches for content, organization, and delivery. Your practice
speech can be videotaped for your viewing, or have a friend watch your
practice session. Either way, have your friend complete the evaluation
form on the following page, or complete it yourself. Don’t limit yourself to
the objectives contained in the list. Feel free to add your own points. The
important thing is for you to critically evaluate your speech before you
present it to your audience.

Speech Day Checkout

On the day of your talk, practice your speech one time all the way through.
Take a hot shower and dab on your cologne or perfume. Smell good for
yourself, if for nobody else. Don’t eat a heavy meal or really greasy food
three hours before you’re scheduled to talk. It’ll make you sleepy—and no
alcohol any time before you speak. Arrive early to the auditorium or room
so you can get a feel for the layout, the atmosphere, the podium, and the
microphone setup. Also, find out where the restroom is and a telephone if
you need it and where you will be sitting before you speak. Do all this
before people begin arriving. As your speaking time nears, try to keep to
yourself. This is not the time for idle chitchat. Keep to yourself and begin
breathing deeply and evenly from your stomach. Glance over your key-
word note card once more. Wait quietly until your name is announced.
Then slowly get up from your chair, breathing evenly and deeply. You’re
now ready to walk to the podium. Aren’t you glad you practiced? Have fun.
And remember to breathe from the stomach, deeply …, evenly …

Be Gentle on Yourself

No matter what happens, be gentle on yourself. It’s only a speech! A

hundred years from now, it won’t matter all that much. What really counts
is your decision to attempt a speech. Go get’em.

7.4 Speaker Evaluation

Content
 Topic appropriate to the audience?
Topic specific enough/limited in scope?
Adequate development of main points:

Human-interest material?
Statistics/expert testimony?
Statistics/expert testimony documented?

Vivid, descriptive language?

Visual aids clarified/developed points?
Audience questions answered effectively?

Organization

Introduction

Attention getter?
Purpose of the speech stated? Preview of main points?
Goodwill established?

Body

Transitions clearly stated?

Internal transitions?
Recap of each point before transition?

Conclusion

Summary of main points?

Final-thought device?

Delivery

Appropriate dress for occasion?

Get set before speaking?
 Straight posture?
Relaxed, natural body movement?
Direct eye contact?
Expressive gestures?
Fluid, articulate speech? Adequate volume?
Adequate vocal variety?

7.5 Your Delivery Between Speeches

Academy Award–winning actor Tom Hanks once observed, “Anyone can

be nice when the spotlight’s on, but what happens when the lights go
down?” In this chapter, we’ve examined ways to improve your delivery—
how you communicate nonverbally during a speech. But it’s also important
to raise the questions, “What do you communicate to the other students
between your speeches?” “How do you act before and after your five- or
ten-minute speech?” “Are you nice ‘when the lights go down’ and your
speech is but a memory?”
Some speakers will spend enormous amounts of time and energy trying
to improve and perfect their public speaking delivery skills, yet pay little or
no attention to their behavior in class before and after they deliver their
speech. As we conclude this section on speaker delivery, let’s reflect for a
few moments on what nonverbal communication messages you give to
others before and after your speech.
Do you attend class regularly? Or do you miss every third or fourth
meeting? Do you arrive to class on time or even a few minutes early? Or do
you rush in late more times than not? Do you smile at others before,
during, and after class? Or do you frown or smirk as you glance around the
room? Do you listen attentively when the instructor talks or students
speak? Or do you read your notes from another class, check your cell
phone messages, or whisper to your neighbor? Do you encourage speakers
nonverbally during their presentations by maintaining eye contact,
nodding, smiling, applauding, and asking questions after the speech? Or
do you check out and stare out the window, play with your pen, or fall
asleep? Do you encourage and compliment others in class? Or do you roll
your eyes, give disgusted sighs, and moan about every assignment? Do you
interact with others briefly before and after class in supportive and friendly
ways? Or are you the last one in and the first one out of the room? In other
words, are you enlarging or diminishing to others by your behavior before
and after you deliver your speech?
Sure, you can learn to be pleasant, positive, and poised when the
spotlight is on you, but what do you communicate to others when the
lights go down and you return to your seat? During the 50 hours of a
semester class, less than one hour of your time is spent speaking in front of
the audience. What do you communicate during the other 49 hours? Are
you enlarging or diminishing? That’s a delivery question worth
considering.

7.6 Handling Speaking Day Challenges

Gracefully

There’s an old saying that “If something can go wrong, it will.” Now, there
are a lot of things that can go wrong when you’re delivering your speech,
but the majority of the time, your speeches will be delivered without many
mistakes, difficulties, or mishaps. In fact, your speeches will be delivered
and received with success and satisfaction, as they should after all the
planning, preparation, and practice you’ve faithfully invested.
But there are times when things do go wrong and you’ll be faced with a
challenge that must be met in that moment to ensure the success of your
speech. Here are five common problems and what you can do when you
experience them.

1. You’re Late for Your Own Speech

Now this problem should never happen if you planned properly and made
it your goal to arrive to the speaking venue one hour early. This early hour
gives you time to get settled in and prepare. You can get familiar with the
room, lighting, audience seating arrangement, podium, microphone sound
check, media setup, and bathroom location. It’s also time to check in with
your speaking event contact person. After all that’s accomplished, it still
gives you time to sit somewhere quiet to breathe, collect your thoughts,
whisper a prayer, or just stare off into space. Take time to get settled and
focused.
But let’s say you’re planning on doing all this, but your flight is late, you
get stuck in a traffic jam, or your car engine overheats. What do you do?

First, call your contact person on your cell phone as soon as you
know you’re going to be late. (You should always have this number
in your smartphone contact list.) The person may be able to switch
you with another speaker, have you speak later, or simply console
you when you need it most. Your phone call either way will show
your responsible character and goodwill.
When you finally get to the speaking venue, take a few moments to
breathe, thank your host, and collect your thoughts before you
speak. No matter when you speak, take a few moments to say
something encouraging to yourself and put on your best smile.
After you conclude your speech, thank the host and audience for
their understanding and patience. Offer to stay late for those who
have questions or desire to connect with you. Things happen, but
you can decide to respond in a responsible, cheerful way.

2. The Microphone Dies

Occasionally in the course of your speaking experience, your microphone

will quit working. Maybe the batteries in the wireless microphone die, the
wireless connection or microphone cable is malfunctioning, or the
amplifier or trans-receiver is acting up. What do you do?

Demand a sound check before you’re scheduled to speak. This will

give you the peace of mind that the microphone works or give the
tech support time to fix any problems. I always put in new
microphone batteries that I carry in my speaking backpack. It’s
worth the effort for the peace of mind it affords you.
No matter what the cause of the dead microphone, smile and check
the microphone ON button. You might have accidentally turned it
off.
Let the tech support person take a few moments to troubleshoot the
problem if that’s the plan. Don’t continue talking as the person tries
to fix the problem. Just stand off to the side, smile, and wait.
 If the problem cannot be fixed, don’t despair. Move away from the
podium, plant your feet in front of the audience, and in your loudest
voice, deliver your speech. Great orators throughout history have
successfully addressed enormous crowds without the aid of an
electronic microphone. Now’s your chance to join their ranks. Be
loud and proud.

3. Your Laptop or Media Function Quits

There might be a moment when your laptop or the media equipment quits
working or malfunctions. Your PowerPoint or media presentation freezes
or simply goes blank. What do you do?

Ideally, you should have designed, prepared, and practiced your

speech so that you could give the main points of your talk without
any notes, media support, or special forces rescue efforts. But if you
didn’t, simply say to your audience,

“Well, it looks as if the PowerPoint is not going to work for us. But this gives me
the opportunity to share with you the one thing I truly hope you will take away
and remember from my talk. And that is …”

Hopefully you will feel strongly about and committed to your

message so you can share it without the use of a manuscript, notes,
or slides. That’s the ultimate speaking goal you might want to strive
toward.
Let the tech support take a few moments to troubleshoot the
problem if that’s the plan. Continue speaking if you know your
material. If not, stand off to the side, smile, and wait.
If the problem cannot be fixed, finish your speech as best you can
without the computer support. Keep your message simple and
focused. Once again, smile and deliver your speech without
electronic support with great enthusiasm. Great orators throughout
history have delivered powerful, inspirational speeches without
electronic media support. Now’s your chance (again) to join their
ranks.

4. You’re Running Out of Time

This might be the most common problem you will experience. It’s easy to
get carried away, especially if the audience is enthusiastically responding
to your speech or you speak longer than you intended. Before you know it,
you realize you have only a few minutes left of your assigned time limit.
What do you do?

Be good on your word. If you agreed to a 10- or 15-minute speech,

keep your promise and deliver a 10- or 15-minute speech. Every
minute you exceed your limit, you push back the event’s agenda and
possibly steal the speaking time of other speakers following you.
Don’t be that self-absorbed or rigid. Finish right on time, smile, and
sit down. The other speakers will love you.
Once you realize that you’re running out of time, determine
immediately in your mind what remaining content is most valuable
to your audience. Notice, not all the content you would enjoy sharing
or feel strongly about, but the content that would be most valuable to
your audience.
Put your audience first and yourself second. You’ve put yourself first
by speaking longer than you had planned and practiced for. So step
aside and ask yourself, “In my remaining two minutes, what would
be most valuable to my audience?” Your answer to that question will
determine the content of your final minutes.
Model mature responsibility. Keep your promise by ending right on
time. Longer speeches are not the goal. Remember that President
Abraham Lincoln’s most famous speech, the Gettysburg Address,
was only 272 words long and took less than two minutes to deliver.
Edward Everett, the politician who spoke before Lincoln, spoke for
over two hours. Which speech has lasted over these many years?

5. The Audience Size Is Tiny

No matter who you are or the topic of your speech, there will be times
when the audience that shows up is much smaller than you were promised
or hoped for. You were told there would be 40 to 50 in attendance and only
7 showed up to hear you speak. What do you do?

This is a critical moment in your life, believe it or not. Your response

to this situation says a great deal about who you are and where
you’re headed in life. To respond to a small audience with
disappointment, depression, frustration, or anger says more about
you than the audience, or lack thereof, much like the glass being half
empty or half full.
Lower your expectations. Be gentler on yourself. Not everyone will
have large crowds. Maybe this is your time.
And look at the positive side. Seven people got dressed, hopped in
their cars, drove to the speaking venue, looked forward to hearing
you speak, and are now politely sitting and waiting for you to be
introduced.
Consider each individual life of your audience members. Sure,
there aren’t 40 to 50, but there are 7. Value each individual person
with your speech. Demonstrate gratitude with a smile. Express
appreciation with your warm tone of voice. And communicate your
caring and commitment by delivering your finest speech yet.
The most powerful thing you can do with a tiny audience is asking
them to sit in the front rows. Actually invite everyone to move to the
front of the room and take a chair in the front row or rows. Be
cheerful, warm, and friendly as you make your request before you
speak. Once everyone has relocated closer to you, there will be an
obvious improvement in the spirit of the room. This more intimate
setting will change the entire atmosphere of the event.
The audience is a mirror of the speaker. So continue being cheerful,
warm, and friendly as you speak. Don’t use the podium or
microphone. Stand right in front of them. Get close and dump the
notes if possible. The audience experience can be one of intimacy
and warmth rather than detached observation from the back rows of
the auditorium or room.
After you’ve concluded, greet each audience member if possible with
a warm handshake and thank-you. Be the best speaker you can, no
matter what circumstances present themselves. And who knows? In
your small audience might be a future venture capitalist committed
to your business dream, a talent scout for TED Talks, or even your
future wife or husband. Keep smiling and be of good cheer.
7.7 Take the Opportunity to View Your
Speech

If you’re fortunate enough to have your public speaking instructor or

someone at your speaking event record your speech, count your blessings!
Here are some suggestions that will help you get the most from your
viewing of your speech.

Actually View the Speech

Don’t chicken out. View your speech! Even when speakers are given the
opportunity to view their speeches, they will often skip the opportunity. Be
strong. See what your audience sees.

View the Speech Alone

Before you push the Play button, however, find a place where you can
watch your speech alone.
This is no time for family members or even a best friend to be by your
side as you watch. They can throw everything off balance. You’ll be more
concerned with their responses to your speech than with your own
responses. So watch the speech by yourself. Here are a couple of helpful
suggestions when viewing your presentation.

View the Speech Without Sound the First Time

Turn off the sound on the playback monitor before you hit the Start
button. Yes, turn off the sound. This might sound strange, but an initial
silent viewing, without the distraction of your voice, will provide greater
psychological and emotional freedom to actually see what’s on the screen.
It’s quite an experience. Don’t judge, evaluate, or even think. Just close
your mouth, open your eyes, and observe during this first viewing. Watch
the entire speech. No notes. No judgments. Just keep your eyes open until
the speech ends.
View the Speech With Sound the Second Time

Now you’re ready to view your speech with sound, so turn up the dial on
the sound control. Grab your notepad and pencil, and push the Play button
a second time.
It’s different with sound, isn’t it? Your voice will most likely sound
higher than you imagined because the voice you “hear” when you talk is
lowered somewhat by the density of your head. No fooling. The stuff in
your head actually lowers the perceived pitch of your voice, so remain calm
if you don’t sound as deep and wonderful as you thought. Hang in there.
You’ll get used to your voice after a minute or two.

Look for 15 Positive Things

As you watch and listen to your speech this second time, take notes on all
of the positive behaviors you see and hear. Look for what you’re doing well.
Seek out the positive. Look for what’s working. Our natural tendency is to
immediately see our weaknesses and the negatives. But that’s not your
goal. Your goal is to write down at least 15 positive things you notice about
the content, organization, and delivery of your speech.
Here are a few positive things you can begin your list with, just in case
you have difficulty seeing what you did well:

You showed up.

You dressed for the occasion.
You faced the audience.
You spoke.
You spoke loud enough to be heard.
You spoke on a topic.
You remained at the podium and didn’t run out of the room.
You stood on your feet and didn’t fall over.
You kept your eyes open.

These behaviors might seem too obvious or even a bit silly, but they will
help you focus on the positive. In fact, begin by looking for the obvious.
Look for the little things. Give yourself credit. After jotting down a few of
these behaviors, write down other behaviors you see and hear that are
listed in your instructor’s speaker evaluation form or in the speaker
evaluation form offered earlier in this chapter.
What about your weaknesses or the behaviors that you want to improve?
Sure, there’s always room for improvement. But limit the number of
behaviors you want to correct or improve to only one or two per speech.
Of course, you might have more than one or two behaviors that are in
need of improvement, but don’t overwhelm yourself with negatives. Limit
your list of improvements to one or two and no more. This limited focus
will not only provide you with a manageable number of goals to work on
for your next speech, but, more importantly, it will also concentrate your
attention on the positive and not the negative. That’s a good suggestion for
viewing your speech, as well as living your life.

COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES

PERSONAL ACTIVITIES

1. Loosening up
Find a large room, an empty meadow, or a deserted beach.
Take off your shoes and socks (and anything else you feel
comfortable removing), and simply dance for 60 seconds
without thinking about dancing. Use your legs, hands, arms,
head, butt, nose, and fingers. Just let your body move and
dance. If you try this four or five times with an open mind and
heart, you’ll be amazed at how loose you become. Let go of all
those tapes in your head demanding that you grow up and act
your age! Whose voice is that, anyway? Just let go and have
fun. Like being a kid again, huh? What was that like? How do
you feel? Would you do this crazy dance again?

2. Seeing an old friend

If you have access to a videotape recorder, record one of your
speech practice sessions. Tape at least five minutes of one
practice. Then replay the video without sound. It’s important
that you not have sound. Without the sound, your body will
“talk” to you. Look at what your body says. Watch all of you—
the face, gestures, body, arms, legs, fingers, and eyes. What
 does this body tell you? How does this body move? Is this body
happy? Sad? Stiff? Loose? What’s going on with this body?
Does it make a difference when you add sound? How does it
feel when you black out the video portion and simply listen to
your voice? What did you learn about yourself?

3. The body in other cultures

Ask an individual from a different cultural background what
his people’s attitudes and behaviors are in regard to their
bodies. Do they value and attempt to demonstrate expressive
gestures when speaking? How do they feel about eye contact?
Is it encouraged or discouraged? Is a conversational tone of
voice appropriate for public speaking, or is a more formal style
valued? What do they see as unusual or inappropriate
nonverbal communication behavior?

4. Online research speech presentation errors

Go to YouTube and watch a three videos on the topic, “the
worst public speaking moments.” What were some common
errors or mistakes that the speakers made? How can you avoid
making these same mistakes? What was the best lesson you
learned from your online viewing?

CLASS ACTIVITIES

1. Group practice: expanding your delivery

Divide the class into groups of five or six students. Each
student will be given an opportunity to deliver the introduction
to a speech (that she has already outlined) WITHOUT
WORDS. For 30 seconds, each student will stand in front of
the group and deliver his or her introduction using only body
movements, hand gestures, and facial expressions—much like
“hula dancing.” After the entire group has completed this silent
“hula dancing” exercise, each student will share their reaction
to the exercise. How did this exercise increase their awareness
of delivery skills? How might this exercise improve their future
delivery?

2. Getting rid of the “ahs” and “ums”

 “Ahs,” “ums,” and all other verbal pauses are really apologies
for silence in this culture. It’s as if we’re embarrassed to have
any silences in our speech. We need to apologize for not having
something to say immediately, so we fill in the silence with
“ahs” and “ums.” Verbal pauses are distracting when they
dominate our speech patterns. If you have trouble with them,
try this exercise with a friend. Stand up in front of her and
deliver your practice speech. When she notices you saying a
verbal pause (“ah” or “um” or anything else), she simply smiles
and raises her hand briefly. This signals to you that you have
done it again—given an apology for silence. She doesn’t have to
verbally interrupt you. She only raises her hand. This is also
her signal to you that it’s okay to pause and think about what
you’re going to say. When you first try this, you’ll find that
your partner’s hand will be going up quite a bit. But after a
while, if you permit yourself to pause before you speak, her
hand will be raised less and less. Share your reactions to this
activity in class.

3. Spending five minutes in silence

For a period of five minutes, each student is to roam about the
classroom and attempt to communicate with five fellow
students without using words or notes. In other words, every
student in class will attempt to communicate nonverbally with
five other students (about 60 seconds with each person) using
posture, body movement, gestures, hand motions, eye contact,
and facial expressions. No one is permitted to speak during the
entire time. After the five minutes is up, return to your desks
and discuss the experience. What was it like to communicate
without words or notes? How might this experience help or
improve your speaking delivery when you speak to an
audience? What did you learn about yourself?

4. Out-of-class speaker evaluation

Observe an out-of-class speaker and evaluate his effectiveness
using the speaker evaluation form in this chapter, one
provided by your instructor, or one you designed for this
assignment. Observe a speaker in a formal speaking situation,
 such as a minister, politician, author, after-dinner speaker, or
special-occasion lecturer. Take notes as the speaker is talking,
using your evaluation form as a guide. Write a report
discussing the strengths and weaknesses of the speaker. Share
your observations and insights with the class.

Informing Your Audience

Teaching Others

DOI: 10.4324/9781003162933-8

Explaining the fundamentals of informative speaking:

Define informative speaking

List three goals of informative speaking
Explain informative speaking designs
Discuss language use in informative speaking
List types of informative speaking
List the question and answer suggestions
Explain the public speaking self-image scale

informative speaking
increase audience understanding
assist audience attention
assist audience retention
repetition
association
acronym
 one-sentence saying
one-page handout
exposition
definition
comparison
demonstration
cluster steps
analysis
description
narration
simple language
active language
personal language
guiding language
unbiased language
positive language
question-and-answer session
public speaking self-image scale

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the

following:

8.1 Explain the three goals of informative speaking

8.2 List some designs for informative speaking
8.3 Offer some suggestion for language use in informative speaking
8.4 Identify the types of informative speeches
8.5 Discuss ten ideas for the question-and-answer session
8.6 Explain the public speaker self-image scale

As Alvin was heading out the door of his apartment to go to his classes, he
got a call on his cell phone. It was his grandmother.
“Hi, Grandma!” he said cheerfully. “How’s it going?”
“Everything’s good, Alvin,” she sighed. “But I think my computer is slow
when I want to e-mail my photos to friends. I know the computer is new,
but do I need a faster one?”
“I don’t think so, Grandma.” He laughed. “I’ll stop by after I get out of
my speech class.”
Three hours later, Alvin was sitting next to his grandmother in front of
her computer, clicking through her photo application.
“Grandma, your computer’s fine. It’s not slow. You just need to click
SELECT right here, then click on all the photos you want to send,” he said
with a smile. “This way, you don’t have to e-mail each photo separately to
your friends.”
“Oh my, is that all? No one ever told me!” She laughed. “Since you gave
me this computer last month, I’m learning something new each time you
come over. You’re such a good teacher, Alvin.”
“Grandma, I have an idea,” he said almost to himself. “What if I came by
once a week for half an hour and gave you private computer lessons? That
way, in three or four weeks, you’ll be able to do just about anything on this
machine.”
And that marked the beginning of a four-week course on the basic
understanding and skills needed to operate her computer. After that,
Grandma could operate all the basic functions of Microsoft Office, navigate
the Internet, play some online games, e-mail groups of friends, and, of
course, select a whole bunch of photos and e-mail them all at one time.
And thanks to his grandmother’s encouragement, Alvin designed and
taught several “Introduction to Your Computer” classes for many of
Grandma’s neighbors in her mobile home park.
Alvin designed his computer class presentations based on the knowledge
and skills he learned in his public speaking class. His elderly students
especially appreciated that Alvin had something helpful and simple to
share, spoke with enthusiasm, and always left them wanting more.
Who knew Alvin would use his public speaking class after the semester
ended? There’s a good chance that you too will put your public speaking
knowledge and skills to use long after your class ends.

Our highest calling is to pass our knowledge from generation to

generation.
—W. S. GILBERT
 Like Alvin, your role as a public speaker can often be that of a teacher.
You may not see yourself as a teacher, yet one of the primary
responsibilities of a public speaker is to inform the audience: to impart
knowledge; to show the audience new skills; and to share information that
is important, interesting, and maybe even life changing. With your words
alone, you may literally change the lives of the audience by sharing
information that is truly meaningful and enlarging.
Now, you will most likely not be giving speeches every day of your life,
but the ever-increasing emphasis on information in our world will demand
greater skills in your ability to send and receive information. Although
some of this information will be delivered in written form, much of it will
be orally transmitted.
How do you inform others? How do you give directions, describe a
scene, demonstrate a process, explain a concept, define a word, or tell a
story? These areas of communication involve sharing information with
others. Those who can inform others effectively will experience greater
success in their professional and personal lives than those who cannot.
Although this chapter focuses on your public speaking skills, you will find
its application useful in your daily interactions with others as well.

8.1 Goals of Informative Speaking

As an informative speaker, you face quite a challenge speaking before any

audience. Some audiences are more receptive than others, and yet, all
members of your audience need to have their interest aroused, to
understand what you are saying, and to remember the information after
you’ve finished speaking. These are the three primary goals of any
informative talk: to stimulate interest, increase understanding, and assist
retention.

Stimulate Audience Interest

Your first goal of informative speaking is to arouse the interest of your

audience. Without the successful completion of this first goal, the other
two goals will not be accomplished. The old saying “There are no
uninteresting topics, just uninterested listeners” affirms the need for you
to get your audience aroused.
An experienced instructor once advised a first-year teacher, “Forget all
that stuff they taught you in graduate school. The first requirement of a
good teacher is to keep the students awake. Everything else is secondary.”
The same holds true for public speaking. If your audience’s interest is not
adequately stimulated, the prospects for a successful speech are dim
indeed.
If you present your information in ways that make it relevant or
personally useful to your audience, you are more likely to arouse and
maintain their interest. This is where audience analysis really pays off.
Study your audience’s demographics, interests, knowledge, and attitudes
before selecting the materials you will present, and determine how you will
adapt that material to your specific audience.
Make the information relevant to where they are, not where you are.
Bring your information close to where the audience lives. Drop it right in
their laps. Present your material in ways that will make your audience
realize, “I didn’t know it affected me in that way.” If you’re talking about
the importance of healthy eating habits to a group of young college
students, make it relevant to them by describing how the accumulated
effects of eating processed and fried foods will make life miserable for
them in the future. Explain how increased risks of cancer, heart disease,
diabetes, and other diseases multiply when their diet is saturated with
these foods. Ask them how they will feel when their bodies fail and they
can’t do the things they take for granted today. Ask them if that’s the
future they want to have. Make your topic hit home for your audience.
Make it relevant.

To the degree you are helpful is the degree to which you will be
happy.
—KARL REILAND

If the information in your speech is new, the audience is more apt to pay
attention. This principle of newness is seen in the marketing of products
on your grocery store shelves. The words new and improved are splashed
across the labels of hundreds of products annually. It seems that
marketing research discovered that if consumers perceived that a product
was “new,” they would be more likely to buy it. For your speaking
purposes, new information will not be difficult to find, so use new
information when it’s appropriate.
There are some topics that are well-worn subjects of discussion, such as
weight loss, exercise, or smoking. These topics are often met with
disinterest by many. But you could present one of those topics in a
different light or from a slightly different angle to give it freshness. For
example, a talk on computers could be presented so that the audience
could see their application for possible dating or mate selection,
employment assistance, or vacation rental help, rather than the usual
spreadsheet and word-processing functions.
Information is more likely to stimulate audience interest when it is
startling. When we are startled, we are emotionally shaken, and all of our
attention is focused on dealing with the source of that surprise. To hear a
warning from the speaker that skin cancer is on the upswing in the United
States may arouse our interest. But to hear that some scientists predict
that, in 20 years, one out of every three adults will experience some form
of skin cancer by the time that person reaches middle age will have a
startling impact on the audience.

Increase Audience Understanding

The second goal of informative speaking is to present the information in a

way that will be understood by your audience. Simple language, clear
organization, examples, and visualization are four ways you can help your
audience understand what you are saying.
The first way you can increase understanding is to use simple language
when you speak to an audience. Aristotle once advised, “Think as wise men
think, but speak as the common people speak.” Some years ago, one of the
foremost authorities on US economics taught at the University of
California at Berkeley. She had authored several books on economics and
had testified before Congress on numerous occasions, discussing our
nation’s economic woes. This expert was intelligent, gifted, and
accomplished. But when she spoke in her Economics 2 course, the
majority of her students didn’t understand half the words she used. The
students left her lectures feeling confused, frustrated, and often cheated.
There she was, “Ms. Economics Expert,” and she couldn’t speak in a style
they could understand. What a waste of time! Abraham Lincoln cautioned,
“We should speak so the least intelligent in the room can understand our
words, then everyone will understand.”
A speech that is clearly organized will help your audience understand
what you have to say. The newspaper-writing adage to “tell them what
you’re going to tell them, tell them, and then tell them what you told them”
works with public speaking audiences as well. Remember the preview of
main points, the main-point transitions, and the summary of main points?
We need to remember that speaking is different from reading. The
reader can see the various headings and subheadings and can see the
paragraph structure on the printed page. But the listener cannot. He must
rely on hearing the words of the speaker. Make your speech easy to
understand by previewing the points, stating clear transitions, and
reviewing the points.

To be conscious that you are ignorant is a great step to knowledge.

—BENJAMIN DISRAELI

The third way you can increase understanding is to use examples and
stories in the development of your speech. Providing examples is one of
the most concrete ways of helping your audience understand the ideas,
concepts, and feelings you are trying to communicate. Every main point or
concept you are trying to share with your audience should be accompanied
by an example, be it brief or detailed. Stories are useful in developing a
point you are trying to have the audience understand. The advantage of
telling stories is that they have a definite beginning, middle, and ending,
and they usually captivate the audience’s attention more effectively than
shorter forms of examples. Another advantage is that a story is far easier to
master and share with an audience than a list of statistics and facts. And
the audience will most likely remember a well-told story long after the
statistics and quotations have been forgotten.
The fourth way you can help your audience understand what your
speech is about is to have them visualize. Visual aids are worth the effort
they require because the dividends they pay in helping your audience see
and understand what you’re discussing are great. You can also have your
audience visualize without the use of physical props. Many things you talk
about cannot be adequately described on paper, such as the distance to the
nearest star, the weight of the earth, or the speed of light. These concepts
can be visualized when you have the audience “see” them in terms of
something more familiar. For example, a speaker may describe the
information storage capacity of one microchip as equal to the amount of
information that could be stored in 100 full-size books.

Assist Audience Retention

The third goal of informative speaking is to help your audience remember

what you have said. Now don’t get your hopes too high. Studies in listening
and retention clearly suggest that we don’t remember all that much of
what we hear. Immediately after we listen to a lecture, we generally retain
only 50 percent of the material presented. And within two weeks, we can
remember only 25 percent of what was said. There is some recent research
that would lead us to believe that the actual figures are much lower.
What can you do to help the audience remember what you said?
Unfortunately, much of it is out of your hands. Retention is determined to
a large extent by the listener’s motivation, interests, training, psychological
state, physical health, life circumstance, stress level, work schedule,
interpersonal conflicts, and numerous other competing demands.
But there are still some specific things you can do to increase the
probability that the audience will retain some of the information. The use
of repetition, association, acronyms, one-sentence sayings, and handouts
can all help your audience remember your talk.
Repetition is a useful tool in your attempts to help your audience
remember what you said. You can use it to repeat a thought. “This is so
important; let me repeat that idea for you one more time,” or “I need to say
it again.” Your preview and summary of main points in the introduction
and conclusion of your speech are a form of repetition. You can also repeat
the main point you are completing before going on to your next point by
saying, “Now that we’ve looked at America in the 1970s, we can move on to
our second point, and that’s how America looked in the 1980s.”
The use of association is a powerful tool for helping people retain
information. Its purpose is for the listener to associate one thing with
another. Usually, you have a listener associate a known quantity with an
unknown quantity. For example, suppose you are trying to describe the
workings of a jet engine to an audience of sixth-graders. You might want to
say that the jet engine pushes out air and forces the plane forward, just as
a balloon is thrust forward when you blow it up and let it go. You hope that
the kids can make the association between the engine and the balloon. If
you can use association in your speech, your audience will more likely
remember your talk.
An acronym is a word formed from the initial letters of groups of words
in a set phrase. The acronym is a very creative and effective technique
when you want your audience to remember the main points of your
speech. For example, if you presented a speech on acceptance skills in
communication, you could use the acronym “MOM” to help the audience
remember the three main points, which are “M ingle, O penness, and M
irroring.” Acronyms are a simple way of having your audience retain the
main points of your speeches. Here’s another example. Recently, a young
woman gave a talk on three aspects of communication. They were (1) talk
is cheap, so watch behavior; (2) attitude is more important than aptitude;
and (3) perception is communication. To help the audience remember her
three points, she had them recite the word “TAP,” which represented the
first letters of the first words of each principle: “T” for “Talk,” “A” for
“Attitude,” and “P” for “Perception.” After she gave the speech and was
getting into her car in the parking lot of the auditorium, a young man came
up to her, smiled, and said, “TAP, talk, attitude, and perception. I
remembered your speech.” He smiled and walked on. He didn’t say
anything else, simply that, and kept walking. But he had remembered the
main points of her talk. Use a simple acronym, and your listeners will
remember your speech, too.

The more you say, the less people remember. The fewer the words,
the greater the profit.
—FRANCOIS FÉNELON

A fourth method for getting your audience to remember your talk is the
use of a one-sentence saying that summarizes the theme or central idea of
your speech. The sentence can be one you construct yourself, a quotation,
a proverb, a verse from a poem, a title from a movie or book, or anything
else that is no longer than a sentence and is easy to remember. If you use
the one-sentence technique, state the sentence in the introduction, the
transitions to each main point, and the conclusion.
For example, a speaker gave a speech entitled “Premarital Sex and You”
to high school students at a summer retreat. In the speech, the young man
addressed the social, psychological, and physical wounds that premarital
sex could inflict on the lives of those high school students. The one
sentence the speaker used as the theme for the talk was simply “Going to
bed can cost you plenty.” He must have used that sentence ten times in the
speech. “Going to bed can cost you plenty.” Your one-sentence saying can
have a powerful impact on the audience’s retention of your message. Keep
your message simple, and keep your audience focused so that they’ll
remember.
The final thing you can do to help your audience remember your speech
is to prepare a one-page handout highlighting the important points of your
talk. You can simply outline the key points and include suggested readings.
Leave some space between your key ideas on the handout so the listeners
can jot down notes or things to remember. If you invest the extra time and
energy these handouts require, the payoffcan be significant, because the
listeners have something in their hands to help them remember your
speech.

8.2 Designs for Informative Speaking

There are three basic designs or strategies for constructing an informative

speech that we’ll be examining next: exposition, description, and
narration. Most informative speeches use a combination of two or more of
these designs in their construction.

Exposition

The first approach to informative speaking is exposition. Exposition means

to expose or explain. Therefore, the main goal of exposition is to inform
your audience. Exposition is used to explain a process, concept, or idea to
others. You’ve used this form of informative speaking before when you’ve
given directions to your home, told a story, described a restaurant, or
defined a word. There are three forms of exposition: definition,
demonstration, and analysis.

Definition

The first form of exposition is definition. If you want to give your audience
a clear idea of what you’re talking about, they will have to understand the
words and concepts presented in your talk. It’s important that you define
words or concepts that may be unfamiliar, vague, or abstract to your
listeners. When you define a word or concept, use simple language. If
possible, use your own words to define the term. Try to avoid dictionary or
technical definitions, because they tend to sound stiff and lifeless to the
listener. The definition is the fundamental building block of all informative
speaking. Without an understanding of your words and concepts, your
audience will be lost in your speech. There are three ways that you can
make your definitions clear to your audience: example, comparison, and
etymology.
When you define a word by example, you use examples to clarify the
word or concept. An example is something that is used to illustrate a point.
To define by example is especially helpful when you are trying to clarify a
vague or abstract word. When using examples, you can use the actual
object, such as showing a fighting saber when talking about samurai
swords. Or you can give a verbal example of brotherly love as you define a
certain aspect of the abstract term “love.”
Comparison can also be used to define a word or concept by comparing
the word to something that is known to the audience. If you can relate a
new word or concept to something that is already understood by the
audience, you will be more successful in getting your message across. A
speaker trying to define the concept of balancing on a surfboard might
compare it to walking on a railroad track or riding a skateboard.
The third form of definition uses etymology. Often, it is useful to trace
the origin and development of a word in your attempts to give clarity. This
is called etymology—the study of the origin and development of words. A
speaker once traced the word “sarcasm” to its original Greek term
sarkasmos, which means “to rend or rip flesh.” The original Greek
definition gave her audience a much more descriptive picture of her term.

Demonstration

When attempting to inform your audience about a process, the second

form of exposition, demonstration, works well. Demonstration enables
you to actually show the audience how something works or how something
is made. The use of demonstration can also involve the participation of
your audience. For example, if the subject of your speech is emergency
water safety techniques, and you are demonstrating the technique used for
relaxing a muscle cramp in your leg, you could have the audience members
rub their own legs to get a feel for the technique, or you could demonstrate
it yourself.
A demonstration speech would be appropriate if you were going to speak
on topics such as making sushi, repairing a lamp, cutting hair, using a
vacuum cleaner, checking for skin cancer, or binding a book. Some of these
topics would lend themselves to audience participation, whereas others
would not. Consider the choice carefully before you invite audience
participation.
Review the suggestions on visual-aid usage discussed in Chapter 5 if you
will be using demonstration in your speech. If you are going to
demonstrate a process or show how something works for your audience,
here are some additional suggestions to consider when constructing and
delivering your talk.
Cluster the steps of your demonstration into a maximum of three or four
main points. Even the simplest of processes requires a multitude of mini-
steps for its completion. Your goal is to cluster these mini-steps into three
or four major clusters or categories. For instance, the seemingly simple
process of tossing a salad contains a number of steps that would confuse
an audience if you were to present each one as a main point. Instead,
cluster these steps into three main points, such as “gather the materials,
prepare the ingredients, and toss the salad.” Other cluster designs, such as
“Plan, Do, Finish,” and “Gather Materials, Do the Process, and Clean Up,”
are useful when trying to put your process into some recognizable form.
Clustering your steps provides clarity of organization for your audience
and ease of handling for you.
Another way you can help your audience understand and remember
your demonstration is to preview and review main points in the
introduction and conclusion of your speech. Remember that you need to
lead your audience by the hand and clearly orient and review the process.
If you want to be really organized and impressive, number the steps in
your preview and summary of main points, so it sounds like, “The first step
is to gather the materials, the second step is to mix the ingredients, and the
third and final step is to bake the cake.”

We create our reality with our language.

—SHUNRYU SUZUKI

The final suggestion for demonstrating a process is to include dead-time

talk. When a speaker is actually demonstrating the slicing of the
vegetables, the carving of the wood, or the mixing of the ingredients, there
is a tendency on the part of the speaker to focus on the process and not
talk. In other words, the audience is watching the process, and the speaker
is not saying a word. That’s okay if the silence lasts a few seconds, but 20
or 30 seconds of silence could make your audience feel uncomfortable.
This dead time should be filled with some discussion. When you are
demonstrating a process in a speech and you have 20 or 30 seconds of
possible dead time, share a brief anecdote about the first time you ever did
the process or a humorous incident that happened to you when you were
doing this process. This dead-time talk not only fills the silence, but it also
adds color and substance to your talk.

Analysis

The third form of exposition is analysis. Analysis is the breaking down of

an idea, concept, or event into its various parts to get a clearer picture of
how something operates or functions. The review of a play or movie, the
structure of the federal government, an evaluation of the strengths and
weaknesses of a proposal, and the development of the space program are
topics for which you could utilize analysis in your presentation.
 When presenting to an audience topics that could possibly be difficult to
understand—such as a budget report, an organizational flowchart, or a
newly implemented time management program—dividing the concept into
its component parts for closer examination is always beneficial.

Description

The second approach to informative speaking is description. Description

makes use of sensory information to verbally paint a clear picture of what
you’re talking about without the use of visual aids. The categories of
description that you can use are size, shape, weight, color, composition,
and age.
Size can be described in terms such as “big” or “small” or “large” or
“tiny,” but these terms are subjective and relative. They can mean different
things to different listeners. It’s much better to be specific when describing
size to your audience. A speaker can describe a cut on the arm as a “large
cut,” but that description does not paint the same picture as another
description with specific dimensions. A cut that is described as “eight
inches in length, half an inch wide, and two inches deep” paints a picture
that would make even the sturdiest of listeners squirm in their seats.
Shape can be described in geometric forms, such as square, triangular,
round, spherical, and rectangular. “His face was square with a cone nose,”
“The racetrack is oblong,” and “Her house looked like a rectangular box”
are examples of using shapes to describe objects.
The weight of an object, like its size, can be described in a subjective and
relative fashion, such as “light,” “heavy,” “featherweight,” or “hefty.” A
more precise way to describe an object’s weight is to report it in ounces,
pounds, and tons. Instead of saying that “the man was heavy,” you could
describe the man as “weighing 500 pounds, or one-quarter of a ton.”
Color is the fourth category of description you can use when painting a
mental picture of the object you are describing. The obvious labels of
“black and white” and “red and green” help give the audience a clearer
picture of what you’re communicating. It’s useful to link the color to a
common object that is familiar to the audience’s experience, such as “red
as a cherry,” “blue as the ocean,” or “black as a moonless night.”
The composition of an object provides further detail to the picture you
are painting. Composition refers to the makeup or construction of an
object. “His legs looked like plucked chicken skin,” “The lake was as
smooth as glass,” and “His hair was matted down like oiled feathers” are
examples of composition.
A final category of description is age. The usual descriptors of “new” and
“old” are helpful in painting a picture of an object. But once again, more
specific descriptions of age, such as months, years, and centuries, provide
more vividness. To describe the sofa as “being in our family for over 50
years” gives us a better appreciation for its age than to simply describe it as
“an old sofa.”

Narration

We have stories to tell, stories that provide wisdom about the journey
of life.
—SAUL RUBIN

The third form of informa tive speaking is narration. Storytelling is the

oldest form of passing information from one generation to another. Before
the written word, myths of the creation, stories explaining life’s mysteries,
and rituals that bound tribes and cultures together were passed on in the
form of stories. Century after century, these stories were handed down
through the generations. In public speaking, storytelling or narration can
be used as a powerful means of clarifying an idea or concept for your
audience. Equally important is the ability of a story to stick in the listener’s
memory long after the story has been told. When you use narration in your
speech to describe an important concept or idea, you might consider these
suggestions:

Your story should illustrate your point. Don’t include a story in

your speech just because it’s your favorite. Your story must illustrate,
demonstrate, or clarify a point you are trying to make with your
audience.
Know your story. You should be so familiar with your story that you
could tell it without the use of notes. Know the correct pronunciation
of all the words, names, and places in the story. You should know
 your story so well that you become the story.
Become the various characters. When reciting dialogue, use the
voices of the various characters in your story. This may feel awkward
at first, but it will present a better story to your listeners if you sound
like the “old woman,” the “frightened boy,” or the “mean old king.”
Your nonverbal behavior can also be a way of taking on the
personality of the various characters. Use the posture, walk,
gestures, and facial expressions of the different characters so that
your audience can also “see” the story you are telling.
Time your story during your practice sessions. It often takes
longer to tell a story than you would expect. You get caught up in the
characterization, the detail, and the emotions of the story, and
before you know it, your speaking time is up. Time your story when
you practice your speech. You may have to cut a little here and there
to get the story to conform to the time requirements.

8.3 Language Use for Informative

Speaking

Before we outline the basic types of informative speeches, we need to

mention some additional recommendations for the effective use of
language in your presentations. The message sent isn’t always the message
received, and the following suggestions will help you in your attempts to
communicate clearly with your audience in all types of public speaking.

Simple Language

Many beginning speakers feel the need to impress an audience with highly
elaborate, ornate, or complex language. So instead of saying, “The group
members were residents of Spain,” a speaker might say, “The group
members were denizens of Spain.” “Denizens” sounds fine, but who knows
what it means? The speaker, in her attempt to sound impressive, increases
her chances of losing her audience. Use language that is simple and readily
understood by your audience. Avoid using technical language or jargon
that is foreign or unfamiliar to your audience. If you must use specialized
vocabulary, define the words clearly and simply so that your audience can
understand what you mean. Finally, when using acronyms, make certain
that you explain what each letter represents, for instance, “AA stands for
Alcoholics Anonymous,” or “CPR stands for cardiopulmonary
resuscitation.” You might assume your audience knows what the letters
stand for, but if you’re wrong, you’ve just lost more of your listeners along
the way.

Specific Language

Avoid using vague or abstract language in your speeches. Overused words

and clichés should also be avoided. If you use language that is vague or
overused, the audience isn’t challenged, and they may begin to drift off to
other things in the room besides you. You don’t want that. So use words
that are as specific and concrete as possible. Instead of saying, “The
woman planted some flowers in her yard,” you might want to use more
specific words: “The woman planted purple tulips, yellow roses, and red
geraniums in her yard.” Do you notice the difference? Which scene do you
see more vividly? Remember to use specific words in your language.

Active Language

Use strong, active verbs in your speeches. Avoid using weak verbs such as
is, was, will be, and are. Instead of saying, “It is my feeling that …,” you
can more forcefully announce, “I feel …” Which of the following two
statements sounds more assertive: “This matter needs to be brought before
the board of directors” or “This matter demands the attention of the board
of directors”? Your choice of verbs will make a critical difference in the
movement, urgency, and flow of your speeches. Will your language put the
audience to sleep or take them for a roller-coaster ride?

Personal Language

Language that is personal in nature will have a greater impact in reaching

your audience than more formal or distant language. The use of personal
pronouns such as I, you, us, and we will help bring you closer to your
audience. Their use can make the audience feel that you are interested in
them and understand their concerns and desires. Notice the difference
between these two sentences: “Americans need to get a physical exam once
every two years” and “You need to get a physical exam once every two
years.” The first sentence is directed to 290 million people. The second
sentence is delivered to only one person. Language that is personal will
bridge that gap between you and your listeners.

Guiding Language

Another way you can use language more effectively in helping your
audience understand and remember your speech is to use language that
guides them in, around, and through your presentation. Transitions are
the best devices the speaker can utilize in guiding and directing the
listener. External transitions are complete sentences used to signal
movement from one major part of the speech to another. Between the
main points of your speech, external transitions are essential in directing
the listener from one point to another. “Now that I’ve discussed the history
of the radio, let’s move to my second point, and that’s the innovations after
World War II.” This transition even recapped the previous main point
(“Now that I’ve discussed …”) before signaling movement into the second
point of the talk. Internal transitions are those words and phrases that
signal movement between the smaller parts of a sentence or main point.

The limits of my language mean the limits of my world.

—LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN

Internal transitions such as and, also, but, however, although, because,

on the other hand, for example, therefore, and finally all signal
relationships between the smaller parts of sentences or main points. Use
internal transitions to keep your thoughts connected to one another and
your listeners connected to your speech. Transitions are the verbal bridges
that show the relationships between your points and thoughts, and they
keep you linked to your audience.
Unbiased Language

In this world of cultural diversity, your task as a public speaker is to

demonstrate respect for your audience by using language that does not
demean or insult the listeners. You are to use language that isn’t perceived
as belittling or hurtful to another person or group of people because of
their race, ethnicity, age, class, gender, or disability. The use of unbiased
words in your speech can encourage an audience to be more open to your
thoughts and ideas, even though they might hold different positions on
that same topic or issue. By using language that honors and respects the
audience, your speech can encourage receptivity to your ideas, open
discussion, and even promote a willingness for the audience to modify or
change their opinions because you used words that honored and respected
them. The use of unbiased language can increase your credibility as a
speaker because it displays your awareness and sensitivity to the many
differences among your audience. Here are a few specific ways to avoid
bias in your speeches.
Stereotyping occurs when you assign characteristics to people solely on
the basis of their class or grouping. When you say that athletes are poor
students, Asians are shy, old people are grouchy, or politicians are corrupt,
you are stereotyping all members of that category of people or ethnic
group. As speakers, we must avoid any use of stereotyping a class or group
of people. Instead, talk about specific individuals without reference to any
particular group with which they may be associated. In our examples, you
can be more specific by saying, “Bill was a poor student,” “Jill Yamamoto
seemed reticent during our discussion group,” “My grandfather often gets
angry,” and “Senator Mitch Foster was convicted of perjury.” Notice how
the statements were about specific individuals and not groups of people?
The traditional use of the pronoun “he” and the noun “man” is another
common way a speaker can demonstrate bias in the language of a speech.
When speakers use “he” or “man” to refer to both males and females, these
words can elicit masculine images and feelings in the minds of the
audience. This is known as gender bias. One easy way to avoid gender bias
is to simply say “he or she” or “women or men” when no gender-specific
reference is desired. This acknowledges both male and female and doesn’t
emphasize one gender over another. A second way to avoid gender bias is
the use of plurals. Instead of stating that “A teacher uses all of her skills to
reach her students,” you could use plurals and change the sentence to,
“Teachers use all of their skills to reach their students.” A final way to
avoid gender bias is to replace words or phrases that contain man or
woman with gender-neutral terms. For instance, replace words such as
“fireman” with “firefighter,” “chairman” with “chairperson,” “cleaning
woman” with “office cleaner,” and “mankind” with “humanity.” The use of
gender-neutral terms avoids bias and promotes greater equality in the
minds of your audience.

Positive Language

Ultimately, you want to have a positive effect on your audience. Not only
do you want them to understand and remember your message, but you
also want them to perceive you as a credible speaker, someone they can
trust and respect. You may even want them to like you. We’re only human.
In addition to the obvious recommendations of using appropriate language
(no swearing or vulgarity) and avoiding emotionally loaded words or terms
(don’t refer to Texans as “rednecks” while addressing the Texas
Republican Convention), you should be complimentary to your listeners
whenever you can. Begin your talk by thanking the audience for the
invitation to address them. Research the audience or group so you can
mention in your speech one or two things they’ve accomplished recently.
And end with a final appeal that is in accordance with the group’s goals
and objectives.
Above all, you want to have an enlarging impact on your listeners. They
should feel that their time with you was well spent, and your positive
language and attitude will help to guarantee this goal.

8.4 Types of Informative Speeches

Now that we’ve examined the goals and designs for informative speaking,
let’s turn our attention finally to the various types of informative speeches.
The three primary informative-speech designs are expository, descriptive,
and narrative. Sample main-point structures for each of the various types
of speeches to inform follow.
Expository Speeches

Definition Speech

Specific Purpose: To define three aspects of success.

The first aspect is personal fulfillment.

The second aspect is intellectual stimulation.
The third aspect is social contribution.

Demonstration Speech

Specific Purpose: To demonstrate the three steps required in baking

cookies.

The first step is to gather your materials.

The second step is to mix the ingredients.
The third step is to bake the cookies.

Analysis Speech

Specific Purpose: To describe the three branches of the federal

government.

The first branch of the federal government is the legislative

branch.
The second branch of the federal government is the judicial
branch.
The third branch of the federal government is the executive
branch.

Descriptive Speeches

Describing a Person
 Specific Purpose: To describe three characteristics of George
Washington.

The first characteristic of Washington is that he was very

intelligent.
The second characteristic of Washington is that he possessed a
brilliant military mind.
The third characteristic of Washington is that he was a
persuasive speaker.

Describing a Place

Specific Purpose: To describe three Lake Tahoe attractions.

The first attraction is Lake Tahoe’s beautiful lake.

The second attraction is Lake Tahoe’s campgrounds.
The third attraction is Lake Tahoe’s hiking trails.

Describing an Event

Specific Purpose: To explain the Denver Broncos’ Super Bowl journey.

The first stage was the preseason training.

The second stage was the regular season.
The third stage was the Super Bowl playoff postseason.

Narrative Speeches

Personal Experience Narrative

Specific Purpose: To relate my air crash adventure in Montana.

I was flying to Montana in a Piper Cub airplane.

Inclement weather forced the plane to crash in the foothills of
eastern Montana.
I survived six days before being rescued by forest rangers.
Historical Narrative

Specific Purpose: To explain the bombing of Pearl Harbor.

The Japanese planned the attack for two years.

The surprise attack was devastating in terms of loss of lives.
The attack forced the United States into World War II.

8.5 Question-and-Answer Session

When presenting an informative or persuasive speech, you may find it

helpful to hold a brief question-and-answer session after you conclude
your presentation. Questions from the audience allow you to provide
specific information that might not have been covered in your speech. It’s
also a great opportunity to interact with your audience in a more flexible
and intimate way, letting them see another side of you. Here are a few
suggestions that will make your question-and-answer session more
effective.

1. Prepare for questions. As you prepare and practice your speech,

be thinking of questions the audience may ask. Make a list of
possible questions that address difficult-to-understand or
controversial aspects of your presentation. You might even have a
friend or colleague listen to your speech and suggest questions that
your audience might ask. It’s always good to be prepared.
2. Announce the question-and-answer session before your
speech. You might have the person introducing you announce that
a question-and-answer session will be held after you conclude your
speech. If you don’t have someone introducing you, you can state in
your speech introduction that you’ll answer any questions after
your speech. This gives the audience members time to formulate
their questions as you’re speaking.
3. Model the questions. After you conclude your speech, model the
manner in which you want the questions asked by raising your
hand and saying, “Now I’d be happy to answer any questions you
may have.” By raising your hand, you are demonstrating how you’d
 like the audience to ask their questions, so it won’t be a free-for-all
with people speaking all at the same time. Take control from the
beginning.
4. Restate the questions. Restate each question to the entire
audience after the question has been asked. Begin your response
with “The question was …” and repeat the question. By doing so,
you ensure that the entire audience hears and understands the
question. When you restate the question, speak to the entire
audience and not just the individual who asked the question.
Remember, you’re addressing the entire audience and not having a
dialogue with one person.
5. Use the 25/75 percent rule. When you’re answering the
question, look at the person who asked the question 25 percent of
your speaking time, and maintain eye contact with the rest of the
audience the other 75 percent of the time. Don’t get into a
conversation or debate with the individual. Keep your remarks and
eye contact primarily focused on your audience.
6. Keep your answer short. Your answer should be as brief as
possible. A sentence or two at the most. Avoid a yes-or-no response,
but don’t give a second speech either. The question was raised by
one person in your audience and is not on the minds of the entire
audience. So keep your remarks short and sweet. Just answer the
question and move on.
7. Admit you don’t know. If you don’t know the answer to a
question, be honest and say so. Don’t make up an answer or ramble
on and on about the fact that you don’t know. Simply say, “I don’t
know the answer, but I’ll be happy to research the answer and get
back to you if you’ll give me your e-mail address after the speech.”
Short and sweet.
8. Smile. Above all else, be friendly and pleasant as you respond to
questions. Speak slowly, maintain eye contact, be enthusiastic, and
smile. Above all else, smile. The effectiveness of your question-and-
answer session will be judged not on your knowing all the answers
to the questions, but by your willingness to be of service to your
listeners. Be friendly as you attempt to serve your audience.
Remember to smile.
9. Control the audience. Don’t let one individual dominate the
 question-and-answer session by asking too many questions or
giving a speech of his own. If a person is asking too many
questions, address the individual directly by saying, “You’ve asked a
number of questions already. Does anyone else have a question?” If
an individual is making a long-winded statement instead of asking
a question, ask, “Do you have a question for me?” If the person
continues talking, you can say, “We can dialogue about this matter
after the session is over. Does anyone else have a question?”
10. Conclude the question-and-answer session. Know when to
quit. If the audience is getting restless, falling asleep, or sneaking
out of the room, it’s time to conclude the question-and-answer
session. Limit the questions to five at most. The majority of your
audience won’t be heavily invested in listening to your responses to
questions they didn’t ask. So keep the session short. Five to seven
minutes at most. Be kind and let the audience go on with their lives.
Simply announce, “Well, it seems that there are no more questions,
so once again, thank you for coming and have a wonderful rest of
the day.” Don’t you wish all the events in your life could end this
nicely?

8.6 Public Speaker Self-Image Scale

Now that you’ve had some experience presenting two or three speeches to
an audience, it might be interesting to assess the image you have of
yourself as a public speaker. Earlier in this book, you responded to the
Speaker Apprehension Self-Assessment Scale before you actually began
your journey as a public speaker. Take a few moments now and respond to
this Public Speaker Self-Image Scale. Read and respond to each statement
from your current perspective as an experienced speaker.
As a public speaker, I see myself …

1. Focused more on the audience’s needs and concerns rather than my

own.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
 2. Confident that I will demonstrate natural, enthusiastic delivery.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

3. Confident that I will present a relevant and interesting speech.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

4. Confident that I will present a clearly organized speech.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

5. Confident that I will feel relaxed when I deliver a speech.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

6. Confident that I will successfully respond to questions from the

audience.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

7. Confident that I will enjoy delivering a speech.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Add up your total score for the seven questions and reflect upon your
responses to these statements. A higher score can indicate greater
confidence than a lower score. What changes in your self-concept as a
public speaker do you notice? What areas of growth and improvement do
you see? What areas still need some attention and effort? Realize that with
any skill, the more practice and experience you possess, the more
confident and relaxed you will be performing that skill. Public speaking is
a skill that provides you with many life benefits, so take opportunities to
put your speaking skills to use and watch how your confidence will soar.
Good for you.

SAMPLE INFORMATIVE SPEECH OUTLINE:

SILENT RETREAT CENTERS

Specific Purpose: To inform the audience about silent retreat centers.

Introduction

A few years ago, I found myself getting frustrated over little things at
work, angry with family and friends, and miserable about my busy,
frantic lifestyle. I felt I needed a change. Then a friend recommended
that I go to a silent retreat center for two or three days and let the
silence speak to me. I did go, and it made a world of difference. Today,
I’d like to explain what a silent retreat center is, what it does, and how
to find a silent retreat center.

Body

I. First, I’d like to explain the purpose of a silent retreat center.

A. A silent retreat center gives you a vacation from a busy,

noisy world.

1. Rita Winters, in her book, The Green Desert,

explains that “the purpose of silent retreat is to
leave the noise of the world and discover the
peace in silence.”
2. Story about my first time at a silent retreat
center.

B. Silent retreat centers are provided by a variety of

religious groups.
C. Lodging, food, and quiet are provided for you.

II. Second, what a silent retreat center does for you.

A. The silence provides you with self-communication.

1. Sara Park McLaughlin, in her book, Meeting

 God in Silence, tells us that “silence lets you
hear your deepest voice.”
2. Story about Thomas Merton’s deep listening.

B. The silence can provide psychological healing.

1. Richard Foster, in his book, Freedom of

Simplicity, warns that “the complexity of
rushing to achieve and accumulate more in life
threatens to overwhelm and harm us.”
2. Story about my sister’s silent retreat center
experience.

C. The silence can provide spiritual direction.

III. Third, how to find a silent retreat center.

A. Making the decision to go to a silent retreat center.

1. You need to decide to take good care of yourself.

2. Counselor Dave Pennington explains that “even
your decision to treat yourself to a time away
from the world is the beginning of a more serene
and balanced life.”

B. The Internet is an excellent resource for finding silent

retreat centers.

1. Try www.retreatsonline.com for listings.

2. Call the center and speak with someone before
making a reservation.

C. Things to take to the silent retreat.

1. Comfortable clothing.
2. A journal.
3. Reading material.
4. A gentle attitude.

Conclusion
 Today, I’ve shared with you the purpose of a silent retreat center,
what it does for you, and how to find a silent retreat center. It’s my
hope that if you’re feeling a little stressed with life, frustrated with
friends and family, and miserable about a lifestyle that is spinning out
of control, you might consider making a reservation at a silent retreat
center. Thomas Merton once said that “one’s deepest journey passes
through silence.” I hope you begin your journey soon.

References

Foster, R. 2014. Freedom of Simplicity. San Francisco: Harper San

Francisco.
McLaughlin, S. 2014. Meeting God in Silence. Carol Stream, IL:
Tyndale Publishers.
Pennington, D. Feb. 16, 2016. MFC Therapist, San Jose, CA. (408)
767–1111.
Retreats online. Jan. 3, 2015. Retreat homepage [www document].
http://retreatsonline.com/guide/silent.htm.
Winters, R. 2004. The Green Desert. Cumbria, Britain: Crossroads
Carlisle.

SAMPLE KEY-WORD OUTLINE

Introduction

Frantic life story

Silent retreat: is, does, find

Body

I. What silent retreat is

Vacation (Winters reference 1)
Variety of groups
Lodging, food, quiet

II. What silent retreat does

 Self-communication (McLaughlin reference 2)
Psychological healing (Foster reference 3)
Spiritual direction

III. How to find silent retreat

Decide to attend retreat (Pennington reference 4)
Internet search
Things to take

Conclusion

Silent retreat: is, does, find

Merton quotation

COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES

PERSONAL ACTIVITIES

1. The best teacher

Who was the best teacher you have had in your life? What did
he teach? What did this person teach you about yourself? What
did you like or appreciate about this teacher? Can you identify
any specific techniques or approaches in the person’s
informative speaking that you felt were especially effective in
helping you learn? Can you identify any specific delivery
characteristics that captivated and held your attention? Which
of these delivery and informative-speaking techniques might
you use in your own personal speaking? Have you ever written
this teacher a thank-you note for his contribution to your
learning?

2. What do you teach others?

Although you may not realize it, you are always teaching those
around you by your example. Children in the neighborhood,
your family members, those at work, and your friends observe
your actions over time. It’s not really what you say that’s
important. It’s what you do. What does your behavior say
 about you? Do you keep promises? Are you punctual? Are you
enlarging? Do you listen without interrupting? Do you
encourage? Can you keep a secret? Do you touch? Are you
there when others need a friend? What does your behavior
teach others about you?

3. Teachers in other cultures

Ask an individual from a different cultural background about
her culture’s attitudes and behaviors toward teachers. Are
teachers valued? Are they respected? How are they paid? What
are the primary teaching methods? How do students interact
with their teachers? What classroom attitudes and behaviors
are different from ours? How are they similar?

4. Research the origins of Google

Go online and research the origins of Google. Most likely you
will be using Google to research information on Google. What
interesting facts did you discover? Of all the information you
read, which fact would make the most interesting speech topic
for the other students in your speech class? Why?

CLASS ACTIVITIES

1. Group discussion: Brainstorm informative speech

topics.
Divide the class into groups of five or six students. Each group
is to brainstorm a minimum of 30 possible topics for
informative speaking. What topics are of interest to the group?
Remember not to evaluate or judge any of the suggestions
offered by the group members. After the group has completed
its list, review the list and discuss which topics might be of
interest to the entire class. Which topics might not be of
interest? Why? Be prepared to share your group’s list with the
class.

2. Explanation speech
Prepare, practice, and present a three- to five-minute
informative speech explaining a word, concept, theory, or idea.
Develop each of your three main points with documented
 information and examples. Include any visual aids that might
be helpful. Your speech should contain an introduction, body,
and conclusion.

3. Demonstration speech
Prepare, practice, and present a five- to seven-minute
demonstration speech showing how something is made or how
something works. Use the cluster method of arranging the
main points of your speech. Develop each of your main points
with documented information and examples. Include any
visual aids that might be helpful. Your speech should contain
an introduction, body, and conclusion.

4. Tribute speech
Prepare, practice, and present a five- to seven-minute tribute
speech honoring someone who is important in your life. The
purpose of this speech is to share three wonderful things about
this individual with your audience. A tribute speech can be
used to honor someone at a birthday, retirement party,
anniversary, or eulogy. Your speech should contain an
introduction, body, and conclusion.

5. Informative speech
Prepare, practice, and present a five- to seven-minute speech
on a topic that would be of interest to your audience. Research
this topic thoroughly after analyzing your audience. Develop
each of your main points with documented information and
examples. Include any visual aids that might be helpful. Your
speech should contain an introduction, body, and conclusion.

6. What it’s like to … speech

Prepare, practice, and present a five- to seven-minute speech
describing what it’s like to be or do something—for instance,
what it’s like to be the oldest child, divorced, a twin, a police
officer, an Asian-American, an artist, or a mechanic, or to
parachute from an airplane. Research this topic thoroughly
after analyzing your audience. Develop each of your main
points with documented information and examples. Include
any visual aids that might be helpful. Your speech should
 contain an introduction, body, and conclusion.

Persuading Your Audience

Changing Others

DOI: 10.4324/9781003162933-9

Explaining the fundamentals of persuasive speaking:

Define persuasive speaking

List the three purposes of persuasion
List the three Aristotle proofs
Explain the types of persuasive speeches
Explain special-occasion speeches

persuasion
reinforce belief
change belief
motivate to action
proposition
persuasive proofs
ethos
logos
pathos
speaker credibility
logical appeal
emotional appeal
major premise
 minor premise
reasoning by analogy
reasoning by causation
reasoning by definition
hierarchy of needs
safety needs
physical needs
belonging needs
self-actualization needs
self-esteem needs
emotional appeal
speech of reasons
problem-solution speech
criteria-satisfaction speech
negative method approach
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence
special-occasion speeches

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the

following:

9.1 Summarize the basics of persuasion

9.2 List and explain Aristotle’s three persuasive proofs
9.3 Identify some types of persuasive speeches
9.4 Describe special-occasion speeches

It’s the silence of the place that Michelle loves most. Nestled in a secluded
corner of rolling hills and occasional oaks, the small monastery has served
as a retreat center for people of all walks of life for more than 50 years.
As you wind up the two-mile dirt road from Highway 1 to the monastery
grounds, you’re awed by the ever-increasing expanse of ocean below, the
rugged slant of the Santa Lucia mountain range falling into the sea, and
the silence—that powerful silence. And it was one particular speaker’s love
of the monastery’s silence that finally convinced Michelle three years ago
in a communication course to sign up for an overnight retreat.
It was in her public speaking class that Michelle heard an older student
deliver a persuasive speech convincing students to visit the Camaldolese
monastery for two days of silence. Like the other students in class,
Michelle was told that such a visit would quiet her mind and relax her
body. The speaker provided a number of statistics and a few expert
opinions to support her points.
But it was the speaker’s third point about the silence and how it soothes
the soul that finally moved Michelle from reluctance to willingness, from
skeptic to believer. It was the speaker’s description of a silence so
powerful, so for eign, so healing that one is gradually transformed by the
experience. And sometimes in the process, one is even moved to tears as
the sounds of civilization are silenced and the voice of heaven whispers.

Speech is power to persuade, to convert, and to compel.

—RALPH WALDO EMERSON

A few days after hearing the speech, Michelle made the call to the
monastery south of Big Sur, and she has continued to make the call every
six months since to venture into silence and once again hear the voice of
heaven whisper.
We are bombarded daily by persuasive appeals to purchase this product,
contribute to that charity, or subscribe to this belief. We in turn try to
convince someone to babysit our kids, ask the boss for a raise, or request
the neighbor to turn down his stereo. Daily, we must deal with hundreds of
persuasive events, whether we are conscious of them or not. Your ability to
convince others and motivate them to action will, to a large extent,
determine the quality and destiny of your life and the lives of those around
you.

9.1 Basics of Persuasion

Persuasion is the process of trying to get others to change their beliefs or

behavior. Unlike informative speaking, for which the goal is the sharing of
information, persuasion is aimed at going a step further—changing others.
This process of changing—and not simply sharing—is the focus of this
chapter.

Three Purposes of Persuasion

In persuasive speaking, there are three purposes we can attempt to achieve

with an audience, although most persuasive appeals utilize a combination
of all three. The persuasive purposes are to reinforce an already-held
belief, change a belief, and motivate to action.
The first persuasive purpose is to reinforce an already-held belief. This
is the goal of our persuasive appeals if we’re speaking on such topics as
“Everyone Should Vote” or “The Cure for AIDS Must Be Found.” These are
beliefs that are held by the majority of any group, and your speech will be
directed to reinforcing or strengthening those beliefs.
A second persuasive purpose is to change an audience belief. This would
be your goal if you were speaking on such topics as “We Should Ban Air
Conditioning in Cars” or “We Should Have a Flat Tax.” These beliefs are
not held by the majority of your audience, and your goal in these instances
would be to change their beliefs.
The final persuasive purpose is to motivate to action. This would be
your goal if you were speaking on such topics as “Contribute Money to the
Red Cross” or “Attend This Evening’s City Council Meeting.” The primary
purpose in speeches like these is to get the audience members to actually
do something.
Whether your goal is to reinforce a belief, change a belief, or motivate
the audience to action, it should be clearly indicated in your proposition.

The Proposition

In persuasive speaking, the specific purpose, purpose statement, or goal

statement is called the proposition. The proposition is the desired effect
you want to have on your audience. What exactly is it that you want your
audience to believe or do? Many persuasive attempts are doomed from the
beginning because the speaker does not know exactly what she wants from
the audience. A properly constructed proposition can ensure this clarity
and specificity.
A proposition must be limited to one sentence. The intent and goal of
the persuasive speech must be contained in that sentence. How do you
want the audience to respond? If you want to strengthen an already-held
belief, you must phrase your proposition accordingly. For example, it could
be “to strengthen the audience’s belief that everyone should take regular
vacations” and “to reinforce the audience’s belief that child abuse is a
terrible crime” are two propositions that attempt to strengthen already-
held beliefs.

It is terrible to speak well and be wrong.

—SOPHOCLES

You can phrase your proposition to reflect a desire to change the

audience’s beliefs; for instance, “to convince the audience that we should
not permit freedom of the press” and “to convince the audience that we
should abolish home mortgage interest deductions on federal income tax”
are two propositions that seek to change audience beliefs.
Finally, you can phrase your proposition to motivate your audience to
action. Propositions such as “to persuade the audience to volunteer as a
Big Brother or Big Sister” and “to motivate the audience to donate blood at
the annual company blood drive” are seeking to get the listeners to do
something.
A poorly phrased proposition will hinder your efforts to organize and
deliver an effective persuasive appeal. Make certain that your proposition
contains a clear and specific purpose and goal. When you are constructing
your proposition, consider the following three suggestions:

Your proposition should meet an audience need. Your

proposition will be more likely to succeed if you consider the needs
of your particular audience and design your proposition around
those needs. If a person has a need for a computer, he will be more
likely to receive a message on computers. If a person needs
employment, he will be more likely to receive a message on
employment opportunities or interviewing techniques. Your ability
 to analyze and consider audience needs will be valuable when
deciding on your proposition.
Your proposition should be reasonable. To ask that each
member of your audience donate $10,000 to a charitable
organization or that they jog 10 miles a day is probably asking for
more than most people are willing to give. Your proposition should
be phrased with a reasonable goal in mind. It’s the old “foot-in-the-
door” technique; you begin by asking for something small and
reasonable, and then you build your argument or persuasive appeal
to include more comprehensive objectives. Remember, in all things,
moderation.
Your proposition should be simple. The more complex your
proposition, the more likely you are to confuse your audience. A
multiple proposition can even have a counterproductive effect on
your listeners. The proposition “to persuade the audience to rethink
their current belief that milk is good for them, to believe that natural
juices provide greater benefit to their overall physical and
psychological health, and to invest in a one-week vacation at the
Nirvana Health Food Resort” would not only be overwhelming in
terms of evidence required, but it also would place too much
demand on the audience in terms of the sheer amount of persuasion
asked for. A more manageable proposition might be “to convince the
audience to drink natural juices” or “to persuade the audience to
drink less milk.” Keep it simple.

9.2 Aristotle’s Three Persuasive Proofs

Now that we’ve examined the persuasive purposes and the proposition, we
can introduce the three persuasive proofs. More than 2,000 years ago,
Aristotle divided all persuasive effort into three categories: ethos, logos,
and pathos. Ethos is the ethical appeal or credibility of the speaker. Logos
is the logical appeal. And pathos is the emotional appeal. We now examine
how each of these three dimensions of persuasion can help you change and
motivate others.
Ethos (Speaker Credibility)

Aristotle believed that the most important component of persuasion was

the perceived credibility of the speaker or her ethical appeal. Is the speaker
someone who can be trusted? Someone who has our best interests at
heart? Someone who sounds like she knows what she’s talking about?
These and related questions shape our opinion of a speaker and will
directly affect our response to her appeal. Ethos is the perceived credibility
of the speaker. Ethos, or speaker credibility, consists of the speaker’s
competence, goodwill, and character.
The speaker’s expertise or experience is called competence. We will
generally listen to and believe a speaker we perceive as trained,
knowledgeable, and experienced in a given subject or discipline area. A
physician’s knowledge, training, and experience all contribute to her
overall competence in the field of medicine. The expertise of the
knowledgeable professor makes him more believable than a professor who
displays a poor command of the material. Your competence as a speaker
can be enhanced by speaking on topics you have previous experience with
or training in. You can also increase your perceived competence by
providing your listeners with evidence and research from experts in the
subject area you are discussing.

Example is not the main thing in influencing others. It is the only

thing.
—ALBERT SCHWEITZER

The second component of ethos is goodwill. We will generally believe

people we like. Goodwill is the dimension of the speaker that deals with
interpersonal warmth, friendliness, and enthusiasm. One of the reasons
we like puppies is that they show friendliness and boundless energy
toward us. If a speaker is cold, aloof, and condescending, our usual
response is to reject that person. Some research suggests that the
perceived goodwill of the speaker is the most important of the three
elements of credibility.
How can you increase your sense of goodwill? First, show enthusiasm.
Speakers who talk in a lifeless monotone, as if they were delivering a
funeral eulogy, are generally received in similar fashion. Be enthusiastic in
your nonverbal communication! Show some life! What goes around comes
around. Second, be friendly toward your audience. Use a speech style that
is warm and friendly. Be personable. Smile. And third, use humor when
appropriate. There’s something about well-received humor that increases
liking and attraction.
The third component of ethos is the speaker’s character. Character is
the overall makeup of a person. It’s what the speaker is made of. Honesty,
integrity, and trustworthiness are major elements of a person’s character,
and if the speaker seems to possess these traits, we are more likely to
believe him than if he does not. An audience member must feel that she
can trust and respect the speaker before she will be persuaded by that
speaker.
What, then, can you do to be perceived as possessing an honest and
trustworthy character? Here are some suggestions. First, be truthful. Don’t
exaggerate points. Present your views fairly. Second, share your motives
with the audience. Tell the audience why you are taking the position you
are taking. Even if they disagree with you, they will appreciate your
candor. Third, establish common ground with your audience. An audience
will more likely feel better about you if you possess similar beliefs, values,
attitudes, and experiences. Finally, dress appropriately. Your audience
bases much of their evaluation of you on the manner in which you dress.

Increasing Speaker Ethos

Speaker goodwill and character are two of the traits of ethos. You can
increase your level of goodwill toward your audience and develop your
character in the process by focusing your attention and efforts on your
audience rather than on yourself.
Here are some ways you can increase your ethos as you prepare for and
deliver any speech. The first three suggestions are not readily visible to
your audience, but their impact will influence how you think and feel and,
thus, how you deliver your speech. The remaining suggestions visually
demonstrate your goodwill to your audience as you speak.
Research Your Audience. Before you speak, gather as much information
about your audience as you can. Interview the speaking event contact
person, conduct a site visit to the group or organization, or e-mail an
audience survey in order to gather relevant information that will make
your upcoming speech tailored to their interests and needs.
Consider Your Audience. In the weeks and days prior to your speaking
event, focus your attention on your audience. Consider how you will be
providing them with information that will make their lives better.
Remember that you either enlarge or diminish others with your words. So
think about the audience every day for a few minutes. Meditate on your
audience. Pray for your audience if you’re so inclined. Your time and effort
will be worth it.
Connect With Your Audience Before You Speak. You might want to add
a personal touch if your audience is small (20 to 30 people) by contacting
them directly through e-mail, social media, or a good old-fashioned letter.
This requires considerable effort, but it’s worth it.
I’ve spoken at small conferences of 40 to 50 attendees where I’ve sent
personal, handwritten letters to each individual one week before I was
scheduled to speak. It was a lot of work to write a couple of sentences of
welcome and good wishes to each audience member, but you would not
believe the warm and enthusiastic welcome I received even before the
audience was seated in the conference room. Reach out and touch
someone before you speak.
Dress Up. One obvious way you can increase your credibility with the
audience is to dress up a little more than you normally would. That doesn’t
mean a suit and tie or an evening gown, but you should be one of the best-
dressed people at the speaking event. You are the speaker, for goodness’s
sake. Act like one … I mean, dress like one.
Arrive Early and Mingle. Arrive at the speaking event 30 minutes earlier
than you are expected. This gives you time to check out the speaking room
or auditorium before the audience arrives. It’s also a good to locate the
drinking fountain, restroom, and emergency exit in case the audience
really dislikes your speech. Plus, you’ll have a few minutes alone to collect
yourself, breathe, and focus your attention and spirit in the right direction.
Be Respectful in Your Delivery. As you are delivering your speech, be
respectful of your audience. Use encouraging, supportive, and gracious
language when addressing your audience. Don’t use obscene, vulgar, or
disrespectful language. You want to be a speaker who demonstrates the
highest standards of ethical and respectful delivery. We’re talking about
your character on public display when you address an audience. So always
take the high road and be respectful in your delivery.
Be the Last to Leave. Although some speakers want to be treated like
royalty and be rushed off stage to their waiting limousine amid the
thunderous applause, I would suggest that you stick around, answer
questions, and chat with those audience members who honor you with
their presence as they line up to shake your hand. In fact, be the last one to
leave—after you’ve helped clean up, thanked the appropriate support folks,
and tied up any loose ends with the speaking event contact person. Be the
first one to arrive and the last one to leave. Talk about ethos …
Express Your Thanks. Remember to write a thank-you email to the
group or organization that sponsored or hired you to speak. Also write a
separate thank-you email to the contact person who assisted you. Have a
grateful heart. It not only builds friendships, but it also builds your
character. Public speaking is more than just speaking in front of an
audience. It develops and expresses your ethos.

Logos (Logical Appeal)

The second component of persuasion is logos. Logos is the logical appeal

or the reasoning process presented by the speaker. Reasoning is the
process of drawing conclusions from evidence. You will recall that
evidence takes the form of either statistics or expert testimony. Let’s
examine the two basic forms of the reasoning process: deductive and
inductive reasoning.
Deductive reasoning moves from a general rule or premise and applies
it to a specific case. The flow is from the general to the specific, from big to
small. An example of deductive reasoning would be

1. Mary is a member of a church. (premise)

2. Therefore, Mary believes in God. (specific conclusion)

In most deductive reasoning, one of the premises is not stated. This is

called an enthymeme. Let’s look at the reasoning again and include the
missing premise:

1. Members of a church believe in God. (major premise)

2. Mary is a member of a church. (minor premise)
 3. Therefore, Mary believes in God. (specific conclusion)

When all three steps of the deductive reasoning process are stated, as in
the preceding example, it is called a syllogism.
Let’s see if you can fill in the missing part in the following syllogism:

1. All human beings are mortal.

2. Travis is a human being.
3. Therefore,
______________________________________________.

(How was that? The answer is “Travis is mortal.”)

Try to complete the missing information in this example:

1. All divorced people have been married.

2. _________________________________________________.
3. Therefore, John has been married.

(Was this one easy for you? The answer to the minor premise is “John is
divorced.”)
Now, let’s see how the syllogism can be used to test the deductive logic
of a speech. Suppose that you want to convince your audience that
automobile air-conditioning units are destroying our atmosphere. The
syllogism would look something like this:

Major Premise. Freon gas destroys the earth’s ozone layer.

Minor Premise. Most automobile air-conditioning units leak signifi-
cant amounts of Freon into the atmosphere.
Conclusion. Therefore, automobile air-conditioning units are
destroying the earth’s ozone layer.

Now that you have constructed the syllogism, you will need to research
and present evidence—both statistical and expert testimony—that will
prove your major and minor premises to your audience. These can serve as
the content for the first two points of your persuasive speech. If you
succeed in getting your audience to agree with your major and minor
premises, they should accept your conclusion. If used correctly, deductive
logic can be an effective persuasive tool.
Whereas deductive reasoning moves from the general to the specific,
inductive reasoning uses the opposite strategy. It examines specific
examples or facts and then draws a general conclusion. Inductive
reasoning moves from the small to the large, from the specific to the
general.
Suppose you have owned three mutt dogs in your life, and each one of
those mixed-breed dogs was friendly, well behaved, and healthy. From
your experience and observation of those three specific dogs, you could
arrive at the general conclusion that all mutt dogs make great pets. If you
read statistics asserting that married couples who communicated regularly
stayed married longer than couples who did not, you might conclude that
regular communication is an important requirement for a long marriage.
In both cases, you moved from specific observations or evidence to a
general conclusion.

The less men think, the more they talk.

—MONTESQUIEU

In the case in which your experience with three different mutt dogs led
you to conclude that all mixed-breed dogs make great pets, you were using
the inductive reasoning process. In other words, you said to yourself that
what is true in some instances is true in all instances. This is a common
form of inductive reasoning used by speakers.
In the second example of communication and marriage length, you were
using reasoning by statistics, another form of inductive reasoning.
Different pieces of statistical evidence, each pointing to the same
conclusion, led to the belief that regular communication is important to a
long-lasting marriage. Reasoning by statistics isn’t readily accepted by all
people, however. There are many who are suspicious of anything that
resembles numerical data, and there is some basis for their skepticism.
Statistics can be presented and interpreted in a variety of ways that can be
misleading. Here are some suggestions for using statistics:

Document your statistics orally. If your audience is not familiar

with the statistics you will be presenting, you need to document the
evidence before you share it with your audience. You should cite the
author, source, and date of the research. It can be cited as simply as
 “Dr. Joe Yamato, in his book, Dangers of Sugar, published in
2009, warns …”
or
“In the article ‘Top Swimmers in America,’ Terrin Flores
reported in the current edition of Sports Illustrated that …”

Build the ethos of the source/author. If the author or researcher

is not familiar to your audience, you may wish to spend a few
moments building the ethos or credibility of the person. Do this
before you document the evidence. Here’s a brief example:

“Terrin Flores has been a sportswriter for 22 years. She has

specialized in swimming sports and has interviewed all the
biggest Olympic swimming stars in the past 18 years.” (ethos
building) … (pause)
“In the article ‘Top Swimmers in America,’ Terrin Flores
reported in the current edition of Sports Illustrated that …”
(documentation)

Give an adequate amount of statistics/expert testimony. You

should present at least one statistic or expert testimony to prove
each main point of your speech. Don’t go overboard, however. You
can reach a point of diminishing returns, and an avalanche of
statistics and expert testimony can overwhelm an audience. You
need to be the judge of how much evidence to present to a particular
audience.
Provide quality evidence. Your evidence should reflect the best
possible research available. Are the authors credible? Are the
sources of the information—books, magazines, periodicals—
credible? If the quality of your information is questionable, the
impact of your speech is jeopardized.
Provide recent evidence. Present research that is recent. Whenever
possible, give research that is no more than five years old. The more
recent the evidence, the more credible it is to your audience.
Provide relevant evidence. Test your evidence to ensure that it
does indeed support your proposition or main point. After you have
presented a piece of evidence, your audience should not have to ask
themselves the question, “So what? What did that evidence have to
 do with the point he was trying to make?” Make the relevance of
your evidence clear.
Restate your evidence in your own words. After you have stated
your evidence or your expert testimony, it is important that you
pause for a moment and then restate the information in your own
words. This gives the audience another chance to be exposed to the
data in a different way. Watch how the speaker restates the evidence
in the following example:

“The study indicated that 16 percent of women showed signs of

stress, whereas 33 percent of the men in the experiment
displayed stress.” (evidence) … (pause) … “What this means is
that twice as many men as women exhibited stress in the test.”
(restatement)

Translate your evidence into a picture. Sometimes the evidence

you present is difficult to envision or comprehend. In such instances,
it is important to translate or interpret the evidence in terms that are
more readily understood or visualized by your listeners. Notice how
the translation of the statistic provides a clearer picture. “The NASA
space capsule weighs 120,000 pounds. That’s the equivalent of 48
Toyota pickups!”

Other Forms of Reasoning

There are three other forms of reasoning we should briefly mention

because they are often used in persuasive appeals logic. They are reasoning
by analogy, reasoning by causation, and reasoning by definition.
Reasoning by analogy is a reasoning attempt that shows that similar
circumstances produce similar conclusions. This is a special form of
reasoning by generalization. Suppose that Company A went bankrupt last
year, and you show that the circumstances of Company A were similar to
those of Company B. From that, you could assert that Company B will also
go bankrupt. Because its circumstances are similar, it will suffer a similar
fate. Another example of reasoning by analogy is “You’re just like your
brother, and you’ll end up in jail just like he did.” Pretty grim, huh?
Reasoning by causation assumes that every cause has an effect. When
two things occur together frequently, we often assume that one caused the
other. Let’s say that every time you go swimming, you get a headache.
After a while, you might conclude that the swimming caused the headache.
The independent variable, the swimming, causes the dependent variable,
the headache. You need to be careful, however, about drawing such
conclusions. Is there always a relationship between the two variables?
Does the independent variable always precede the dependent variable?
And could there be other variables (confounding variables) involved that
you’re not aware of, such as after swimming you always drink three warm
glasses of brandy to ward off the cold? That could cause a headache for
anyone. Be careful when you draw a conclusion when reasoning by
causation.
And finally, reasoning by definition is another form of logic that needs
to be mentioned. When a situation has all the characteristics that are
usually associated with a term, we can then use the term to describe the
product of those characteristics. That is reasoning by definition. For
example, if Joe’s Diner has delicious food, great service, and reasonable
prices, we can say the restaurant is an excellent one. Because good food,
great service, and reasonable prices are all characteristics of an excellent
restaurant, we can apply that term to Joe’s Diner. Once again, be careful
when using this form of logic. Sure, Joe’s Diner satisfies those three
criteria presented, but what about the sanitation of the kitchen, the
location of the restaurant, and the overall atmosphere of the place? Be
careful with this form of reasoning also.

Statistics are no substitute for judgment.

—HENRY CLAY

Pathos (Emotional Appeal)

Do you always base your decisions on sound reasoning and well-

researched evidence? Where to vacation? Which car to buy? Where to go
to dinner? Whom to invite to your party? Where to live? Whom to marry?
Should you have children? Should you stay married? These and thousands
of other questions confront you during your lifetime.
How do you make these decisions? Do you decide on the basis of advice
from others, as you consider their credibility or ethos? Perhaps you base
your decisions on logical reasoning and thorough research by emphasizing
logos or logical proof. Or do you base your decisions on your “gut feelings,”
relying primarily on how you feel emotionally about an issue? Most people
probably use a combination of all three in decisions of magnitude or
importance, but research has shown that much decision making is
ultimately based on emotional responses, personal tastes, needs, and
desires.
The third and final persuasive proof is what Aristotle referred to as
pathos, or emotional appeal. Pathos appeals to the listener’s needs,
desires, and wishes. Whereas logos, or logical appeal, aims for the
listener’s head, pathos directs its efforts toward the listener’s heart. In
addition to providing logical reasoning, supported by sound evidence, and
presenting yourself as a credible speaker, you must appeal to the emotions
of your audience in your persuasive speech.

Hierarchy of Needs

Because emotional appeals deal with an individual’s psychological needs,

we should begin with an examination of the various needs. An introduction
to this area is Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, a psychological
model of need structure depicting the lowest-level physical needs to the
highest-level actualization needs.
The lowest level of the hierarchy is our physical needs, such as our need
for food, water, air, sleep, and physical comfort. Our most basic
requirements to get adequate oxygen to breathe, food to eat, and water to
drink are often taken for granted, unless we are drowning, starving, or
dying of thirst. Our audience will most likely have these most basic needs
met, so a persuasive speech based primarily on the satisfaction of this level
of need is not usually advised.
The second level on the hierarchy is safety needs. Safety needs not only
include physical safety, such as freedom from illness, disease, and
violence, but they also include having a job, a place to call home, a sense of
stability and order, and a lawful environment. Many persuasive appeals
can be generated from this level of safety needs.
 All learning has an emotional base.
—PLATO

Belonging needs serve as the third level of needs. These include the need
to be loved by a significant other and the need for family and friends. They
also include the need to belong to a group of people who share your
interests and activities, such as a church, an interest group, a pottery class,
and even a motorcycle club. They can also include the need to belong to a
political movement, a nation, or even the human race.
The fourth level is self-esteem needs. The assumption here is that people
need to feel good about themselves. They need to feel they are worthwhile,
attractive, capable, and skilled. People will invest a great amount of
energy, effort, and money in activities that will enhance their self-esteem.
Self-help books, diet centers, graduate schools, promotions at work,
meditation retreats, jewelry stores, exclusive designer clothing boutiques,
and a thousand other self-esteem–enhancing sources cry out to us. This
level of needs is rich in emotional-appeal material.
Self-actualization involves realizing one’s highest potential. It is placed
at the top level of the hierarchy of needs. We have a need to be the best we
can with what we have been given—to be the best parent possible, the best
teacher, the best spouse; to write that book we’ve been thinking about for
years; or to learn to fly an airplane.
A woman returned to school after having been away from formal
education for more than 25 years. Even though she was at the age when
most people retire from work, she wanted to begin her college education to
become a chiropractor. After raising three children by herself and saving
for her college education, she was ready to accomplish what she had
dreamed of for years. This woman was striving for self-actualization—
realizing her highest desire, to become a person who helps heal others.
Some of the best emotional-appeal stories you can include in your
speech will come from the lives of individuals who have sought to realize
their highest potential. When you are researching emotional appeals for
your persuasive speech, remember the various needs of your audience
members.
Specific Emotional Targets

You should consider five other areas when preparing your emotional
appeals to a particular audience. They are sex, conformity, wealth,
pleasure, and personal growth.
Appealing to the motive of sex is one of the most popular strategies
utilized by the advertising industry. Every other advertisement has an
attractive man or woman fondling products from cars to fertilizer. Our
desire to be attractive to others makes for a powerful motivational appeal.
Beneath the motive of sex is a deeper need for intimacy, belonging, and
love. These needs all provide rich areas to explore for emotional appeals.
Conformity is one of the most powerful needs we have. The need to
appear and behave like others is a potent motivational force, affecting
young and old alike. Often, the appeal can take the form of avoiding
nonconforming behavior or being different from everyone else. “You
wouldn’t want to be the only person in your neighborhood who didn’t have
attractive landscaping!” and “How would it feel to be the only person who
didn’t contribute, when all of your colleagues had?” are examples of this
technique.
Another specific target that is especially effective with audiences is
wealth. Wealth not only includes the desire to possess piles of money,
diamonds, and gold; it also encompasses an individual’s need to earn,
save, and invest money. It can speak to a desire to spend money wisely and
prevent its loss. Appeals to wealth can prove beneficial in moving your
audiences emotionally.
Another motive you should consider is that of pleasure. Most people like
doing things that bring them happiness, enjoyment, and pleasure. Use
appeals that point out or highlight how your proposition will provide them
with pleasure.
Personal growth is the individual’s need or desire to examine life,
explore different aspects of selfhood, and, ideally, make strides toward
growing as a human being. The emphasis is on becoming different from
what we were in the past and exploring new ways of living and being. The
introvert becomes the extrovert, the thinker becomes the feeler, and the
bodybuilder becomes the spiritual seeker. The focus is on process and
growth. This need to expand, change, and grow is one of the most potent of
all personal needs to appeal to in your audience. It was the reason this
book was written.

Suggestions for Using Emotional Appeals

When using emotional appeals, consider the following suggestions:

Select appropriate emotional appeals. You must analyze your

topic and audience carefully and then research appropriate
emotionally appealing material that will support your proposition
and appeal to the needs of the audience.
Establish common ground with the audience. An audience will
more likely listen to your emotional appeals if they feel you have
things in common with them. During the first half of your talk,
usually in the introduction, relate to common experiences, values,
beliefs, and circumstances that will establish common ground with
your listeners.
Use the yes-response. The audience must ultimately agree with
your point of view if you are to be successful in your persuasive
speech. One effective technique that can lay the groundwork in the
beginning for such an agreeable climate is the yes-response—a series
of rhetorical questions constructed so that the audience is likely to
answer “yes.” As the audience silently considers each question, they
begin to get into a more agreeable state of mind. Listen to the series
of questions this speaker uses for a speech on increasing the size of
the police force in a certain town as he utilizes the yes-response.

“Do you want a town that is free from crime?”

“Would you like to be able to walk the streets at night again?”
“And wouldn’t you want to feel safe in your own neighborhood?”

Kindness has influenced more people than eloquence.

—GANDHI

Use emotional appeal at the end of the body of your speech. If

you are going to fully develop an emotional appeal, such as a story or
 long illustration, do so toward the end of your speech. The final main
point in the body of your speech is the most appropriate place to
include a detailed story. The first two main points should stress
evidence and expert opinion as you present your arguments, but
save the final point for material that is especially appealing to the
emotions of the audience.
Match your nonverbal behavior with your appeal. Your body
movement, gestures, voice, and facial expressions should reinforce
the emotional appeals you are using. If your material is sad, look,
talk, and move as if you are sad. If the material is joyous, look, talk,
and move as if you are joyous. Don’t give your audience mixed
messages. Use your nonverbal communication to add credibility and
impact to your verbal message.
Use pauses in your delivery. One common mistake speakers
commit when delivering emotional appeals is forgetting to give the
audience time to digest the material. Use pauses after you’ve
delivered a powerful line of dialogue. A two- or three-second pause
will give your audience time to consider what you have just said. It
places emphasis on your statement, and it gives you time to breathe.
Use your pauses as you practice the speech. If you don’t practice the
speech with pauses, you will forget to use them when the real speech
time arrives.

9.3 Types of Persuasive Speeches

Now that we have looked at the basics of persuasive speaking—ethical

proof, logical proof, and emotional proof—we can examine the basic main-
point outlines of various persuasive speeches. The introductions,
conclusions, and subpoints of the following outlines have been omitted.

Speech of Reasons Approach

If your audience has no opinion, is neutral, or is only mildly in favor or

mildly opposed to your proposition, you can use the speech of reasons
approach. This simple method of persuasive speaking is best suited for
these audiences.

Proposition: You should exercise regularly.

Regular exercise will improve your physical health.

Regular exercise will improve your psychological well-being.
Regular exercise will improve your chances of living a long life.

Problem-Solution Approach

If you want your audience to consider the adoption of a specific plan or

solution to a problem, you can use the problem-solution approach. This
works best with an audience that has no opinion, is neutral, or is only
mildly in favor or mildly opposed to your proposition.

Proposition: You should support the 8 percent federal income tax

plan.

The current federal income tax is unfair.

The proposed 8 percent federal income tax will tax all citizens
equally.
The proposed 8 percent federal income tax is the best solution to
our tax problem.

Criteria-Satisfaction Approach

If your audience is hostile to your proposition, the criteria-satisfaction

approach can be effective because it utilizes the yes-response as you have
them agree with your criteria for a satisfactory solution. It also seeks to
establish common ground with your hostile audience because you stipulate
criteria that are agreeable to speaker and audience.

Proposition: You should attend a community college.

You want a college that meets these criteria.

It must offer a wide variety of courses.
It must offer individualized instructional support.
It must be affordable.
 The community college meets these criteria.
It offers a wide variety of courses.
It offers individualized instructional support.
It is affordable.

Negative Method Approach

If your audience is hostile, the negative method can be especially effective

because the structure forces the audience to realize that there is no other
option than the one you propose. Your main-point structure eliminates the
other options as viable solutions.

Proposition: You should save money for the future.

Your current level of savings is inadequate.

The Social Security system will be bankrupt.
Your earning power will diminish in coming years.
The only solution is to save money now for the future.

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

The final persuasive speech pattern is Monroe’s Motivated Sequence,

developed by speech professor Alan Monroe in the 1930s. This is a popular
and highly effective persuasive speech pattern for moving audiences to
action. It is based on a developmental model of persuasion, each step
building on the previous step. This pattern is especially useful if you are
seeking immediate action or results from your audience. Monroe’s
Motivated Sequence has five steps: attention, need, satisfaction,
visualization, and action.

Step 1: Gain Attention

In the first step, you gain the audience’s attention and focus it on the
specific problem at hand. You can achieve this by audience questions,
stories, startling statistics or facts, and visual aids or by making specific
references of connection to the audience. If you gain their attention
effectively, the audience will be ready and willing to listen to your speech.

Step 2: Establish Need

In the second step, you make the audience feel a need for change by
showing that there is a serious problem to solve. Your audience should feel
that something must be done or has to be learned because of the need you
presented and developed. This can be achieved with the following three
steps:

1. State the need that exists or will exist.

2. Illustrate this need with examples, statistics, and expert testimony.
3. Show how this need affects your specific listeners.

Step 3: Satisfy the Need

Once you have gained the audience’s attention and proved a relevant need
that is personally important to them, you are ready to propose a way to
satisfy this need. It is in this satisfaction step that you present your
solution to the problem. This is the most important step in the sequence—
providing your audience with a solution to reinforce or change their
attitudes and beliefs or motivate them to action. Be as specific as possible
when you propose the attitude or belief you want them to adopt or the
course of action you want them to take.

Step 4: Visualize the Need Satisfied

After you have presented your solution to the problem, you strengthen the
audience’s beliefs and feelings by having them actually see or visualize how
your solution will benefit them. You are now moving your audience from
the present into the future. One way you can achieve this is to describe
what the positive future will look like if your proposal is adopted. Use
specific examples and illustrations when describing this brighter future.
Another way you can achieve a similar result is to describe a worse future if
they fail to adopt your solution to the problem.
Step 5: Ask for Action

The final step of the motivated sequence is to make a direct request of your
audience. You want your audience to move in a specific direction, either in
thought or action. State exactly what you want your audience to do or
believe, providing specific guidelines as to how they will achieve the
desired results. Use strong emotional appeals during this final step. This is
the time to be direct, positive, and forceful.
Here’s a brief example of Monroe’s Motivated Sequence:

The great end of life is not knowledge, but action.

—THOMAS FULLER

I. Attention: A local child is killed by a drunk driver.

II. Need: You or someone you love could be killed or injured by a
drunk driver.
III. Satisfaction: Mothers Against Drunk Drivers (MADD) is a
national organization that brings attention to this serious problem
and supports legislation to get drunk drivers off the road.
IV. Visualization: Imagine our highways without drunk drivers
where you and your loved ones are safe.
V. Action: I want you to support MADD with a $10 donation this
month.

SAMPLE PERSUASIVE OUTLINE: STOP

USING CREDIT CARDS

Proposition: To persuade the audience to stop using credit cards.

Introduction

This past year, a rather traumatic event happened to a good friend of

mine—she and her husband were forced to file for bankruptcy due to
excessive credit card debt. They lost many of their worldly possessions
in the process, and their credit rating was ruined for the next several
years. Did you know that Americans currently owe in excess of $540
billion in credit card debt and that the forecast for the future is that
this debt will only increase because of our addiction to the mighty
credit card? Today, I want you to quit using credit cards because it
will save your money, your sanity, and your future. Let’s examine each
of these powerful reasons.

Body

I. The first reason you should give up credit cards is to save

money.

A. It will eliminate high annual fees.

B. It will eliminate high annual interest rates.
C. It will reduce unnecessary spending.

1. According to Gerri Detweiler in her book, The

Ultimate Credit Handbook, “Credit card
companies recognize human nature and play
upon the fact that credit cards make it easy to
overextend ourselves.”
2. Story about my friends overextending
themselves on credit cards.

II. The second reason you should give up credit cards is to save
your sanity.

A. It reduces your worry over unnecessary spending.

B. It reduces your anxiety over ever-increasing debt.

1. Margorie Hillis, in her book, Orchids on Your

Budget, warns that credit card debt will destroy
your peace of mind.
2. This anxiety can express itself in physical
ailments.

C. It gives you more time to think about more positive

things in life.

III. The third reason you should give up credit cards is to save your
 future.

A. It can prevent future bankruptcy.

1. Mike Yorkey, in his book, Real Solutions for

Getting Out of Debt, explains that “giving up
credit cards is a real prevention against future
bankruptcy.”
2. Story about Josh Ling being saved from
bankruptcy.

B. It helps maintain excellent future credit ratings.

1. Sean Mills, credit counselor, says that “living

within your budget and not using your credit
cards can ensure a good credit rating.”
2. List Sean Mills’s life goals for your money
future.

C. It can foster a healthy attitude toward future spending.

Conclusion

Today, I’ve given you three excellent reasons why you should give up
using credit cards—it will save your money, your sanity, and your
future. So begin your path to financial health and spiritual freedom by
actually cutting up your credit cards in a hundred pieces and getting
the pieces of your life put back into place. Proverbs warns us that “A
fool and his money are soon parted.” Be wise and part with those
credit cards and not your money!

References

Detweiler, G. 2003. The Ultimate Credit Handbook. New York: Jeremy

Thatcher/Putman.
Hillis, M. 2010. Orchids on Your Budget. London: Virago Books.
Mills, S. Mar. 11, 2009. Credit Counselor, San Jose, CA. (408) 767–
1112.
Yorkey, M. 2002. Real Solutions for Getting Out of Debt. Ventura, CA:
 Vine Books.

SAMPLE KEY-WORD OUTLINE

Introduction

Bankrupt couple story

Eliminating credit cards saves money, sanity, future

Body

I. Saves money
Eliminates annual fees
Eliminates high interest rates
Reduces spending (Detweiler reference 1)

II. Saves sanity

Reduces worry
Reduces anxiety (Hillis reference 2)
Provides time

III. Saves future

Prevents bankruptcy (Yorkey reference 3)
Maintains credit rating (Mills reference 4)
Healthy spending attitude

Conclusion

Eliminating credit cards saves money, sanity; future Proverbs

quotation

9.4 Special-Occasion Speeches

Most likely in the course of your life, you may be called upon to speak at a
special occasion, such as a wedding reception, anniversary party,
retirement gathering, award ceremony, banquet, or funeral. During these
special occasions, your speaking assignment could be to introduce a
speaker, give a toast, present an award, accept an award, or pay tribute to
an individual or group. Speakers at special events are not normally famous
personalities or celebrities but more often are friends, family members,
and coworkers. The speeches are less formal than sales presentations,
academic lectures, or training seminars.
The goal of a special-occasion speech is not to give enormous amounts of
information or instruction, like an informative speech, nor to attempt to
change the way an audience thinks about a controversial issue, like a
persuasive speech. Rather, the goal of a special-occasion speech is to unite
the audience, reaffirm their beliefs, and honor specific individuals or a
group. These occasions are more emotional than intellectual, more heart
than head. In many respects, special-occasion speeches can be the most
signifi-cant, moving, and memorable of all the speeches you will ever give.

Guidelines for Special-Occasion Speeches

Before we discuss specific special-occasion speeches and how to deliver

them effectively, let’s take a moment and talk about three general
guidelines to follow for all special-occasion speaking.

1. Be Brief

More than anything else, the most important advice you can receive about
special-event speaking is to be brief. Please be brief. That’s spelled S-H-
OR-T. You are not the reason for the special occasion. You are only a
speaker, perhaps one of many, who has been asked to comment on the
occasion. And often there are a number of speakers slated to share the
podium, and the nightmare of all nightmares is to have each speaker
deliver a full-length, keynote speech. Be kind to your audience and to
yourself by being brief. We’ll look at specific time limits for each kind of
speech later, but for now, remember that no speech is entirely bad if it’s
short. Short is best. Less is more.

2. Be Prepared
No matter how brief, your speech should be delivered with skill,
confidence, and enthusiasm. The easiest way to ensure a successful
special-occasion speech is to be prepared. That means to prepare and
practice well in advance of the occasion. The last thing your audience
wants is for you to be mumbling your words, fumbling through your note
cards, and stumbling over names. Plan your speech in advance, organize it
clearly, and practice it until it becomes part of you. It’s best if you don’t use
a manuscript or note cards. Since your speech will be brief, maybe one to
three minutes, try to memorize it. Your audience doesn’t want to see the
top of your head as you read a manuscript, nor are they dying to see you
flip through note cards for your 30-second toast. They want to see your
smiling face, speaking words that you know deep in your heart with
enthusiasm that will make the occasion truly special. Anyone can read a
manuscript or note card. Be different. Be practiced. Be prepared. Be a
speaker who can walk away from the podium and walk into the hearts of
the audience.

3. Be Heartfelt

Special occasions are just that, special. These events are held for purposes
out of the ordinary, not your everyday happening. Many are once in a
lifetime. Whether it’s a wedding reception, retirement party, baby
dedication, or memorial service, these events are experienced in the heart,
not the head. They’re emotional, not intellectual. They pull us into the
territory of the heart. They lead us into the realm of spirit, where laughter
and tears, appreciation and gratitude, and wonder and love reign. And for
a moment or two, the everyday is replaced by the eternal.
To touch the heart, you must speak from the heart. Avoid exaggeration,
questionable humor, obscene language, and slapstick comedy. Most likely
your special-occasion speech will be taped, played, and replayed in the
years to come, and the last thing you want is to be immortalized as the
speaker who upset, slighted, insulted, or bored the audience. Instead, be
heartfelt. No matter what kind of special-occasion speech you give, be
genuine and sincere. Slow down your speaking rate, smile, and look into
the eyes of your audience. Be friendly. Touch the hearts of your audience
by using a brief story or anecdote to illustrate a positive attribute about the
individual, the group, or the occasion you are celebrating. A well-told story
can move the hearts of your audience more than statistics or expert
testimony and can be remembered years after the event. Stories have the
power to capture the attention of the audience, to transport them to places
they’ve never been, and to make them feel emotions they rarely
experience. Stories have the power to move the heart.

Types of Special-Occasion Speeches

In the course of your life, you might be asked to introduce a speaker, give a
toast, present an award, receive an award, deliver a tribute, give an after
dinner speech, or present a eulogy. Let’s look at each of these special-
occasion speeches.

Introducing a Speaker

You may be asked to introduce a speaker at some special occasion. The

first step in preparation for any introduction is to research the occasion,
the background of the speaker, the title and brief summary of the speaker’s
talk, and any specific items the speaker might want you to mention in your
introduction. Most importantly, make certain you know how to correctly
pronounce the speaker’s name. The worst thing you can do is stumble over
the name of the individual you’re introducing. Keep your introduction
brief. You’re there to introduce the speaker, not give the speech. A good
rule is to spend no more than one-tenth of the speaker’s speaking time
with your introduction. So if the speaker’s talk is 20 minutes in length,
your introduction should be 1 to 2 minutes at most. Be brief.

Life becomes harder for us when we live for others, but it also
becomes much richer and happier.
—ALBERT SCHWEITZER

Giving a Toast
A toast is a very brief commemorative speech that lasts less than 30
seconds. Your remarks should be focused on the individual or individuals
you are honoring. Usually all those in the audience have their glasses
raised as you deliver your toast, so keep your comments short. Limit your
remarks to one or two sentences that respect and honor the individual or
individuals you’re toasting, while inspiring the audience. Avoid trite
clichés and worn-out phrases. Whatever brief remarks you choose,
memorize your toast. This is not the time to read from a note card. Practice
your toast with a champagne glass, a smile, and a strong voice. Remember
to look at the individual or individuals you’re honoring when you give your
toast. Smile. You’ll do well.

Presenting an Award

One very common special-occasion speech is the presentation of an award,

which usually lasts about two to three minutes. Your main purpose is to
explain the significance of the award and emphasize the accomplishments
or worthiness of the person receiving it. Begin your speech by giving the
name of the award, the reason or reasons it is being given, and any brief
historical information about the award, including notable past recipients.
You might also tell the audience what a privilege and honor it is for you to
present the award. After this has been accomplished, announce the name
of the recipient and the specific reasons she was selected. If possible,
include a brief story that illustrates one of the reasons. Invite the recipient
up to the podium to receive the award and to share some remarks with the
audience. As always, practice your presentation speech to ensure that your
delivery is smooth, natural, and enthusiastic. With this longer form of
special-occasion speech, a note card could prove helpful in keeping your
remarks organized and your delivery confident. Use key words on your
note card, and keep your eyes on the audience and not on your note card.

Accepting an Award

When you are accepting an award or honor, your remarks should be very
brief, especially if there are other award recipients following you. However,
you need to say more than “thank you,” since your words should express
your gratitude and recognize the significance of the award and the
occasion. Your acceptance speech should be no more than one to two
minutes long. If you know you are receiving the award before the event,
prepare your speech ahead of time. Your speech should thank the donor
and the presenter, express gratitude to those who have contributed to your
success, and, finally, tell them how pleased and honored you are to receive
the award. Don’t diminish the award or the occasion by saying, “I don’t
deserve this award,” because this can insult the donors and audience. Also
avoid exaggeration by saying, “This is the greatest day of my entire life,”
because that can sound disingenuous. Instead, demonstrate humility and
grace by simply expressing your gratitude for the award and how you will
try to live up to its high standards.

Paying Tribute

Of all the special-occasion speeches, the tribute speech is the one you will
most likely give many times in your life. Paying tribute to an individual or
a group is appropriate at many events, including an anniversary party, a
retirement gathering, an awards banquet, an annual club dinner, and even
a birthday celebration. Any occasion that honors or celebrates a person or
group provides a wonderful opportunity to use a tribute speech. The
primary purpose of a tribute speech is to recall and highlight past
accomplishments and achievements. In the case of an individual, you can
speak about his professional, community, family, and religious
contributions and accomplishments. As you describe his achievements,
use stories to demonstrate and illustrate the accomplishments that have
been realized. You might also share brief testimonies from people who
have benefited from the individual’s life. Similar topics can be shared if
you’re paying tribute to a group of people, an organization, or a club. In
organizing a tribute speech, you can use the introduction, body, and
conclusion pattern, since this speech is more involved than all of the
previous special-occasion speeches we’ve discussed. A tribute speech can
have a body of three to five points, depending on how comprehensive you
want your talk to be. In terms of main-point order, one pattern to consider
is “begin with laughter, end with tears.” This arrangement begins with
light-hearted and humorous points and ends with more serious, deep, and
even inspirational ones. Whether you’re paying tribute to an individual or
a group, your purpose is to discuss the achievements that the individual or
group has accomplished and how these accomplishments can encourage,
unify, and even inspire the audience.

After-Dinner Speech

One of the most difficult special-occasion speeches is the after-dinner

speech. Its primary purpose is entertainment. The audience is not
expecting or desiring a speech that is serious or challenging, but instead
they want something light and humorous. Consider that the audience has
already sat through a day of workshops or put in a full day at work. Now
they’ve just finished a big meal, maybe had a few drinks, and really want to
finish off their dessert and go home. It is this situation that confronts the
after-dinner speaker. What do you do?
First, your message must relate to the occasion and group you are
addressing. Limit your message to a single, memorable theme or idea.
Second, keep your speech brief, with a 10- to 12-minute limit. Anything
longer places more strain on you and your audience than is necessary.
Third, a humorous story or two to illustrate your message is really helpful
in accomplishing your goal. Stories are easy to remember for the speaker
and more engaging and entertaining for the audience. The audience
doesn’t want to hear a lecture or an impassioned persuasive oration.
However, avoid stand-up comedy or reciting a string of jokes. Comedy
requires a great deal of skill and experience, and rattling off a series of
jokes can place you at the mercy of some of your more intoxicated
audience members. Instead, your audience will pay more attention to a
story than anything else you can share. Fourth, conclude your speech with
a final thought that emphasizes a core value or goal that is shared by the
audience. Even though you have presented entertaining material during
your speech, you can leave your audience with a unifying thought or
challenge that recognizes and commemorates the occasion.

Eulogy

A eulogy is a speech that pays tribute to someone who has died. The
primary purpose of a eulogy is to celebrate the positive aspects of an
individual’s life while consoling the family and friends. The funeral service
is for the benefit of the deceased’s family and friends, so your eulogy
should show respect for the family. Mention all immediate family
members by name and emphasize the many ways the deceased showed
love and concern for them during her life. Talk to the immediate family
and closest friends before you speak to discover what important memories
they want you to share. Remember to emphasize the positive aspects of the
individual’s life and how her life benefited the lives of others. Avoid
reciting long inventories of accomplishments. Instead, focus on positive
character traits, accomplishments, and acts of love and sacrifice that the
individual demonstrated in life. Keep your eulogy short. Don’t read long
quotations, lengthy letters, or drawn-out poems. The goal of your eulogy is
to show how the individual made a positive difference in the lives of others
and how she lives on in the memories of those left behind.

COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES

PERSONAL ACTIVITIES

1. The most persuasive speaker

Who is the most persuasive speaker you have ever heard?
What made this individual so persuasive? How did this
person’s ethos, logos, and pathos influence or shape your
response to her? What personality characteristics and delivery
skills do you share with this individual? What delivery skills
and personality characteristics are different?

2. A topic or belief you would die for

One of the most difficult assignments for the novice speaker is
to select a persuasive topic. A method that is helpful in
choosing such a topic is to ask yourself the questions, “What (if
anything) would I die for?” and “What would I risk my life
for?” These two questions could provide some possible topics
for your talk. If you discover that you wouldn’t die for anything
or at least risk your life for something, maybe you should stick
to informative speaking. Persuasive speaking—really good
persuasive speaking—usually involves a speaker who is
 committed to something, stands for something, and is willing
to sacrifice for something.

3. Outlining persuasive main points

Select one of your topics or ideas from Exercise 2 (“A topic or
belief you would die for”), and brainstorm ten reasons that
support this proposition. In other words, give ten reasons your
audience should accept your particular topic or belief. To help
you generate your list of reasons, consider ethical,
philosophical, spiritual, economic, physical, and psychological
reasons your listeners would benefit from your proposition.
From your list of ten reasons, select the three best reasons
when considering the four categories of audience analysis.

4. Analyzing a persuasive appeal online

Select three popup ads on YouTube and examine each ad for
the kinds of persuasive appeals it is attempting to evoke in the
reader. Use Aristotle’s three proofs (ethos, logos, and pathos)
or Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to identify and discuss the
persuasive appeals found in each of the three ads you selected.

CLASS ACTIVITIES

1. Group discussion: Advertising campaign

Divide the class into groups of five or six. Each group is to
design a simple one-page advertisement attempting to get high
school seniors to enroll in a public speaking course during
their first semester in college. Use any of the information in
this chapter to give you ideas as you design this one-page ad.
Be prepared to present your ad to the entire class. Your
instructor may have each group write and/or draw its ad on an
overhead transparency so it can be viewed by all the students.

2. “I want you to” speech

Prepare, practice, and present a six- to eight-minute
persuasive speech on the topic “I want you to …” In this
speech, you could persuade your audience to visit a place,
contribute to a charity, enroll in a particular class, or read a
certain book. It’s up to you! Research the topic and interview
 experts in the field you are discussing. Develop each of your
main points with documented information, examples, and
strong emotional appeals. Include any visual aids that might
be helpful. Your speech should contain an introduction, body,
and conclusion.

3. Problem-solution speech
Prepare, practice, and present a six- to eight-minute
persuasive speech discussing a problem of at least countywide
importance and presenting a specific solution to that problem.
Research the topic and interview experts in the field you are
discussing. Make certain that you prove there is a problem and
that your solution will solve the problem. Develop each of your
main points with documented information, examples, and
strong emotional appeals. Include any visual aids that might
be helpful. Your speech should contain an introduction, body,
and conclusion.

4. Monroe’s Motivated Sequence speech

Prepare, practice, and present a six- to eight-minute
persuasive speech using Monroe’s Motivated Sequence
(attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action).
Research the topic and interview experts in the field you are
discussing. Develop your main points with documented
information, examples, and strong emotional appeals. Include
any visual aids that might be helpful. Your speech should
contain an introduction, body, and conclusion.

10

Speaking in the Digital Age

A Lifelong Journey
DOI: 10.4324/9781003162933-10

The consideration of speaking for a lifetime:

Guidelines for online speaking

Guidelines for leading virtual meetings
Guidelines for the virtual participant
Becoming a speaker
Developing the heart of a speaker

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the

following:

10.1 Explain the guidelines for online speaking

10.2 Explain the guidelines for leading virtual meetings
10.3 Explain the guidelines for the virtual participant
10.4 Explain speaking for a lifetime
10.5 Explain developing the heart of a speaker

Melissa slammed her laptop shut, let out a disgusted sigh, and stared out
the dining room window after watching the video of her online medical
benefits presentation. “I was horrible. My first time speaking to a virtual
audience and I was horrible,” Melissa confided to her teenage son, Ryan,
who watched the video with her.
“It wasn’t that bad, mom,” Ryan, smiled as he patted her shoulder.
“No, it was awful,” Melissa groaned. “I’m usually enthusiastic and funny
when I speak to a live audience. But this online stuffis discouraging. I
looked awful—like I was in a trance. Ever since high school, I’ve loved
speaking in front of people. That’s why I went into Human Resource
training.”
“Don’t be so hard on yourself, mom,” Ryan said. “Giving a speech online
is different than speaking in-person. You have to change your approach a
little. Boy, I’ve had to learn the hard way.” And Ryan knew from
experience, because he’s been posting skateboarding videos on YouTube
for the past year and learned a lot about speaking to a virtual audience.
“What should I do, Ryan?”
“A couple of things, mom,” said Ryan. “You need to actually stand up
when you’re speaking. You sat at your desk the entire time. Look directly at
the camera lens on your laptop. Pretend your best friend is peering out
that little lens at the top of your laptop screen. Speak to only her the entire
time. And finally, smile. Your smile will communicate warmth to your
online audience and will also help keep your body more relaxed.”
Melissa took her son’s advice, and her next online Human Resource
presentation was much better. Melissa was more animated and expressive
when she spoke from a standing position, her eye contact was more direct
as she focused only on “her friend” peering out from the laptop lens, and
she appeared more warm and friendly as she smiled. With a few simple
improvements, Melissa was more natural and confident as she spoke to
her virtual audience.

10.1 Guidelines for Online Speaking

Delivering a speech effectively to an audience using digital platforms such

as Zoom, Facebook Live, YouTube, podcasts, or webinars is not the same
as delivering a speech to a live audience. There are three primary
differences between speaking to a virtual audience as opposed to a live, in-
person audience. With a virtual audience, more technical involvement is
required, the message needs to be more focused, and the delivery must be
more deliberate.
The first difference that speaking to a virtual audience presents is that
the speaker must have a greater understanding of the equipment, staging,
and recording of the speech. Unlike speaking before a live in-person
audience, where the location, microphone, lighting, and other technical
aspects are determined and set up by others, when speaking to a virtual
audience, these responsibilities and duties are usually left to the speaker.
Big change here. As the speaker, you now have additional knowledge
and skills to learn and carry out to make your speech more effective and
impactful. You are now the one who must select and operate the staging,
camera, microphone, lighting, and other technical considerations that
online speaking requires. Now, if you’re financially able and can hire a
team to do these technical tasks, good for you…. But most of us don’t have
the resources, so the technical stuff is left to us.
Take a deep breath. If we take it slow, the technical skills are easy to
master, and they can be a rewarding and fun way to boost your sense of
accomplishment and self-confidence. Yay for you.
The second difference speaking to a virtual audience is that it requires
that your message be even more focused than speaking to a live, in-person
audience. Given the nature and constraints of virtual audiences, the
attention of the audience is much more difficult to attract and maintain on
a computer or video screen as opposed to an in-person audience.
The members of your virtual audience generally watch your speech from
the comfort of their living rooms, offices, or coffee house, with their feet
propped up on their desk or stretched out on the sofa or café lounge chair.
They don’t have to get ready to attend a live speaking performance, drive
to the speaking facility, park, enter the room or auditorium, find their seat,
and politely wait for your speech to begin.
And what adds to this difference is that in a live in-person setting, each
audience member’s behavior can be influenced by the watchful glances of
the other audience members sitting next to and around them, unlike the
virtual audience setting; when the online audience member gets bored
with the content, impatient with the length of the speech, distracted by the
speaker’s delivery, or upset with the message presented, he can simply
turn off the video screen or switch to another video or podcast. That’s not
as easily done in an in-person setting. There are too many people
watching, and it’s a little embarrassing to march out with all the audience
eyes on you.
Not so with the virtual audience member. Get bored or upset with the
speaker? All you do is click the screen off and go to the kitchen and get a
soft drink and chips. Pretty easy when you’re an online viewer.
So, the online speaker must focus his presentation. The point of the
speech should be more like a laser beam than a search light. What is the
one thing you want your audience to remember, because if they can
remember one thing from your speech even a day later, you will have been
very successful. Most audience members can’t recall anything from a
speech even a few minutes after the presentation concludes.
Present one main idea or thought. And be shorter in length rather than
longer. No speech is entirely bad if it’s short. Generally, the rule of “less is
more” is desirable for online speaking. Rather than giving your audience 7
steps to a process or 12 ways to enhance personality, present only one
point.
TED Talks limit all their speakers to 18 minutes, regardless of speaker or
topic. Eighteen minutes tops. Chris Anderson, the TED Talk CEO, believes
that if a speaker can’t communicate her idea in 18 minutes, she can’t
communicate her idea. Anderson also states that some of their most
popular talks are three to five minutes long. Whether it’s 3 minutes or 18
minutes, the point is you don’t have to drone on and on forever. Focus
your online speech, for the audience’s sake and as well as your own.
The third difference between online speaking and in-person speaking
lies in the delivery of the speaker. As the speaker, you need to be more
aware of how speaking in front of a camera, laptop, or smartphone can
give you, the speaker, the sense that nobody is really watching or listening.
Sure, you know intellectually that an audience is viewing and listening, but
physically and emotionally, you might not be put on high alert and
challenged to the level you might be if you were speaking before a live
audience.
So, like Melissa, you shouldn’t speak from a seated position behind a
desk or lounging on your home sofa. You don’t want to stare off into space.
And you don’t want to appear paralyzed and lifeless as you speak to your
laptop in an empty room. These and many other factors need to be
addressed and corrected so you can maximize your online speaking skills
and impact.
Let’s examine these three categories of helpful hints so you can master
the technology, focus the message, and maximize delivery.

1. Technical Hints

Preparation

The message preparation for an online virtual speech is the same as a live
in-person speech. You select your topic, research the necessary
information, outline your speech, and practice the speech. The difference
in preparation is that the virtual speech requires additional technical
requirements that you must consider and set up as well. The online speech
requires that you select the speaking environment; the sound and lighting
equipment; the recording video camera, laptop, or smartphone; and the
software program. You also must test your equipment and program to
ensure that it runs smoothly and then correct any problems or glitches
before the actual online speech day.
One of the most important things you can do as you prepare for your
online speech or presentation is to ask for help if you’re not knowledgeable
or experienced with the technology required. It might be difficult for you to
ask for help, but in this case, it will make all the difference in the world. If
you need some questions answered or a little help with the technical
demands that confront you, ask a knowledgeable person. In your circle of
friends, acquaintances, or co-workers, you probably know one or two who
are good with digital technology.
Reach out and ask one of them for help. And be generous about the
request. Offer to take them to coffee or lunch if they could answer a few
technical questions, show you how to set up a wireless microphone, set up
a video program or platform, or answer any of a host of questions that
might come up as you prepare. Knowing how people like to help if asked,
she will not only help with your preparation, she’ll probably volunteer to
hang out with you on the day you video your speech just to make sure
everything goes smoothly.

Location

One of the most important decisions you’ll make as you prepare for your
online speech is the location of your event. Some things to keep in mind
are pretty obvious, but we can often overlook them. Choose a room or
setting that is free of clutter. Not the bedroom, kitchen, or washroom.
More like a den or office. You don’t want a lot of visual distractions that
will compete for the attention of your online audience. No unmade bed,
boxes of books or car parts, punk band posters tacked up all over the wall,
model airplanes suspended on string, or a noisy oscillating fan in the
corner.
Also guard against interruptions, such as roommates or family members
strolling through, pets chasing each other, or a phone ringing in the
background. Avoid mirrors and windows. Their reflections and glare can
be troublesome and distracting. Check to make sure that the background
or wall color doesn’t clash with the color of clothes you’ll be wearing. Go
for soothing colors and tones that complement one another. The setting or
room should lead the eyes of the audience to you and not confuse or
complicate their field of vision with clutter, confusion, or glare.
Remember, “less is more” in selecting your location. You should be the
center of attention.

Sound

The sound of your voice might be the most significant factor in

determining if your virtual audience continues to listen to you once begin
watching your online speech. Not the specific characteristics of your voice,
such as volume, tone, pitch, vocal variety, and rate of speech, but the
actual technical transmission and reception of your speech over the
Internet.
If your microphone is not adequate, your recording software is not
functioning correctly, there’s distracting background sound, or you’re just
speaking too softly, the virtual online audience member can and will turn
you off.
People will tolerate a picture with poor lighting, off centered framing,
and blurring focus, but there’s something about poor sound that turns the
virtual listener off. It’s like someone scratching fingernails on a blackboard
for those of you old enough to remember blackboards. Most people will
not tolerate the annoyance of poor, inadequate, or irritating sound. Not for
long. So, as you prepare for your online speech, make certain you take care
of the sound.
Many people think that the microphone built into their laptop, smart-
phone, or video camera is good enough to record the sound. But at a
distance of seven to ten feet, your recorded voice can begin to sound
distant, tinny, or muffled. Ambient noise in the environment will begin to
compete with the sound of your voice.
So, invest in a lapel microphone that can be clipped near your collar.
Purchase your lapel mic with at least ten feet of connecting wire that plugs
into your laptop, smartphone, or video camera, so you can stand away
from the camera and have more freedom of movement. You can also
purchase a wireless lapel mic so you don’t even have to bother with the
wire. No matter which you select, the sound quality will be better than
using the built-in mic on your device.

Lighting

Without lighting, your online speech is simply a voice in the darkness. As

amateurs, we rarely give thought to the lighting for a video recording. So
what are some hints you might consider for setting up the lighting for your
video recording?
For starters, avoid backlighting and overhead light. Backlighting, such as
a window directly in back of the speaker, will cast a shadow on the face and
body. Overhead lighting will cast shadows on the speaker’s face in
unflattering ways, highlighting the hair and forehead, making the eyes
appear dark and sunken, the nose more pronounced, and making the chin
disappear. You’ll look more like something out of a cartoon or horror
movie than a speaker with a message.
Also be aware of the background setting. No mirrors, bright lamps or
lights, or shiny objects that will produce harsh glare, wash out the
speaker’s face, or overpower the intended focus of the scene. The speaker
should avoid wearing glasses to prevent reflection and glare from any front
lighting.
So, what kind of lighting can should we use? The most widely used video
lighting available is the loop or ring light mounted on a tripod. The actual
light and fixture look like a 12–20-inch donut with a large hole in the
middle. You can purchase a tripod-mounted ring light for $15–50 online,
and it will give your face that professionally lit look. The ring light is
positioned 7–15 feet directly in front of the speaker at face level, with the
camera immediately positioned to its side or in the center of the light
circle. The ring light will give your face a natural glow without any
distracting shadows. No matter what lighting arrangement you use,
remember to do a test recording, just to monitor the actual picture
recorded on your laptop or smartphone. Make necessary adjustments to
the position of your lighting sources and camera distance from the
speaker, and remove any distracting reflections or unwanted sources of
background light.

Camera
Your selection of video camera is pretty easy, since any of a number of
current smartphones such as the Apple iPhone 7–12, Samsung Galaxy
S10+, Sony Pixel 3XL, and LG V40 can record video. Although these and
other smartphones vary in terms of their specific recording speed,
resolution range, lens configuration, aperture, zoom, memory storage,
sound, and editing capabilities, most of them offer more than adequate
video performance for any online speech you will record. The same holds
true for most Apple Mac and Windows laptop computers if you choose to
use their built-in video camera recording software.
The best angle to set your camera at is the same level as your face or a
little above. Avoid shooting from above or below your face level to prevent
emphasizing your hairline or a massive chin and oversized nostrils.
Remember, same level as your face or a little higher. Set your smartphone
on a tripod to give you more angle control, stability, and left or right
tracking if you have a helper following your body movements. If you use
your laptop camera, raise your laptop with some books to face level.
Place your smartphone or laptop camera five to ten feet away from the
speaker’s standing position. This will ensure that you record the face and
upper torso of the speaker. No need to record the legs and feet, since that
framing distance will make the face smaller. You might want to position
the speaker slightly off center to the left or right of center screen. This will
create a more artistic framing aesthetic and make the visual experience a
little more interesting. When you’re showing any visual aids such as an
object, chart, or video monitor, increase the camera distance to include the
entire presentation scene.

Trial Run

The final step in this technical stage is to conduct a trial run a few days
before you are scheduled to record your online speech. Set up the
environment, put on your lavalier lapel mic, turn on the ring lamp, set up
the smartphone camera on a tripod or stack some books under the laptop,
and turn on the video camera application. Press RECORD, walk up to your
speaking position, and begin your presentation. Speak for about one to two
minutes, then walk back to the camera, turn it off, and get set to be pleased
with your wonderful performance.
During the playback of your one to two-minute test run, check for good
sound, complimentary lighting, and pleasing framing angles. If any of
these three variables are not satisfactory, troubleshoot the problem and
record a second time, and hopefully your problem is solved. If not, you still
have plenty of time to adjust your equipment, reread the instructions on
your equipment, watch a do-it-yourself video on YouTube, or call that
technical genius friend of yours and have her help. Remember to take her
for coffee as a thank you. Be thankful and generous. Heck, you’re on your
way to becoming an online speaking star.

2. Message Hints

Decide on Your Specific Purpose

“If you don’t know where you’re going, any road will do,” is a wise caution
that leads us to our first suggestion for your online speech preparation.
Often online speakers will not begin their message planning with a clear
destination mapped out in their mind for their audience.
In an earlier chapter, we discussed this process for your live, in-person
audience on how to determine your specific purpose for speaking—
whether it’s to inform, persuade, or entertain your audience. This process
holds equally true for your virtual audience. And, as we discussed earlier,
every speech can contain elements of all three of these purposes, but there
should be one primary goal in mind for every speech—your specific
purpose.
So, where do you want to take your virtual audience? What’s your
purpose? Do you want to teach, convince, or entertain your audience? And
once you determine which of these three is your primary purpose, the
second requirement is to decide on the exact, specific thing you want your
virtual audience to learn, be convinced or persuaded of, or be entertained
by. This is the precise idea or action you want for or from your virtual
audience. Whatever you decide the “what” is, keep this guiding principle in
mind—Keep your message simple.

Present a Simple Message

The ultimate purpose for all informative and persuasive speaking is not to
deliver a speech that impresses your audience. Instead, the purpose is to
have your audience members remember and implement your primary
message one, two, and three days after they’ve heard your speech. Better
yet, your greatest purpose is for your audience members to remember and
implement for their entire lifetimes.
What good would it be if you gave a speech and every audience member
forgot every word of your message within a minute of your speech
conclusion? Recall and implementation of your message by your virtual
audience makes all your effort worthwhile.
So, what do you do as you select your speech topic and gather your
supporting content? It’s simple—keep it simple. Keep your message
simple. Instead of having seven points or even three points, focus on only
one message point. That’s right, only one point. This suggestion is even
more relevant for your virtual audience, since their temptation for
distraction is greater than that of an in-person audience.
This suggestion to present a simple message of just one idea will be your
key to success, if your goal is to have your virtual audience actually
remember your message. It’s difficult to remember seven things or even
three things. But to remember just one thing is doable, even for a virtual
audience.
Instead of speaking on the “History of the American Civil War,” you
might want to select a more focused and simpler message. This is a more
focused message: “The Battle of Gettysburg Was the Turning Point of the
Civil War.” Or better yet, “The Battle of Gettysburg Won the War.” Your
audience might not remember all the strategies, statistics, triumphs, and
mistakes contained in your speech, but they can remember that “The
Battle of Gettysburg Won the War.”
No matter what topic you want to speak on, keep your message focused
and simple. Try to distill your message down to three words, give or take a
word, in the form of a slogan to help your audience remember. That three-
word message will be easier to grasp and remember. “Just Do It,” “Think
Different,” and “Ram Tough Trucks” are message slogans that are easily
remembered.

Begin With a Story

What do audiences remember long after they’ve heard a speech? They
remember a story. They won’t remember statistics, graphs, quotations, or
lists of data. The audience will remember a story and forget everything
else. So, if you want your message to be memorable in the minds of your
virtual audience, use a story.
If you want to engage your virtual audience, begin your speech with a
story. Your first words to your audience shouldn’t be a joke, quotation, or
statistic. Grab your listeners with a story. There’s something about a story
that grabs the audience and keeps them focused with almost hypnotic
power.
And use a personal experience story if you have an appropriate one.
Your testimony or personal account lends the greatest impact in the minds
of your audience. A personal story also gives the speaker the advantage not
requiring notes to recall. No notes required here.

Brief

One of the most important hints you can take about speaking to a virtual
online audience is to keep your message brief. Avoid audience fatigue.
Your online audience has so many other videos, podcasts, and programs
competing for their attention. Plus, your audience is also being pulled
away from your speech with additional distractions such as people in their
immediate area, their smartphone’s alerts and notifications, and, of
course, the refrigerator with all its temptations. All these distractions are
competing for their attention. You’re just one of thousands of videos that
are just a click away.
Within five to ten seconds, your online viewer will decide if they want to
continue watching you. And if you are deemed worthy of watching,
remember that any presentation longer than three minutes can experience
a sharp audience drop-off. Virtual audiences just don’t have the time or
patience for longer presentations. So, keep your online presentations brief.
It doesn’t have to be limited to three minutes, but keep it shorter rather
than longer. Don’t bore your virtual audience.

Use Clear Language

Use clear language when you’re speaking to your virtual audience. Avoid
complex language and subtle, implied meanings when you speak. Keep
your ideas as simple and easy to understand as you can. We won’t clutter
this paragraph with a lot of fancy words—just keep your language clear and
simple.

Visual Aids

Your virtual audience will remember very little of the verbal content of
your message, but they will remember an image many days after they’ve
viewed your presentation. Verbal content is processed in the left
hemisphere of your brain, which receives and retains words, numbers,
ideas, and concepts, whereas visual information is processed is processed
in the right hemisphere, which deals with images, music, physical
movement, and, to a large extent, stories. Any visual aids you use in your
online speech can have a greater long-term impact on your audience than
your words.
Given that your online viewer’s attention span and willingness to remain
engaged with your speech are considerably less than if they were an in-
person audience, you can use visual aids to attract and retain their
attention.
Before you include a visual aid in your speech, ask yourself these helpful
questions: What is the purpose of this visual aid? Does my visual cement
the main point I’m trying to make? Does it help the audience understand
my point more clearly? Is it appropriate for this audience? Does it make
the idea or concept more easily understood? Do I spend enough time
showing the visual aid? Do I spend too much time showing it? Am I
showing too many visual aids in this speech?
When using visual aids, remember to keep the visual aid simple. Rather
than presenting five or six objects, pictures, or diagrams, present one or
two. Limit the number of visual aids you use at any given moment, and be
careful not to overwhelm your online audience with an avalanche of
stimuli, because that could work against you in your efforts to keep their
attention.
If you include a short video clip during your online speech to illustrate a
point, make certain that it supports your main idea and does not distract
from it. Video support for your speech shouldn’t take the place of you
speaking. It should reinforce and strengthen your message, not distract
from it. Above all else, remember to ask yourself: What is the purpose of
this visual aid? If it adds to your speech, use it. If not, let it go.

Practice

Practicing your speech is one of the most important things you can do as
an online speaker. In fact, if you were to do one thing really well in
preparation for your online speech, it would be this—to record, practice,
and review your speech one week before you are scheduled to record and
disseminate your presentation online.
The real advantage of giving an online speech is that you can practice
your speech in the actual environment you will be delivering your
presentation on “speech day.” You can practice your speech in the same
room, with the same lighting, the same microphone, and the same
computer or smart-phone. Everything that you’ll need and use on your
actual speaking day is all available to you for practice with. And what’s
more, you’re the boss. You control everything that is required for the
recording of your talk.
Prepare your speech so that it’s ready to go one week before you’re
scheduled to record or broadcast. This early preparation requires planning
and effort on the front end but will provide valuable benefits for you on the
actual speaking day. You won’t be rushing around the night before the real
speech is scheduled, trying to get the lighting right, correcting the sound
settings, troubleshooting programming or hardware glitches, or
rummaging through your closet to find clothing that matches your
background color. All these and many other speaking requirements and
challenges will have already been addressed a week ago in your practice
session. Well, aren’t you one organized speaker?
Let’s return to your practice session that takes place one week before
your actual online presentation. Review and memorize the key points of
your speech, just like we discussed in an earlier chapter. Set up your
lighting, sound, and recording equipment and run one or two 30-second
lighting, sound, and equipment checks. Upon playback review, did
everything come out to your liking? If not, make the adjustments now and
run another 30-second recording to test your adjustments. Aren’t you glad
you’re doing all this a week ahead of schedule rather than a few minutes
before your actual speech? Once again, aren’t you one organized speaker?
Now comes the actual practice recording of your speech. Dress in the
clothing you’ll be using during your actual speech. Remember to deliver
your practice speech in a standing position, and remember to look into the
camera lens and smile. Make sure that you time your practice speech. This
is very important, because it will later determine if you need to cut or add
material to your speech to arrive at your desired time limit. Now you’re all
set. Hit the RECORD button, walk up to the front of the room, smile, and
begin your practice speech.
After you’ve recorded one or two practice speeches all the way through,
take a break for 24 hours and treat yourself to a movie, a drive in the
country, or a long nap in the backyard hammock. Don’t review your video
practice session right after it’s recorded. This time away from your speech
will help give you perspective when you do actually review your recorded
presentation. Take a break. You deserve it.
Here are some things you might want to ask yourself as you watch your
practice speech on video. Rate yourself on a scale of 1–10:

1. How engaging was I?

2. How clear was my message?
3. How good was the sound?
4. How sharp was the video image?
5. How natural were my body movement and gestures?
6. How warm and friendly did I appear?
7. Did I smile?
8. Did I speak with vocal variety (not monotone)?
9. Did I present my visual aids effectively?
10. Did I meet my desired time limit?

As you review your practice speech, remember to be gentle on yourself.

First of all, look for those things you did well. View your speech the first
time and look for all those things you liked. Use the ten questions listed
here and jot down all the behaviors you felt you did well. Be generous with
yourself. You did well.
The second time you watch your practice video, look for one or two
things you want to improve. Jot those behaviors down on a piece of paper
and decide how to make those behaviors better. You don’t have to be
perfect, but you can improve your speaking in many ways. So, select one or
two speaking behaviors to improve. Whether it’s smiling more, slowing
your speaking rate, clarifying your message, or gesturing more, select just
one or two things you want to improve. Then record a second practice
session and work on those one or two behaviors and see how it goes. You’ll
most likely feel positive and encouraged by the improvement in your
speaking.
Remember to prepare ahead of time and practice a week before you’re
scheduled to speak online. The sooner you get started, the sooner you’ll be
set to speak. Don’t wait until the last minute. Start early. Record, practice,
and review. You’ll be glad you did.

3. Delivery Hints

Being Three Dimensional

When your virtual audience watches you speak, they experience a different
you than an in-person audience experiences. Your virtual audience sees a
greatly miniaturized, flat, two-dimensional image of you, as your voice
volume and tone is reduced by a mini smartphone, laptop, or headphone
speaker. It’s like seeing an online documentary video clip of Niagara Falls
on your iPhone screen as opposed to actually standing behind the
guardrails overhanging the deafening Niagara turbulence and seeing the
spectacular grandeur of this natural wonder in person. A world of
difference.
This same difference is experienced when your digital audience watches
your online speech. They don’t see a full-size, three-dimensional “you”
standing, walking, and gesturing right in front of them. They don’t hear
your voice amplified by the large room or auditorium speakers. And they
don’t see, hear, feel, and smell the room and other audience members. All
of these live-performance experiences are lost on your smartphone or
laptop screen and speaker. Just like squinting at your smartphone screen
while watching a video clip of the Niagara Falls.
To make up for these online viewing disadvantages, you’ll need to make
some adjustments to your verbal and nonverbal delivery behaviors. Your
efforts to attract, engage, and maintain the attention of your virtual
audience will be greatly enhanced by following these suggestions.
Appearance

The rule of thumb regarding your overall physical appearance for your
online speech should always be, “Dress up.” This is not the time for sloppy
sleepwear or crumpled work clothes. This is the time to honor your virtual
audience by dressing up for the occasion. Plus, by dressing up, you’ll feel
better psychologically and emotionally. Demonstrate a high standard, if for
no one else but yourself.
You don’t need to wear a formal gown or dark suit, but dress in
something a bit nicer than your everyday work or play clothes. For the
men, a polo or button-down shirt, slacks, belt, and leather shoes. For the
women, an attractive blouse, skirt, and leather shoes. Make sure your
clothing is fresh and ironed. Don’t wear stripes or odd patterns. They’re
too distracting. Avoid large, flashy, or gaudy necklaces, bracelets, watches,
rings, or earrings. They can be distracting and even irritating to your
virtual audience. And remember to shower, shave, brush your teeth, and
fix your hair. Yep, just like your mom would tell you.
But none of this is necessary, you might think to yourself. But it is. Your
virtual audience might not see your slacks, skirt, or leather shoes,
depending upon how you frame the lens. And they won’t be able to smell
your fresh breath or see your scrubbed neck, but you’ll know that you
invested the time and effort to honor your virtual audience and the event
by doing these little extras. Plus, you’ll just feel better. So, our rule of
thumb is “Dress up.”

Speak From a Standing Position

Now that you’re sparkling clean and dressed up, you’re ready to record
your online speech. When you’re speaking, speak from a standing position.
Don’t speak sitting behind a desk or from the comforts of a reclining sofa
chair. Stand up.
From a standing position, you’ll be able to present a larger body image
than hunched over a desk or swallowed up by an overstuffed leather chair.
You’ll be freer to walk left, right, or even towards the camera, giving your
virtual audience a closer look at your well-scrubbed, smiling face. A
standing position also provides you with the full range of deeper breathing,
giving your voice more volume, range, and vocal variety. Plus, you will be
more likely to gesture and use your full range of arm movements when you
stand.
Avoid using a standing desk or podium. If you do, you’ll most likely
never leave it and take advantage of your standing position. So, memorize
the main points of your speech, emphasizing human interest material such
as stories, anecdotes, and personal illustrations. Go for your main idea and
forget the minutiae. It’s better for your virtual audience to see a more
natural, expressive you than to hear more statistics and quotations that
require notes or a manuscript.
So, speak from a standing position and give your virtual audience a more
three-dimensional speaker than a flat, two-dimensional note reader. Stand
up.

Expressive Face

When speaking to a virtual audience, you might have a tendency to think

about all the technical things you have to control and adjust, in addition to
remembering to deliver the content of your message. With all these things
vying for your attention and no physical audience before you, you can
actually forget you have an audience watching you. So, instead of smiling,
your face can display your concentration and concern. That’s the last thing
you want to communicate to your virtual audience.
Your face is the primary gauge your audience has to your psychological
and emotional state. It’s your face they will look for when you first appear
on the screen, and it’s what they’ll focus most of their attention on for the
remainder of your time on their screen. So, smile. Your smile will
communicate friendliness, warmth, and confidence. It might be the most
signifi-cant nonverbal behavior you can show during your entire speech.
Your smile determines the psychological and emotional temperature of
the speaking event. People watching your speech might not remember any
of the content of your message, but they will remember the emotional
response they had to you as the speaker. So, connect with your audience in
the most welcoming and friendly way: smile.

Maintain Eye Contact

In addition to your smile, another powerful way to engage and maintain
the attention of your virtual audience is to establish direct eye contact with
them. Direct eye contact communicates your interest and connection with
your virtual audience. As you speak, look directly into the camera lens of
your camera, smartphone, or laptop. Remember to set the camera lens to
your eye level when you’re standing. You don’t want to appear to be
looking down or up to your audience. They don’t want to see the top of
your head or peer into your nostrils. Just eye to eye.
If you occasionally move to your left or right when you speak, remember
to keep focused on the camera lens. Pretend that your best friend is inside
the camera lens watching your every move with great support and
encouragement. Look directly at your best friend no matter where you are.
Never break the eye connection. It’s your lifeline to successful connection
with your virtual audience. You’ve only got eyes for them.

Use Expressive Gestures

If a mountain lion ever crosses your path on a hike, don’t run. Instead
remain still, face the lion, and raise your arms straight up. By raising your
arms, you add 30% to your perceived height and present an even greater
threat to the mountain lion. This one nonverbal behavior has saved the
lives of many a hiker, and it could save your life, too.
What on earth are we talking about? Mountain lions and raising your
arms? Weren’t we just discussing your online delivery? Well, remember
Niagara Falls and the advantage of a three-dimensional experience? Your
arms and hand gestures can add to a more three-dimensional experience
for your audience.
By using more of the hand and arm gestures we discussed in an earlier
chapter, you can add greater visual variety to your delivery. In a sense,
you’ll present a bigger speaking image with your gestures than if you held
your arms to your side or your hands gripping the podium.
If your camera lens frames you from the waist up, your arm and hand
gestures can add 50% to your perceived body size for the online viewer.
Anything you can do to increase your visual impact for your audience will
help attract and maintain their attention during your speech. So, use your
gestures to focus, illustrate, and emphasize the points you’re speaking
about.
Use Vocal Variety

As an online public speaker, you have more impact on your audience with
a louder voice than a softer voice. And you engage and maintain your
audience’s attention more with vocal variety than with a monotone
delivery. Through increased voice volume and vocal variety, you project a
more three-dimensional presence by increasing the range and variation of
your speech. The least effective way of speaking to your virtual audience
would be to whisper your words in a monotone delivery. With that, you’d
put your virtual audience to sleep.
As we discussed in an earlier chapter, vocal variety is varying the
volume, pitch, tone, and rate of your speaking. With vocal variety, your
speech is experienced more as a roller-coaster ride than a train ride rolling
across the flatlands. Variety is the spice of life, and to give your voice more
life, give it more variety. Increase and decrease the volume of your voice
for emphasis, prominence, and surprise. Vary the pitch of your voice to
punctuate certain words in a sentence or to highlight a term or phrase. Use
different emotional tones—joy, anger, anxiety, or cheerfulness—to give
your speech texture and depth. And vary the rate of your speech to control
the speed or flow of your words and ideas.
To attract, engage, and maintain your virtual audience’s attention, use
vocal variety as a way of presenting a more three-dimensional “speaker” to
your online audience. Not only will you keep them awake and attentive
during your talk, you’ll be remembered long after your speech has ended.

Engage Your Virtual Audience

Welcome your virtual audience well before your speech begins. If your
online program permits, be online three to five minutes before you are
scheduled to begin your speech to welcome your audience members. If
your online platform permits it, greet your virtual guests as they log on.
This informal greeting and chitchat time will make your virtual audience
members feel welcomed, and it gives you the opportunity to connect with
your audience as you warm up your vocal cords. A win–win all the way
around.
You can also engage your audience by keeping your speech short. This is
really a way to prevent them from losing interest and clicking you off.
Brevity is a key component in keeping your audience engaged. There’s
nothing worse than droning on and on.
Your virtual audience isn’t hindered by any of the usual roadblocks that
a live audience faces. There are no other audience members to see them
leave the room or auditorium if they’re bored. They aren’t as invested to
sticking around to hear you speak, as an audience would be that had to
dress up, drive to your speaking event, park, walk in, find a seat, and be in
the company of other people who just did the same thing. So, remember to
keep your message shorter than longer.
Another way to keep your audience engaged is to provide breaks in your
speech, especially if your talk requires a great deal of content. To keep
them engaged, you can provide a brief break every seven to ten minutes by
including a question-and-answer session, divide them into breakout
sessions, take an audience poll, lead an audience game or activity, have
volunteers comment on the material presented so far, or simply let them
get up and stretch for 60 seconds. This last suggestion is a little tricky. If
you let them stretch or walk around for a minute, there’s the risk that some
of them won’t return. But whatever you do, avoid speaking for long
without giving your virtual audience a brief break. These occasional breaks
in your speech can be really helpful if your presentation is more than 15 or
20 minutes in length.
A final way to keep your audience engaged is to tailor your message to
your specific audience if that’s possible. We discussed audience analysis,
where you consider specific characteristics of your intended audience, in
an earlier chapter. You can keep your audience engaged by referring to
common demographic characteristics they may have or to their shared
interests, concerns, or goals, and even their names if you’ve connected
with particular members of your audience during your speech preparation
process.
Always put yourself in the shoes of your online audience. Consider what
would keep you engaged and tuned in if they were speaking and you were
watching and listening. This perspective is helpful not only as you prepare
your presentation but also as you’re speaking to them. How would you feel
and respond if YOU were listening to your speech?

10.2 Guidelines for Leading Virtual

Meetings

Sir Alec Issigonis, the British car designer who invented the Mini Cooper
car, once remarked that “A camel is a horse designed by a committee.”
Oftentimes, great ideas and products are designed by individuals rather
than groups, freed from the criticism and creative limitations of others. Yet
groups can offer a greater range of ideas, productivity, and mutual
inspiration. And it’s this second perspective that gives rise to work teams
and committees and thus their prerequisite meetings.
In your professional and personal life, you might be called upon to lead
or facilitate a small group problem-solving meeting. And given the ever-
increasing use of digital forms of communication, the platform for your
virtual meeting might be online. By utilizing the following suggestions, you
can lead your virtual group meeting more successfully and productively.

Preparation

The first category of requirements for any virtual meeting is preparation.

Without proper preparation, your virtual meeting will not run as smoothly
and productively as it could. Here are some preparation hints you might
consider if you are to lead a virtual meeting.

Is There a Need to Meet?

The first question you need to ask yourself is this: Is there actually a need
for your entire group to meet? There are three primary purposes to
communicate within your group. First is to provide information, such as
updates, reminders, new information, and previews of future group
activities. This information can be disseminated by text messages, emails,
phone calls, limited conference calls, and other forms of digital
communication. A meeting is not required for providing information to
your group.
The second purpose is subgroup communication, which includes
communication between members of subgroups or mini-task teams
assigned from the larger group to complete a delegated or assigned task. It
is the subgroup’s responsibility to communicate and exchange information
for and among themselves and not involve the larger group. Subgroup
need requests and updates to the larger group can be communicated to
you, their leader, or emailed to the entire group. Whatever approach the
subgroup chooses, a large group meeting is not required for this category
of communication activity.
The third and final purpose of group communication is group problem-
solving and group goal setting. This requires the attendance, participation,
and consensus of all group members. And this is when a virtual meeting is
the most productive and beneficial. A group meeting designed to meet the
needs of the first two purposes listed previously is a waste of everyone’s
time and can actually frustrate and discourage future participation of
group members. But for problem-solving and goal setting, it is best to meet
with all the members of the group.

Plan the Agenda Ahead of Time

Once you’ve decided to convene a group meeting, avoid the most common
complaint in-person meetings hear—they’re a waste of time. Group
members complain, directly or indirectly, that the meeting had no clearly
focused goal or purpose, discussion got sidetracked, high-verbal members
dominated, creative thoughts and ideas were discouraged, and the meeting
went too long.
These are just some of the many complaints people have against
meetings. With virtual meetings, these counterproductive behaviors are
even more pronounced because the meeting is experienced through a
smart-phone or laptop screen rather than in a real room with a table,
chairs, and life-sized people. The secret to a successful virtual meeting lies
in the agenda. The agenda you provide for your virtual meeting must be
focused, informative, and goal directed.
The first objective for your agenda is that it must be focused. This is not
the time to include all the announcements, updates, and friendly
reminders you can communicate by text messages, emails, or phone calls.
This is your opportunity to cut away all the unnecessary and irrelevant
material and focus on one or two tasks that need to be accomplished by
your team or group at that time. Don’t try to take on too many tasks or too
large of a project for your meeting. Limit your agenda to one or two
problem-solving tasks. Avoid tackling three or more issues. Don’t divide or
confuse the attention of your group members. Keep a simple focus. One or
two tasks per meeting.
The format of your virtual meeting agenda is not as critical as the focus
and limitation of your agenda. So, include in your agenda the following
items:

1. Date and time (beginning and ending time) for the meeting,
2. Internet link to the meeting (with login and password information),
3. Names and contact information of all invited members,
4. The specific goal of the meeting stated in question form (i.e., What
should be done about increasing advertising costs? What should
our policy be towards awarding pay raises? Or: How will we staff
and fund our next company social event?),
5. Meeting timeline. List the timeline in minutes (10:00–10:05
Welcome, member check-ins, 10:05–10:10 Overview of issue to be
discussed and intended goal, 10:10–1:20 Discussion of problem,
10:20–10:30 Brainstorm solutions, 10:30–10:45 Reach agreement
on best solution, 10:45–10:55 Assignment of solution tasks and
meeting review, 10:55 Adjourn meeting),
6. Meeting information. Attach or provide Internet links to any
background articles, spreadsheets, or other relevant information
you want your group members to read BEFORE the virtual
meeting. You might warn them that any member who does not read
the meeting information beforehand will not be permitted to speak
during the meeting. Does this sound a little harsh? Maybe not.
You’re the group leader, not their parent or babysitter.

Provide Participant Ground Rules

Before your group members meet, it’s important that they understand
some basic meeting ground rules to ensure that the virtual meeting runs
effectively and productively. Send these meeting ground rules as an
attachment to your meeting agenda. That way your group members have
to make a special effort to open your attachment and review ground rules.
Here are some points you might want to email to them before the meeting.
Rule 1. Be Prepared

Review the entire meeting agenda, input the meeting date and time on
your calendar, read any meeting information attachments or agenda
Internet links provided, complete any pre-meeting tasks or responsibilities
you have been assigned, and set your smartphone reminder one day prior
to the online meeting time.

Rule 2. Be Punctual

One hour before the online meeting is scheduled to begin, gather all your
meeting materials, such as a hard copy of the meeting agenda, relevant
reading or reference material, and your laptop or smartphone, and arrange
them on your desk or table. Then check your computer or smartphone
meeting link to make sure everything is working. Now you’re all set. Comb
your hair, grab a cup of coffee or tea, and relax until you login to the
meeting. Log in to the meeting five minutes BEFORE it’s scheduled to
begin. Let’s repeat that—log in to the meeting five minutes BEFORE it’s
scheduled to begin. Be more than merely punctual—be early. This gives
you a last-minute opportunity to make certain that your online connection
is working and time to say hello to the host or greet other members as they
log in. The early bird catches …

Rule 3. Be Respectful

During the meeting, do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
In other words, be respectful to the other group members. Even though
you’re viewing only their small faces on your laptop or smartphone screen,
their small faces are connected to big hearts and big feelings.
Always be respectful. Listen to others with your mic turned off. Don’t
interrupt. Don’t look at your phone or text while others are talking. Don’t
eat potato chips, fiddle with your hair, or leave the room. Don’t use
discourteous, impolite, or vulgar language. Don’t roll your eyes, frown, or
snicker. And don’t verbally attack someone, even if they level an attack
against you. Do be respectful. Be attentive. Smile often. Nod your head in
agreement. Give a sincere compliment or two. Encourage others with your
words. Ask questions of others who have sat silent. And maybe even send
good thoughts to the other group members. Above all else, be respectful.
What you give is what you receive in meetings … and in life.

Rule 4. Be Willing

Perhaps the most important ground rule is to be willing. Be willing to

what, you might be wondering. Willing to participate wholeheartedly once
the virtual meeting begins. The success of any meeting depends upon the
decision and willingness of each group member to actually listen to others,
ask questions, give opinions, contribute relevant information, and work
toward coming to an agreement to solve whatever issue or problem they
are addressing. Without the willingness of group members to participate,
the meeting is just the leader speaking to a silent group.
Be willing to speak up when the leader asks a question, requests
information, or appeals for volunteers to carry out some task or
assignment. Be willing to state an opinion, share relevant evidence or
resources, and challenge information or actions you don’t agree with
(respectfully, of course). Be willing to ask questions of the group or of an
individual member if the answer would be helpful to the discussion. Be
willing to give a sincere compliment or word of encouragement to the
group or an individual group member. A compliment or word of
encouragement can ignite discussion, boost spirits, and inspire group
morale. And finally, be willing to volunteer to take on a task or assignment
if requested by the group leader. Heck, volunteer without even being asked
if you see a task or job that needs to be done. What a blessing that would
be for your group. Whatever you do, show up to the meeting with purpose
in your mind and heart to participate 100%. Set the example.
As the group leader or facilitator, these four group rules of participation
will increase the probability of your group successfully completing the
task(s) they are given. Be a leader who prepares and encourages the group
members.

Broadcasting Check

One day before your online meeting is scheduled to begin, you should
conduct a complete broadcasting check. This requires that you select the
meeting environment you’ll be broadcasting from. Choose your office, den,
or living room, not your bedroom, car, or coffee shop. You want the
environment to be quiet, free from distractions and ambient noise. Sit in a
straight-backed chair and not the sofa or lounge chair. You want to be as
alert as possible. Set up your laptop or smartphone so that the camera
focuses directly on your face, neck, and chest. You don’t want your group
to be looking down on your head or peering up your nose.
Check the lighting so that it comes from the front and not from the rear
or sides. As we said for online speeches, you might want to use a halo light
for more effective light control. Also use a lapel lavalier mic instead of
depending upon your laptop or cell phone mic. You’ll get a better-sounding
voice with less noise from your surroundings. And, finally, test your
software program and equipment to ensure that they run smoothly, and
then correct any problems or glitches before the actual online meeting day.
By conducting a broadcasting check one day before the meeting, you’re
given the opportunity to correct any glitches or problems that can ruin the
best-planned meeting on the day you go online.

Discussion-Guiding Behaviors

The primary task of the meeting leader is to keep the discussion focused,
coordinated, and on track in a supportive, open atmosphere. No matter
how well informed, committed, and articulate each member might be, the
group can wander aimlessly if it cannot stay focused. Here are six guiding
behaviors that will help your group more effectively work together
successfully.

1. Requesting

Requesting information from the group is one of the most important

functions of every group leader. Requesting information is a basic
communication skill that invites others to communicate, participate, and
contribute. Here are some examples of requesting information:

“What do we think about …?”

 “Does anyone have any information or research dealing with …?”
“Did anyone interview an expert about …?”
“What information haven’t we shared yet?”

The important thing to remember about requesting information is that

you are opening up the discussion to everyone. This behavior can often
have an invigorating effect on a discussion that is needlessly stuck on an
overworked item.

2. Clarifying

After an individual shares information, some confusion or question might

arise about the content or meaning of the statement. This is when you can
clarify any ambiguous information. Here are some ways you can clarify:

“Are you saying …?”

“Do you mean …?”
“Do I understand your research to suggest that …?”
“So, this tells us that …?”

Clarify any unclear or ambiguous information presented to the group.

Take the time to ask questions. Your willingness to ask for clarification can
greatly enhance the progress and effectiveness of the meeting.

3. Guiding

Guiding statements help move and focus the meeting. These statements
keep the discussion on the agenda, regulate participation, summarize
discussion, and announce time limits. Without these behaviors, the group
loses direction.

(Guiding the agenda)

“Let’s begin by defining the problem.”
“Can we move on to the next topic?”
“I think we need to return to the agenda.”
“We’re off track. Can we get back to …?”
(Regulating participation)
“So, what you’re telling us is …?” (regulate high-verbal)
 “Can you summarize your point?” (regulate high-verbal)
“What is your opinion, Mary?” (encourage low-verbal)
(Summarizing discussion)
“So far, we’ve heard three explanations. They are …”
“The brainstorming list of solutions are ….”
“I’m hearing two schools of thought on this. First … and second …”
(Announcing time limits)
“Our meeting should last one hour. It will end at 2:30.”
“We have ten minutes left. Do we want to go to the next agenda item?”
“Our time is up; shall we table this until next time?”

4. Analyzing

Occasionally you might need to ask for additional information when a

group member provides unclear, questionable, or false evidence. The
information shared by group members must be relevant and helpful to the
discussion. Here are some questions you can ask to test information:

“Do you have additional information for this position?” (analyzing

quantity)
“What makes this researcher qualified?” (analyzing quality)
“When was this information published?” (analyzing recency)
“How does this information relate to our topic?” (analyzing relevancy)

5. Negotiating

Eventually in your group meeting, it might be necessary to bring differing

individuals or subgroups to mutual agreement. The following questions
can be helpful in settling minor differences and bringing people to
agreement:

“Can we combine the strengths of these two proposals?”

“Is anyone opposed to …?”
“Can we all agree that …?”
“Do we all think/feel …?”
“Is this solution workable and acceptable to all of us?”
“Can we all live with this solution for a period of time?”
Your ability and willingness to negotiate and serve as a consensus builder
will be one of the most important contributions to the success of the group.
Be positive and constantly alert to any common ground—areas of
agreement, common ideas, and similar beliefs—where your group can
meet as one.

6. Harmonizing

Occasionally tension or conflict between two or more members rises to a

level that affects the group’s task effectiveness. Whether it’s a
disagreement over a substantive issue, hurt feelings because of an
insensitive remark, or a minor feud between two individuals, you can
attempt to bring harmony back to the group. Here are some things you can
say to re-establish harmony:

“Can you two disagree without disliking one another?”

“We need to focus on the issues, not personalities.”
“Maybe the two of you can discuss this matter after the meeting.”
“Let’s not allow our feelings to get the best of us.”

Keep Members Engaged

Keeping people engaged during in-person meetings can be a real challenge

for the facilitator or leader, but even more so with a virtual meeting.
During a virtual meeting, the experience for each member is reduced and
limited. They only see and hear the other members in a digitally
diminished way—through the screen and mini-speaker of their laptop or
smartphone. Virtual meeting members can be tempted to disengage from
the conversation psychologically, emotionally, and physically. Every
communication dimension of engagement is reduced or eliminated when a
meeting is held online. So anything you can do to reach out and make your
virtual meeting members feel included and engaged will improve the
effectiveness of the group.
The first thing you can do is connect with your group members before
meeting day. Send pre-meeting emails, text messages, or even a phone call
that communicates your interest in them. An email meeting reminder
accompanied with a link to a short, relevant, and entertaining YouTube
video is always effective in reminding them of the date, and the video can
bring a smile to their faces. A brief, personal phone call to check in with
each group member the week before the meeting date is an effective way to
establish a personal touch to the experience. And a text message “looking
forward to seeing you today” reminder the morning of the meeting is
always helpful.
The second thing you can do is open your meeting platform five to ten
minutes before the meeting is scheduled to begin and welcome each
member as they log in. This personal touch is an easy way to connect with
each member and serves to establish a friendly atmosphere in the meeting.
When the meeting begins, have members introduce themselves, and in a
sentence, have members share a highlight of the week or something they’re
looking forward to soon. This breaks the ice and adds a bit of personal
connection among your group members.
Refer to the group members by first name when you call on or
acknowledge them during the discussion. By using their names, you
establish familiarity within the group and model a friendly way for the
group to address one another.
You can assign meeting tasks or duties to group members to help you
facilitate the discussion and keep them engaged. Tasks such a taking notes,
helping with media slides or presentations, keeping and announcing time
markers, and troubleshooting technical program glitches are some duties
that will free you up to facilitate and guide the discussion and keep group
members engaged and involved.
Take brief, occasional breaks during the meeting itself. For meetings
scheduled for more than 30 minutes, it would be wise to take a 2–3 minute
break every 30 minutes to give members the opportunity to stretch, move
around, and take care of any personal needs they might have. Restart the
meeting on time. Don’t wait for stragglers before you resume. Resume
your meeting on time.
A final way to keep members engaged is to occasionally compliment
them for presenting a good idea, raising relevant and helpful questions,
exhibiting a positive attitude, and any other behavior or attitude that
contributes to the effectiveness of the meeting.
The Ten-Minute Extension

There are two very different philosophies on ending any meeting. The first
is to end the meeting only after all the tasks have been accomplished. The
second philosophy is to end the meeting on the published or agreed-upon
ending time.
The first philosophy has many drawbacks, such as going too long,
reaching a point of diminishing returns, rushing an unwise or
unproductive solution, frustrating and angering meeting members, and
ultimately causing members to quit the team altogether.
The second philosophy also has drawbacks, such as cutting off
productive discussion, eliminating additional solutions, frustrating and
angering meeting members, and also causing members to quit the team.
There’s an effective compromise solution to these two philosophies, and
that would be the “Ten-Minute Extension.” As you reach the end of the
meeting time limit (let’s say 60 minutes), any member can call for a ten-
minute extension of the meeting, but it must be agreed to by all the team
members. An agreed-upon ten-minute extension for final discussion
hopefully gives the group enough time to finish their business without
going on forever, and it gives every member of the group the feeling that
their input was considered, since even one member can end the meeting
with a no vote.
If all agree to a ten-minute extension and the business isn’t completed,
someone can call for a second ten-minute extension, and the discussion
can continue. This process can go on for as long as the entire group agrees
to it. Remember, however, any single member can end the meeting.
Therein lies its wisdom and beauty. Total buy-in for the best meeting
results.

Wrap Up and Conclude

Before adjourning the meeting, you need to wrap up the discussion by

summarizing its main accomplishments and reviewing any tasks that were
assigned to the group or specific members, announcements of the next
meeting date, and a brief discussion on how the meeting went. End on a
positive note and thank the members for their attendance and
participation.
Follow-up

One of the most powerful ways to reinforce the positive achievements and
the positive attitude of the meeting is to email the meeting minutes to the
participants within 24 hours, accompanied by a thank you for their
attendance. This will require effort on your part, but it communicates your
respect, appreciation, and commitment for your meeting members.
Remember to include any individual task assignments with names and
deadlines, attach any vital reading material referenced during the meeting,
and include the next meeting date. You can also include a brief meeting
effectiveness feedback form they can respond to that might improve future
meetings. And, finally, you can text or call individual members and thank
them for any outstanding contributions they made during the meeting. Go
the extra mile and make the effort to communicate appreciation. Be a
leader who leads with warmth and appreciation.

10.3 Guidelines for the Virtual Participant

In the future, you might not be leading an online meeting but instead find
yourself a participant in an online meeting or discussion. Having explored
some helpful hints regarding online facilitation, you have some idea of
what’s expected of you as a virtual participant. Let’s examine more
specifically some guidelines for being an effective and productive virtual
participant in a meeting or discussion.

Be Positive

As a participant, your most important contribution to any virtual meeting

or discussion is your attitude. The attitude you communicate must be
engaging, positive, and willing. The other participants in any online
activity will respond to you most favorably and productively if they see that
you’re engaged in the activity or process.
To show that you’re engaged, you should be punctual, ready for the
online meeting or discussion to begin. Sign in a few minutes early to test
your picture, sound, and any other technical requirements. Say hi to the
meeting leader and anyone else who has joined the meeting.
Once the meeting has begun, be positive in both your verbal and non-
verbal communication. Maintain eye contact with the camera, smile often,
and nod your head in agreement. Show that you’re following the
discussion in an affirmative and encouraging way. Texting on your phone,
thumbing through your notes, or staring out the window casts a negative
light on the group’s activity.
And, finally, be willing to participate in the discussion. Share your
opinions, information, and ideas freely with the group. Remember to be
aware of how much you talk. Don’t hog the discussion or bring the
attention of the group back to you and your ideas unnecessarily. Strive for
a healthy balance of listening and speaking. Be willing to ask questions of
others for additional opinions, information, and clarification. Your
questions can serve to encourage others to speak and broaden the opinion
and information base of the discussion. And last, be willing to volunteer
for tasks, assignments, or responsibilities that arise within the group or are
requested by the meeting leader. Not for every job that comes up, but be
willing to help where you’re qualified and able.

Be Prepared

Review the entire meeting agenda, input the meeting date and time on
your calendar, read any meeting information attachments or agenda
Internet links provided, complete any pre-meeting tasks or responsibilities
you have been assigned, and set your smartphone reminder one day prior
to the online meeting time.
Double-check your login information and any required material like the
agenda and assigned reading. Use a headset for improved listening. The
headset also lets you listen without disturbing those around you.
Remove distractions from the area you will be working from. Also turn
off your email, text, or phone during the meeting. You might even put up a
sign stating “In A Meeting” on your door or in your work desk. And
remember to eat and drink before you begin the meeting. You don’t want
to be seen chomping or slurping away by the other meeting attendees.
You’re classier than that.
Be Punctual

Thirty minutes before the online meeting is scheduled to begin, gather all
your meeting materials, such as a hard copy of the meeting agenda,
relevant reading or reference material, and your laptop or smartphone,
and arrange them on your desk or table. Then check your computer or
smartphone meeting link to make sure everything is working. Now you’re
all set. Comb your hair, grab a cup of coffee or tea, and relax until you log
in to the meeting. Log in to the meeting five minutes BEFORE it’s
scheduled to begin. Let’s repeat that—log in to the meeting five minutes
BEFORE it’s schedule to begin. Be more than merely punctual—be early.
This gives you a last-minute opportunity to make certain that your online
connection is working and time to say hello to the host or greet other
members as they log in. The early bird catches …

Be Respectful

During the meeting, do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
In other words, be respectful to the other group members. Even though
you’re viewing only their small faces on your laptop or smartphone screen,
their small faces are connected to big hearts and big feelings.
So, always be respectful. Listen to others, with your mic on MUTE when
you’re not speaking. Don’t interrupt. Don’t look at your phone or text while
others are talking. Don’t eat potato chips, fiddle with your hair, or leave
the room. Don’t use discourteous, impolite, or vulgar language. Don’t roll
your eyes, frown, or snicker. And don’t verbally attack someone, even if
they level an attack against you. Do be respectful. Be attentive. Smile often.
Nod your head in agreement. Give a sincere compliment or two.
Encourage others with your words. Ask questions of others who have sat
silent. And maybe even send good thoughts to the other group members.
Above all else, be respectful. What you give is what you receive in meetings
… and in life.

Be Willing

Perhaps the most important ground rule is to be willing. Be willing to

what, you might be wondering? Willing to participate wholeheartedly once
the virtual meeting has begun. The success of any meeting depends upon
the decision and willingness of each group member to actually listen to
others, ask questions, give opinions, contribute relevant information, and
work towards coming to an agreement to solve whatever issue or problem
they are addressing. Without the willingness of group members to
participate, the meeting is just the leader speaking with a silent audience
of group members.
Be willing to speak up when the leader asks a question, requests
information, or appeals for volunteers to carry out some task or
assignment. Be willing to state an opinion, share relevant evidence or
resources, and challenge information or actions you don’t agree with
(respectfully, of course). Be willing to ask questions of the group or of an
individual member if the answer would be helpful to the discussion. Be
willing to give a sincere compliment or word of encouragement to the
group or an individual group member. A compliment or word of
encouragement can ignite discussion, boost spirits, and inspire group
morale. And finally, be willing to volunteer to take on a task or assignment
if requested by the group leader. Heck, volunteer without even being asked
if you see a task or job that needs to be done. What a blessing that would
be for your group. Whatever you do, show up to the meeting with purpose
in your mind and heart to participate 100%. Set the example.

10.4 Becoming a Speaker: A Lifelong

Journey

Many public speaking students regard their final speech assignment as

exactly that—their final speech of their lifetime. After the class is over, they
tell themselves, they’ll never have to speak in front of an audience again,
ever. And they’ll avoid any future opportunities to use the skills they’ve
learned and never speak in front of a group again. For them, public
speaking was a once-in-a-lifetime experience, like the mumps or chicken
pox.
There’s another way to view your public speaking experience that is very
different from the one just described. Instead of seeing it as an experience
to be endured or tolerated, it can be seen as an invitation to a journey that
may last your entire lifetime. Rather than a destination to be reached and
then forgotten, it can be viewed as the beginning of a process of discovery
and enrichment.
Becoming a speaker can be a lifelong journey to discover greater self-
expression, gain increased personal power, and achieve a more intimate
sense of who you are and where you’re going. It can be the beginning of a
wonderfully exciting journey that can take you to places you have never
seen, put you in touch with people you have yet to meet, and introduce you
to parts of yourself you never knew existed. Your decision to continue
becoming a speaker—to stand in front of an audience and share a few
words in the months and years to come—may make all the difference in
your life.
Your public speaking experience and your role as a speaker don’t have to
end with this course. You can choose to continue your journey, perhaps for
a lifetime.

10.5 Developing the Heart of a Speaker

We began this book by discussing the significance of communication in

your life and how your attitude is more important than your aptitude—
your heart is more important than your head. And that’s how we’re going
to end this book—by talking about your heart and the role it plays in your
becoming a speaker for a lifetime.
You can acquire the knowledge and technical skills necessary to organize
and deliver a speech, but if your attitude or heart is wrong, the speech will
lack a certain vitality, wholeness, and impact. If your heart is one of
insincerity, indifference, animosity, or arrogance, the audience will
intuitively sense this and regard you with caution, defensiveness, and, in
some cases, even hostility.
But if your heart is sincere, positive, and helpful, the audience will
receive you in a more open, receptive, and friendly manner. Your audience
is much more aware of and sensitive to your attitude than you might
suspect.
It’s not enough to know how to research and organize a speech and
deliver it without passing out from fright; you must possess an attitude or
heart that communicates a positive message to the minds and hearts of
your listeners. How does a speaker do this? Are some people born with the
right attitude and others are not? What are the ingredients that make for
this kind of heart?
As you may have guessed, there are no easy answers to these questions.
Maybe this topic doesn’t readily lend itself to simple definition or logical
explanation. Perhaps what we can’t define, measure, and dissect should be
left alone. But we all know that unmistakable feeling when our hearts have
been touched by the words or actions of another. Maybe you experienced
this sensation during one of the speeches you listened to this semester in
your public speaking course—that moment when the communication
between speaker and listener transcended even language itself.
Although there is no clear-cut map into this territory of the heart, there
are three ingredients or dispositions of the speaker that seem to bring the
speaker closer to the hearts of the listeners. The speaker needs to love the
topic he is speaking about. The speaker needs to love the audience. And
the speaker needs to love himself. Ideally, a speaker should possess each of
these three ingredients, but at the very least, one of these three is
necessary to touch the hearts of the listeners.

The Speaker Needs to Love the Topic

A romantic affection for the topic is not what we’re talking about here. It’s
more of a passion for or commitment to the subject. The topic of any
speech you give in the future must be important to you—something you
feel strongly about, committed to. Anything less will not motivate you to
speak well or compel your audience to listen deeply. If you don’t feel
strongly about something, don’t waste the audience’s time. You and your
audience have other things to do, and life is short.
It’s easy to say the speaker needs to love the topic, but maybe it’s easier
said than done. If you were given a blank piece of paper, a pencil, and
three minutes, how many topics could you list that would fit this
requirement? A recent study of college freshmen and sophomores found
the average respondent could list only five topics that fit this description.
Of all the thousands of things to list, most students could list only five.
How many could you list?
As children, we loved just about everything we came in contact with a
butterfly, a creek, the smell of rain on asphalt, color crayons, and puppies.
But as we grew older, this list grew smaller with each ensuing year. So why
is it that years later, we can list only five topics we love? What happened to
our love affair with life?
In the future, you will be given many opportunities to speak in front of
others. Don’t speak unless you really care about the topic. But you also
might want to examine the things and people you really love. Have your
interests and passions of the heart diminished over the years? Is there
anything you get excited about anymore? Don’t let your heart become hard
as you get older. Discover ways to remain open to life and to get excited
and thrilled about the countless events and miracles that happen to you
daily.
Whether it’s giving a toast at a wedding reception or delivering a formal
presentation to a scientific conference, your heart should reflect a love or
passion for the topic at hand. If it doesn’t, don’t speak. If your heart’s not
really involved, then don’t speak. Wait until the opportunity to toast a
couple you care about arises or until you discover a scientific topic that you
feel deeply about before you walk up to the podium. Your love for the
topic, regardless of what it is, will be communicated to your audience
beyond your words.
Much of what passes for public speaking in this culture is really
mediocre, unimpressive, and boring. Many of our professors, preachers,
and politicians have lost their passion, and their lectures, sermons, and
speeches reflect their weary hearts. Don’t add to this debris. Remember to
speak about topics you feel a passion for or remain silent.

The Speaker Needs to Love the Audience

The audience is not the enemy. If that’s all you learn from this book, you
will have gotten your money’s worth. And more. You see, the audience is
like a Rorschach test—you know, the famous inkblot test. A person looks at
an inkblot on a piece of paper and is asked to describe what she “sees.”
Some people see a monster. Others describe a train. And still others see a
beautiful butterfly.
Of course, there is no correct answer, because there is no picture, just a
blot of ink squished between two halves of a cardboard screen. What the
individual sees is really who that person is. The paranoid man sees a dark,
ominous monster. The divorced woman sees a train leaving a station. And
the young bride sees a beautiful butterfly. It’s been said that “we don’t see
the world the way the world is; we see the world the way we are.” How true
this is.

The supreme happiness of life is the conviction that we are loved.

—VICTOR HUGO

And “how” we are when we are novice speakers is inexperienced. The

audience is more than just a collection of people who have assembled to
listen to our speech. They can be seen as the enemy—not the kind of
enemy who will hurt us physically, but the enemy who will laugh at our
mistakes, judge our inadequacies, and reject our opinions. The audience
represents many of our deepest fears—fears of evaluation, rejection, and,
ultimately, abandonment. The audience is the Rorschach test upon which
we project all the fears we don’t have names for—only that terrifying,
empty feeling in the pit of our stomach.
But as you gain experience in speaking, you slowly realize that the
audience is not the enemy. The laughter occurs only when you say
something funny. The judgment is usually expressed in their applause.
And the rejection doesn’t occur. Instead, our speeches are usually met with
compliments and congratulations. If you were fortunate during this
semester in public speaking, the responses from your audience were
positive and supportive. And your perception of audience-as-enemy
shifted to audience-as-friend or, at least, audience-as-nonthreatening-
acquaintance.
If you choose to become a speaker for your lifetime—to give speeches
after the end of your public speaking course—your impact on your
audience will be greatly enhanced if you can learn to love your audience.

Speakers Need to Love Themselves

You will touch the hearts of the audience if they sense you love yourself—
not with a self-absorbed, narcissistic kind of love or an arrogant, boastful
kind of love, either, but rather an attitude of gentleness or softness toward
yourself, an attitude of spaciousness, an attitude that says you don’t have
to be perfect when you speak, an attitude that says you can make mistakes
as a speaker. You can be human. It’s an attitude that says you don’t have to
be the best speaker, an impressive speaker, or even a good speaker. But,
more importantly, you can be a speaker with a message to share with an
audience you are concerned about.
Loving yourself requires a softening toward yourself—an attitude of
gentleness that isn’t concerned so much with performance, action, or
results as it is with supporting and nurturing your willingness to speak.
This love is also a softening of the fear or anxiety you may be feeling
about speaking. Rather than tensing, hardening, and defending yourself
against those butterflies in the stomach, it involves a process of welcoming,
relaxing, and letting go. Softening allows your butterflies to fly wherever
they want. Like watching children in a playground, you simply welcome
the scene and do not attempt to control it. The paradoxical thing about
accepting your fears is that they will have less control over you when you
simply let them be. Don’t try to get rid of them, redirect them, or control
them. Give yourself permission to let them in for a while and notice what
follows.
Finally, this love involves some level of acceptance of who you are—your
strengths and your weaknesses and those things you do well and those
things you don’t do well. This acceptance of self requires a recognition of
the fact that not everything you do has to be done well or even done at all.
And it requires a deeper appreciation for those so-called weaknesses. For it
just might be that our weaknesses, whatever they may be, are the very
aspects of ourselves that make us understanding, humble, caring, and
connected to others—in the end, human.
When you speak in front of an audience, let them sense your love for the
topic, your love for the audience, and your love for yourself. This may be
your most important message in your journey to become a speaker for a
lifetime.

COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES

PERSONAL ACTIVITIES

1. Your future speaking opportunities

 Think about your future for a few minutes—your professional
life, your personal life, your family life, your community
involvement, your recreational pursuits, and your spiritual
development. Brainstorm two or three ways you might use
your public speaking skills to communicate important ideas to
others in each of these areas of your future life. Remember to
be creative in your brainstorming. You’d be surprised at how
your speaking skills might serve others in the future.

2. What do you love?

In this chapter, you were introduced to the idea that, to
develop the heart of a speaker, you need to love your audience,
your topic, and yourself. It’s rare that you are ever asked to
look at yourself and list those personal attributes,
achievements, character traits, beliefs, convictions, and
activities that you love about yourself. Well, this is the time.
Take out a piece of paper, grab a pen or pencil, and list ten
things you love about yourself. Look at every aspect of your life
and write your love list with gratitude and thanksgiving. After
completing the list, look it over for a few minutes. How do you
feel? How many of these things that you love about yourself
can be used to serve and help others?

3. Delivering a speech online

Take one of the speeches you presented this semester in your
public speaking class and record it on YouTube using the
guidelines that were presented in this chapter. Upload your
speech to You-Tube and view it online. What was your reaction
to seeing yourself on YouTube? What were your strengths?
What were your weaknesses? Did any YouTube viewers send
you feedback? Would you like to post more YouTube videos?

4. Building others up online

Watch a YouTube or podcast presentation and evaluate the
content, organization, and delivery of the speaker. Identify
three speaking strengths that you observed in the presentation.
In the comment section (or send an email if the address is
available), compliment the speaker on the strengths you
 observed. How did it feel giving positive feedback to a fellow
speaker? How would you feel if someone complimented you on
your online presentation (#3)?

CLASS ACTIVITIES

1. Your most significant lesson from public speaking

Divide the class into groups of five students. Introduce
yourselves, and then, as a group, take the next 10 to 15 minutes
to have the group members share their responses to the
question, “What was the most significant lesson I learned from
this public speaking class?” Remember to listen to the
responses of others without judgment or advice. What did you
learn about the other students’ lessons? Were there any
common themes? What did you think about listening to others
speak about what they learned?

2. How will you change the world for the better?

Divide the class into groups of five students. Introduce
yourselves, and then, as a group, take the next 10 to 15 minutes
to have the group members share their responses to the
question, “In the future, how will I use my public speaking
skills to change the world for the better?” Have fun with this
question. Think of creative, far-out, and even outlandish ways
your future speaking can improve the world in some small (or
big) way. How did this group exercise feel to you?

3. Seeing beauty in everyone

Divide the class into groups of five students. Introduce
yourselves, and then, as a group, take the next 10 to 15 minutes
to have the group members share their responses to the
question, “What do I remember and appreciate about you?”
This is a challenging group activity that can be both moving
and memorable. Each student is to go around the circle and
share one very brief memory of each of the other four
members of the group (a particular speech, an interaction, a
comment, an after-class conversation, and so on). After each of
the five students has completed this sharing, the group is to
 repeat the process by having all members share one thing they
appreciated about each of the other four members. What was
this group experience like? What did you learn about the
perceptions of others? What did you learn about yourself?

Index

analyzing your audience 76–79; attitude 78–79;

demographics 79; interest 78; knowledge 78
Aristotle see persuasion
attention getter 57–59
attitude 8
audience analysis 76–79; gathering information about 82–
84

breathing 144–145

channel 4
communication 3–5; components of 3–5; principles of 5–7;
skills for your life 8–16; what is communication 3
comparisons 92–93
complimenting 12–14
conclusion 59–61
contact person 84

decoding 4
delivery 137–157; between speeches 151; body 140–141;
breathing 144–145; characteristics of effective 137–140;
defined 137; elements of good 140–147; eye contact
142–143; facial expressions 143–144; gestures 141–142;
handing speaking day challenges gracefully 152–155;
vocal characteristics 145–146
desire to communicate 139

emotional appeals 196–198

encoding 4
enunciation 146
environment 3
ethos 188–190
evidence three-step 110–111
examples 90–91
expert testimony 94–95
explanations 91–92
extemporaneous delivery 50–51

feedback 4
final thought devices 60–61

giving yourself permission 23; overcome your fear of

speaking 29–30; permission list for speakers 27–29

handling speaking day challenges 152–155

heart of a speaker 238–241
hierarchy of needs 195–196
hybrid public speaking class 36–41

impromptu delivery 50
impromptu speaking 128–134; helpful suggestions for 132–
133; one-point impromptu speech 128–129; outline
131–132; standard impromptu speech 129–131; word list
133–134
informative speaking 162–176; designs for 167–171; goals of
162–167; key-word outline 181; language use 171–174;
sample speech 179–181; types of informative speeches
175–176
informative speeches see informative speaking
intercultural sensitivity 79–82
interviewing sources 106–107
interviews 84

key word outline 181

leading virtual meetings 226–235; discussion guiding

behaviors for 230–235; preparation for 226–230
lifelong speaker 237–238
listening 118–128; barriers to 120–122; benefits of 125–127;
bridges to 122–125; process of 118–120; reflective 11–12
logos 191–194
main points 52–57; organizational patterns 53–56;
selection of 56–57
manuscript delivery 49
memorized delivery 49
message 3
Monroe’s motivated sequence 200–201

noise 4–5
nonverbal communication 3

online speaking 212–226; delivery hints for 222–226;

message hints for 217–222; technical hints for 214–217
outline 61–63

pathos 195–198
permission list for speakers 27–28
persuasion 186–201; Aristotle’s three proofs 188; basics of
186–188; proposition 186–188; sample key-word
outline 203; sample persuasive outline 201–203; three
purposes of 186; types of persuasive speeches 198–201
pitch 145–146
PowerPoint 97–99
preview of points 59
public speaker self-image scale 178–179
public speaking: defined 47; democratic society 16–20;
different from conversation 32–33; four methods of 49–
51; how do you feel about 22; three principles of 47–48

question and answer session 176–178

rate 145
receiver 4
recording research information 107–110
reframing 14–15

sample informative outline 179–181

sample persuasive speech 201–203
sample tribute speech 64–65
sender 3
speaker apprehension: self-appraisal ranking 26; self-
appraisal scale 24–25
speaker credibility see etho
speaker evaluation 150–151
speaker naturalness 139–140
speaker request form 85
speaking notes 63–65; guidelines 61–66; preparation of
111–114
speaking purpose 73
special occasion speeches 203–208; accepting an award
206–207; after-dinner speech 207–208; eulogy 208;
giving a toast 206; introducing a speaker 205–206;
paying tribute 207; presenting an award 206
specific purpose 73–74
speech information 101–107; electronic resources 103;
experience and knowledge 101–102; library resources
102–103; recording your information 107–109; speech
notes 111–114
speech material 90–101; comparisons 92–93; definitions
90; examples 90–91; expert testimony 94–95;
explanations 91–92; statistics 93–94; using visual aids
99–101; visual aids 95–97
speech organization 51–61; body 51–57; conclusion 59–61;
introduction 57–59; main point patterns 53–56; main-
point selection 52; speech outline 61–63
speech practice 147–150
stage fright: causes of 30–32; encouraging words about 33–
35; giving yourself permission 29; three ways we stress
out 30; why are you so nervous 31–32; will I ever get rid
of these butterflies 35–36
statistics 93–94
summary of points 60

topics 69–71; brainstorming of 70–73; determining your

specific purpose 73–74; it’s your choice 69–70; selecting
your main points 74–75
touching 15–16
transitions 56–57
tribute speech outline 64–66

USA approach 17–20

verbal communication 3
view your speech 155–157
virtual participant guidelines 235–237
visual aids 95–101; using visual aids 99–101
volume 145