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A TO MS and
M ATERIALS

Kyle Kirkland, Ph.D.

 This book is dedicated to Clay Kirkland,
who has devoted his life to learning and teaching.
The world could use a lot more just like him.

ATOMS AND MATERIALS

Copyright © 2007 by Kyle Kirkland, Ph.D.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by
any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the
publisher. For information contact:

Facts On File, Inc.

An imprint of Infobase Publishing
132 West 31st Street
New York NY 10001

ISBN-10: 0-8160-6115-7
ISBN-13: 978-0-8160-6115-0

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kirkland, Kyle.
Atoms and Materials / Kyle Kirkland.
p. cm.—(Physics in our world)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8160-6115-7
1. Atoms. 2. Materials. I. Title.
QC173.K459 2007
539.7—dc22 2006018649

Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quan-
tities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our
Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755.

You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com

Text design by Kerry Casey

Cover design by Dorothy M. Preston
Illustrations by Richard Garratt

Printed in the United States of America

MP FOF 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

  CONTENTS 

Preface v
Acknowledgments vii
Introduction ix

1 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS 1

Seeing Atoms: Scanning Tunneling Microscope 2
Periodic Table of the Elements 3
Beams of Particles 6
Parts of the Atom 6
Nuclear Energy 12
Molecular Forces 17
Nanotechnology 21
Fantastic Voyages 25

2 STATES OF MATTER 28
Matter: Collections of Atoms 29
Phase Transitions 30
Gases: Making Rockets Go 32
Liquids: Keeping the Wheels Turning 35
Solids: Making Statues 37
Plasmas for Propulsion, Television, and Fusion 39

3 WATER 43
Life’s Most Important Molecule 44
Polar Molecules 46
Climbing Up Thin Tubes: Capillary Action 46
 How Bugs Walk on Water 49
Snow and Ice 50
Seeding Clouds and Making Rain 54

4 MATERIALS 58
Swords, Planes, and Coins: Metals in Civilization 60
Measuring the Strength of Materials 64
Glass and Other Ceramics 70
Plastic: Long Chains of Molecules 73
Polymerization 74
Synthetic Fibers 79
Kevlar and Bulletproof Vests 81
Composite Materials 84
Shielding a Space Shuttle: Heat-resistant Tiles 90
Prosthetics: Artificial Body Parts 93
Materials of the Future 95

5 STRUCTURES 102
Ancient Skyscrapers 103
Concrete and Steel 110
Modern Skyscrapers 115
Space Elevator—A Tower of the Future 121

CONCLUSION 126
SI Units and Conversions 129
Glossary 132
Further Reading and Web Sites 135
Periodic Table of the Elements 139
The Chemical Elements 140
Index 141
  PREFACE 

T HE NUCLEAR BOMBS that ended World War II in 1945

were a convincing and frightening demonstration of the
power of physics. A product of some of the best scientific minds in
the world, the nuclear explosions devastated the Japanese cities of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, forcing Japan into an unconditional sur-
render. But even though the atomic bomb was the most dramatic
example, physics and physicists made their presence felt through-
out World War II. From dam-breaking bombs that skipped along
the water to submerged mines that exploded when they magneti-
cally sensed the presence of a ship's hull, the war was as much a
scientific struggle as anything else.
World War II convinced everyone, including skeptical military
leaders, that physics is an essential science. Yet the reach of this
subject extends far beyond military applications. The principles
of physics affect every part of the world and touch on all aspects
of people's lives. Hurricanes, lightning, automobile engines, eye-
glasses, skyscrapers, footballs, and even the way people walk and
run must follow the dictates of scientific laws.
The relevance of physics in everyday life has often been over-
shadowed by topics such as nuclear weapons or the latest theo-
ries of how the universe began. Physics in Our World is a set of
volumes that aims to explore the whole spectrum of applications,
describing how physics influences technology and society, as well
as helping people understand the nature and behavior of the uni-
verse and all its many interacting parts. The set covers the major
branches of physics and includes the following titles:

♦ Force and Motion

♦ Electricity and Magnetism

v
vi Atoms and Materials

♦ Time and Thermodynamics

♦ Light and Optics
♦ Atoms and Materials
♦ Particles and the Universe

Each volume explains the basic concepts of the subject and

then discusses a variety of applications in which these concepts
apply. Although physics is a mathematical subject, the focus of
these books is on the ideas rather than the mathematics. Only
simple equations are included. The reader does not need any spe-
cial knowledge of mathematics, although an understanding of
elementary algebra would be helpful in a few cases. The number
of possible topics for each volume is practically limitless, but there
is only room for a sample; regrettably, interesting applications had
to be omitted. But each volume in the set explores a wide range of
material, and all volumes contain a further reading and Web sites
section that lists a selection of books and Web sites for continued
exploration. This selection is also only a sample, offering sugges-
tions of the many exploration opportunities available.
I was once at a conference in which a young student asked a
group of professors whether he needed the latest edition of a phys-
ics textbook. One professor replied no, because the principles of
physics "have not changed in years." This is true for the most part,
but it is a testament to the power of physics. Another testament to
physics is the astounding number of applications relying on these
principles—and these applications continue to expand and change
at an exceptionally rapid pace. Steam engines have yielded to the
powerful internal combustion engines of race cars and fighter jets,
and telephone wires are in the process of yielding to fiber optics,
satellite communication, and cell phones. The goal of these books
is to encourage the reader to see the relevance of physics in all
directions and in every endeavor, at the present time as well as in
the past and in the years to come.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

T HANKS GO TO my teachers, many of whom did their best

to put up with me and my undisciplined ways. Special thanks
go to Drs. George Gerstein, Larry Palmer, and Stanley Schmidt
for helping me find my way when I got lost. I also much appreciate
the contributions of Jodie Rhodes, who helped launch this proj-
ect; executive editor Frank K. Darmstadt and the editorial team
at Facts On File, Inc., who pushed it along; and the many scien-
tists, educators, and writers who provided some of their time and
insight. Thanks most of all go to Elizabeth Kirkland, a super mom
with extraordinary powers and a gift for using them wisely.

vii
  INTRODUCTION 

J ET AIRPLANES MADE their first appearance during World

War II (1939–1945), almost 40 years after American inven-
tors Orville and Wilbur Wright built and flew the first airplane.
Although jet engines are powerful and efficient, early airplanes had
to settle for slow, cumbersome propellers, driven by piston engines
quite similar to automobile motors. The reason that jets failed to
appear first is interesting and was not due to a lack of knowledge.
Engineers knew about jets all along and even had a few examples
in nature to study, such as squid, which propel themselves in the
sea by using water jets. The reason it took so long to build jets was
that people lacked the proper materials.
Ever since Democritus of ancient Greece proposed that all
matter is made up of tiny particles, people have wondered how
bits of matter interact and combine. An understanding of how
matter behaves gives people a satisfying explanation for many of
the materials of the world, as well as the ability to construct new
ones. Jet engines, for instance, burn fuel continuously and become
extremely hot during operation. This heat would melt most mate-
rials, so for a long time there was no way to build a functional
jet engine. Then scientists discovered mixtures of metals that can
withstand exceptionally high temperatures. These materials made
jet engines possible.
Atoms and Materials is a book about matter at its most basic
level—atoms and their components—but also about how people
use material in technology and society. Material exists on widely
different scales, from beams of particles to slabs of concrete, and
all these materials are important for a variety of reasons. On a
small scale, doctors use machines that send tiny particles crashing
into a cancer patient’s body, hoping to destroy the disease, and

ix
x Atoms and Materials

engineers unleash the astounding amounts of energy in the nucleus

of the atom to generate electricity or to make the most fearsome
weapons that have ever existed.
On a larger scale, matter exists as a firm solid, a sloshing liq-
uid, a wispy gas, or a plasma (a gas whose particles are electrically
charged). Materials make transitions between these different states,
each of which is important. Oxygen is a gas at room temperature
and has a number of uses, especially relating to its roles in combus-
tion (burning) and in life. But when people need to transport oxy-
gen from one place to another, hauling a gas would be inefficient
because gases take up a lot of space. Cooling oxygen into a liquid
makes a denser cargo that is less expensive to move.
Transitions are particularly crucial in life’s most important
material of all, H2O, which exists on the planet as liquid water,
solid ice and snow, and gaseous vapor. The distribution of H2O is
critical to all living organisms, and an understanding of this vital
substance is necessary in the conservation of the planet’s resources
as well as the attempt to nudge nature into giving up more—seed-
ing clouds and making rain, for instance.
As people’s knowledge of matter grows, so do the number of
materials. Metals saw early uses as swords, coins, and later, air-
planes. The 20th century witnessed several new materials: plastic
that is versatile enough to find use in everything from containers
to automobiles, fibers that are strong enough to make bulletproof
vests, and combinations of materials that offer the advantages of
both wrapped up in a single package. Perhaps the most impressive
use of materials is in structures. Early houses made of wood or
stone gave way to the towering skyscrapers of today, held up by a
skeleton of steel. But even these buildings are mere anthills com-
pared to plans for raising a “space elevator,” a tower with a height
of 62,000 miles (100,000 km) by which satellites and astronauts
can reach space.
But the space elevator exists only in the minds and dreams of
a few engineers at the present time, for the same reason that jet
engines lagged behind their propeller cousins—lack of an afford-
able material with the necessary properties of strength and light
weight. Materials, or a lack thereof, are critical factors in determin-
 Introduction xi

ing what gets built. The world is filled with material, each com-
posed of some combination of the fundamental elements. As people
continue to increase their understanding of these substances, even
faster engines and taller towers will become possible.
 1
ATOMIC AND
MOLECULAR PHYSICS

S CIENTISTS TEND TO believe only in what they can see

and experience. Yet scientists started believing in atoms even
though no one had ever seen one.
Atoms made their presence felt in other ways. Compounds are
made up of some combination of elements, and matter at its most
basic level is composed of tiny particles. British scientist John Dalton
(1766–1844) and other chemists and physicists who studied matter
proposed that each fundamental chemical element corresponded
to a specific particle. Because these bits of matter seemed to be the
smallest possible pieces—thought to be unbreakable—they were
called atoms, after the Greek word atomos, meaning indivisible.
Atoms proved to be real, and as instruments and measurements
improved, scientists soon discovered many things about atoms,
including the fact that they are not actually indivisible. Physics
has taken people on many fantastic voyages into the atomic realm:
Atoms are composed of even smaller particles that can be made
into highly useful beams, and atoms can be split to form vast
amounts of energy that have been used for both constructive and
destructive purposes. The miniature world of atoms and molecules
is still not completely understood but its importance is growing as
technology reaches increasingly smaller sizes. Today physicists can
even compose an image of an atom.
1
2 Atoms and Materials

Seeing Atoms: Scanning Tunneling

Microscope
Objects are visible because they either emit light or reflect light that
was emitted by some other source. These are the only ways that
objects can be seen by ordinary light. Atoms are too small to emit
or reflect much light by themselves, and even the most powerful
microscopes that use light cannot bring them into focus. The size
of atoms is usually measured in nanometers (nm); a nanometer is
a billionth of a meter and equal to about 0.0000000394 inches. A
carbon atom is 0.000000006 inches or 0.15 nanometers in diam-
eter, so small that millions would fit on the tip of a pencil. Atoms
are identified by the number of particles called protons in their
nucleus; each kind of atom is an element. The sidebar “Periodic
Table of the Elements” provides more information on elements.
The instrument, called scanning tunneling microscope (STM),
can detect individual atoms but it does not use light. The STM has
an extremely small needle-like probe that is placed almost against
the surface of the material being studied, but it does not touch the
surface, as shown on page 4. The tip of the probe is so small and
sharp that there is only a single atom or two at its point. The probe
conducts electricity, which is an important part of the instrument’s
operation. As the probe moves along, a small voltage is applied
and electrons jump between the surface and the probe. Electrons
are negatively charged particles, and as described in a later sec-
tion are components of atoms. When electrons are in motion they
constitute an electric current, whether the motion occurs in a cop-
per wire (as it does in the familiar circuits of a house) or between
a sharp probe and the surface of a material. This current can be
precisely measured.
How do the electrons jump between the probe and surface?
Since the probe is not touching the surface there is a small gap
between the two. The gap is remarkably small: It would take about
100,000 of them to equal the thickness of a sheet of paper. Even
so, it is a barrier to the flow of charges. If the applied voltage was
large then electrons would be thrown across and a spark would
result, similar to what happens when 20,000 volts are applied
across the gap in an automobile spark plug. But this would ruin
delicate materials, so in the STM the voltage is small and no spark
 Atomic and Molecular Physics 3

Periodic Table of the Elements

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, scientists noticed that
a few substances seemed to be the most basic building blocks
of every other material—all compounds and mixtures were com-
posed of these basic substances, which were called elements.
Scientists also noticed that elements could be grouped based
on their properties. Some elements are solids at room tempera-
ture, others are gases or liquids. Some elements, like hydrogen,
tend to react violently with other chemicals and some elements,
like nitrogen, are more stable. In 1868, Russian chemist Dmitri
Ivanovich Mendeleyev (1834–1907) discovered a way to order
the elements such that they formed a table, with elements hav-
ing similar properties forming columns. A number of important
properties, such as a tendency to react in a specific way to other
elements, showed up periodically as one moved across the rows
of the table. Mendeleyev drew up a table of all 62 of the then
known elements. This is the periodic table of the elements. (See
“The Periodic Table of the Elements” on page 139.)
Mendeleyev’s table gave order to what was otherwise a
seemingly random set of elements that make up the world. The
table also allowed Mendeleyev to make important predictions.
There were gaps in the table and Mendeleyev predicted the
existence of elements, then unknown, that should exist in those
spots and possess the corresponding properties of their columns.
Mendeleyev proved to be correct. He predicted the existence of
the element germanium, for instance, which was found in 1886.
The number of elements has since grown to 116. Ninety of
them are found in nature, and the remaining elements generally
exist only when they are briefly made in laboratory experiments
or in a supernova (an explosive event that occurs in some large
stars at the end of their lifetimes). At the time Mendeleyev con-
structed his table, scientists considered atoms to be hard, indivis-
ible spheres. Not until the early 20th century did people realize
that the element numbers, beginning with “1” for hydrogen, cor-
respond to the number of particles called protons in the atom.
Mendeleyev’s periodic table was an important advance, even-
tually giving numerous clues about the features and properties
of atoms. A modern version of the periodic table of the ele-
ments appears as an appendix in this book. Although most of
this chapter discusses situations that are not directly linked to
the periodic table of the elements, Mendeleyev’s work was a
critical early voyage into the atomic and molecular realm.
4 Atoms and Materials

Electrons tunnel from the atom at the tip of the STM probe into the atoms of the
surface. The current depends on distance, and as the probe moves it generates
an atomic scale map of the material.

occurs. Yet the electrons jump, an unusual phenomenon that is

called tunneling. It is explained by a branch of physics, quantum
mechanics, which describes the behavior of very small particles
such as electrons. According to quantum mechanics, electrons do
not have a well-defined position and can tunnel through the small
gaps. This is what happens in the STM as the probe slides along
just above the material, eventually scanning the whole surface.
The amount of tunneling current is sensitive to the distance
between the probe tip and surface. In principle, the STM could
measure this distance by measuring the current variation as it
scans, but in practice what it does is move the tip up or down to
keep the gap—and the current—constant. The amount that the
tip moves up or down is measured—this turns out to be easier—
and the surface is scanned and mapped, revealing surface features
down to the atomic level. The machine is so sensitive that indi-
vidual atoms can be distinguished.
Surfaces are critically important locations. It is the surface of a
solid material that makes contact and interacts with gases, liquids,
or other solids, so this is where a lot of action takes place. The STM
 Atomic and Molecular Physics 5

allows physicists to study surfaces and understand how they form

and what happens during reactions with other substances. This
knowledge is especially critical to the electronics industry, which
builds amazingly small circuits and microchips to fit into compact
devices such as laptop computers and cell phones. The first STM
appeared in the early 1980s and was so well regarded that two
of the developers, Gerd Binnig (1947– ) and Heinrich Rohrer
(1933– ), received a share of the 1986 Nobel Prize in physics.
The STM is not limited simply to reporting the locations of
atoms. If the probe gets close enough to the surface, an atom on
the surface sometimes adheres to the atom at the tip of the probe.
When this happens the surface atom follows the probe as it glides
across the material. When the probe tip is retracted, the surface
atom falls off. Atoms can be dragged to the desired location and
then released, permitting precise atomic construction. Since most
objects are made of many millions of atoms, building something
atom-by-atom is not generally feasible, but it is possible to con-
struct extremely small objects in this fashion, and this has been
done. Electronics, for example, may soon become so miniaturized
that it will become necessary to build circuits one atom at a time.
In addition, a lot of the atomic designs made with the STM so far
have been admired as works of art—which of course can only be
“viewed” with the help of the STM itself.

Scientists at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

reproduced their acronym with cobalt atoms on a surface of copper. The
structure is 0.0000016 inches (0.000004 cm) across. (Joseph Stroscio; Robert
Celotta/NIST)
6 Atoms and Materials

Beams of Particles
One of the first ways that atoms and their components affected soci-
ety continues to be the most important. Single particles have little
impact due to their small size, but a stream of moving particles—a
particle beam—can have a large impact. Beams were important in

Parts of the Atom

Electrons were the first atomic components to be discovered.
In 1897, British physicist Sir Joseph John Thomson (1856–1940)
was working with vacuum tubes and discovered that beams of
particles he called “corpuscles” were being emitted. A vacuum
tube is an enclosure of glass in which all or most of the air has
been evacuated. The vacuum was necessary because these par-
ticles were so small and lightweight that air scattered them and
dispersed the beam. Soon the negatively charged particles were
named electrons. Thomson received the Nobel Prize in physics in
1906 for his work with electrons and electricity.
The existence of electrons showed that atoms are composed
of even smaller components. For a while physicists imagined
that atoms were made of a cloud of positive charge with the
tiny electrons embedded within it. This picture was proved
wrong by New Zealand/British physicist Ernest Rutherford
(1871–1937). Rutherford performed an experiment in 1911 in
which he fired a beam of positively charged particles called
alpha particles at a thin sheet of gold; the gold sheet was only a
few atoms in width. Expecting that some of the particles would
be slightly deflected by the atomic charges, Rutherford and his
assistants were shocked to observe that sometimes a particle of
the beam reflected backward! Rutherford reasoned that only a
compact, positively charged object would be able to reverse the
flight of an alpha particle. This was the discovery of the nucleus,
the positively charged core of an atom.
A few years later Rutherford identified the positive charges in
the nucleus. Using alpha particles as bullets, he fired a beam at
various elements such as fluorine, sodium, and aluminum, and
knocked out particles that appeared to be the nuclei of hydro-
gen. These are protons—hydrogen’s nucleus normally consists
of a single proton. Rutherford based the name proton on the
Greek word protos, meaning first, as in first importance. (The
 Atomic and Molecular Physics 7

the discovery of the components of atoms and remain important in

physics research as well as in numerous technologies.
Atoms consist of three different particles. At the center of
the atom is the nucleus, containing positively charged protons
and electrically neutral neutrons. The small, compact nucleus is
surrounded by a swarm of negatively charged electrons. Atoms

same Greek term is the basis of the name protein, which refers to
important biological molecules.)
Neutrons were not discovered until British physicist Sir James
Chadwick (1891–1974) found them in 1932. Atomic nuclei seemed
to be heavier than their proton components would suggest,
and scientists had suggested the existence of another particle
in the nucleus. The problem was that this particle is not electri-
cally charged and would therefore be difficult to detect, since
physicists usually steered and manipulated particle beams with
electromagnetic forces. Chadwick did a series of experiments that
produced a “radiation” he was able to identify as neutral particles
with a mass slightly greater than the proton. The term neutron
conveys the electrical neutrality of the particle. Chadwick received
the Nobel Prize in physics in 1935 for this discovery.
As the modern picture of an atom emerged, a peculiar ques-
tion arose. An atom’s nucleus consists of densely packed neu-
trons and protons, which is not necessarily surprising for elec-
trically neutral neutrons but is quite surprising for positively
charged protons. Charges with the same sign repel strongly,
so how come the protons can stay packed tightly together?
Scientists such as Japanese physicist Hideki Yukawa (1907–81)
and others realized there must be a “nuclear” force, called the
strong force. The strong nuclear force acts only over extremely
small distances. Unless protons are close together, the electrical
force alone acts upon them and they repel each other. But when
protons are pushed together, the strong force becomes a major
factor, powerful enough to overcome electrical repulsion.
Physicists have determined the mass of each atomic compo-
nent with a high degree of accuracy. Protons are about 1,836
times more massive than electrons, and neutrons are 1,840 times
more massive. But the nucleus is so tightly packed that an atom,
consisting of electrons swarming around the nucleus, is mostly
empty space. For instance, the radius of a hydrogen atom is
about 100,000 times the radius of its nucleus.
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