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 CONNECTING
BRAIN
RESEARCH
wit FFFECTIVE
TEACHING
The
Brain- Targeted
Teaching
Model

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Connecting Brain Research
with Effective Teaching

The Brain-Targeted
Teaching Model

Mariale M. Hardiman

~ Rowman & Littlefield Education

Lanham ¢ New York : Toronto * Oxford
2003
 & Littlefield
This title was originally published by ScarecrowEducation. First Rowman
Education edition 2005.

Published in the United States of America

by Rowman & Littlefield Education
A Division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.
4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706
www.rowmaneducation.com

PO Box 317
Oxford
OX2 9RU, UK

Copyright © 2003 by Mariale Melanson Hardiman

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the publisher.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hardiman, Mariale M. (Mariale Melanson), 1951—
Connecting Brain Research with Effective Teaching : the Brain-Targeted
Teaching Model / Mariale M. Hardiman.
p. cm.
“A ScarecrowEducation book.”
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN: 978-0-8108-4632-6
1. Educational psychology. 2. Learning—Physiological aspects.
3. Brain. 4. Teaching—United States—Psychological aspects. 5. School
improvement programs—United States. I. Title.
LB1057 .H27 2003
370.15—dc21
2002015988

e™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of

American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of
Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.
Manufactured in the United States of America.
 This book is dedicated to my husband and children,
Bob, Tara, and Krysta, whose unending love, support,
and encouragement led me through every page.

It is also dedicated to my parents, Gloria and Paul,

and to my brothers and sisters: Michelle, Tony, Paula,
Greg, Vince, and Matt.

Finally, it is written in loving memory of my brother

John Melanson.
 EMOTIONAL
CLIMATE

EVALUATION =\ / PHYSICAL \
{ OF } f
4
ENVIRONMENT }
LEARNING 4 \ f

a AND \ / LEARNING OUTCOMES:

{ APPLICATION } | STANDARDS,GOALS, }j
4 OF f \. CONCEPTMAPS, =/
“. KNOWLEDGE ~~ “. OBJECTIVES _-
Fa ithe” iS. _ nits

~ / DECLARATIVE “\ , a
( AND )
PROCEDURAL
KNOWLEDGE _/
/

Nein nsaasmaansennenn
 Contents

Acknowledgments Vii

Introduction ix

1 The ABCs of Brain Anatomy

a4 Important Themes in Brain Research 11

3 The Brain-Targeted Teaching Model 21

4 Brain Target 1 (BT-1): Setting the Emotional Climate
for Learning 25
Brain Target 2 (BT-2): Creating the Physical
Learning Environment 39

Brain Target 3 (BT-3): Designing the Learning Experience 47

Brain Target 4 (BT-4): Teaching for Declarative and

Procedural Knowledge 55

Brain Target 5 (BT-5): Teaching for Extension and

Application of Knowledge 67

Brain Target 6 (BT-6): Evaluating Learning 75

10 Brain-Targeted Learning Units 87

11 School Improvement Planning 121

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 Introduction

Teachers have seen educational reforms come and go. Ask a group of
veteran teachers how many of the new educational initiatives they have
fully incorporated into their teaching, and an honest response will of-
ten be a wink and a smile. The truth is that, despite mountains of reform
initiatives, little actual change has occurred in American classrooms
during the last several decades. i
Take Ms. Gordon, for example. She has taught sixth grade in a sub-
urban school district for the past 19 years. She works hard to try to im-
plement all the educational reforms promoted by her school district. Yet
this experienced teacher feels inadequate:

Every time I turn around, a new program is presented that will “reform
education.” If you wait long enough, that program will fade and a new
one will take its place. Just when I had my classroom set up for mastery
learning, for example, cooperative learning became the vogue. The next
focus was teaching to students’ learning styles, followed by teaching
higher-order thinking skills. Then we were presented with discovery-
learning, performance-based assessment, and portfolio assessment, in
rapid succession. Now, after last year’s emphasis on differentiating cur-
riculum and instruction, we’re being trained in collaborative learning
communities. We have also been exhorted to integrate into our curricu-
lum a host of topics such as technology education, arts education, char-
acter education, violence prevention, service learning, drug education,
and so forth. Now this “integrated curriculum” must align with new state
standards so that our students will perform well on state tests. Although
my students perform above national norms, I still feel enormous pressure
x INTRODUCTION

to continually improve scores on our state’s accountability testing. At the

same time, I want to foster a joy for learning so that my students’ class-
room experience becomes more than simply test preparation.

Ms. Gordon’s experience is not unique. Many teachers feel over-

whelmed by the plethora of educational reforms and the pressure to
raise test scores. It’s no surprise that beginning teachers typically feel
this burden to an even greater extent. Let’s look at Mr. Johns’ experi-
ence as a first-year teacher of social studies. He believed that his fifth-
grade students had mastered the objectives of the curriculum, yet their
performance on the end-of-year assessment proved that they had re-
tained little of the content and skills he thought he had taught during the
school year. Mr. Johns wondered how his teacher preparation program
could have better prepared him for the complexities of teaching in to-
day’s classrooms. He wished he had acquired a better understanding of
those teaching strategies that would have made his content more excit-
ing for his students and would have resulted in meaningful, lasting
learning.
My experience leading schools and instructing graduate students has
convinced me that most teachers, like those described above, want to
implement the best of what research and practice tell us is effective in-
struction. Yet they are constantly bombarded by new initiatives without
being given a system to help them integrate these initiatives into class-
room practice. :
My own quest for education’s magic bullet led me in the mid-1980s
to study brain research, which focused mainly on left/right brain stud-
ies and included the seminal work of neuroscientists such as Dr. Mar-
ian Diamond and Dr. Michael Gazzaniga. These studies in the 1980s
preceded an explosion of brain research that has opened up new hori-
zons about how we think and learn. I wondered at first if this attention
to brain research was merely another fad or if it could truly help edu-
cators discover the best methods for teaching children. My own studies
have since convinced me that brain research supports much of what ex-
perience and research tell us is effective instruction. Most important,
studying brain research has helped me to determine which instructional
strategies foster true learning. Yet, despite so much current attention,
the findings of brain research are still not readily accessible to class-
 INTRODUCTION xi

room teachers. I believe that teachers, as well as administrators and

policy-makers, need a framework that integrates these findings into a
coherent system connecting brain research with components of effec-
tive teaching.
This book is designed to do just that. It will present a model of in-
struction that targets what we now know supports how the brain thinks
and learns. This instructional framework, which I’ve called the brain-
targeted teaching model, does not purport to be a new method of teach-
ing. Rather, it provides a format for using current brain research to
guide teachers in planning, implementing, and assessing a sound pro-
gram of instruction. It is my hope that the model will increase the po-
tential of brain research not only to inform instructional strategies but
also to suggest ways to organize schools and curricula to enhance
teaching and learning. Its focus, however, is on classroom instruction,
which is where authentic educational reform must take place. Its pri-
mary audience, then, is educational practitioners and those who guide
and support them. As a practicing principal of a large, urban K-8
school and as a graduate education instructor, I interact with a wide
range of teachers in both public and private schools throughout the
state of Maryland and beyond. Their contributions to this book have
been essential, giving the work its authenticity.
The book is divided into three parts. Chapters 1 through 3 provide a
description of brain anatomy, a synthesis of important findings of cur-
rent brain research, and an introduction to the brain-targeted teaching
model as a system for enhancing student learning. Chapters 4 through
9 describe the components of the brain-targeted teaching model, ana-
lyzing each one in terms of its connections to the findings of brain
research. These chapters include practical applications of each compo-
nent of the model as they follow Mr. Johns, the first-year teacher de-
scribed above, through the planning and implementation of his first
unit of instruction for the new school year. Finally, chapters 10 and 11
provide field-tested learning units based on the brain-targeted teaching
model and sample school improvement plans that school administra-
tors could use to create schools that support brain-based learning,
A final observation: The reauthorization of the Elementary and Sec-
ondary Education Act (ESEA) requiring annual standards-based testing |
in grades 3-8 has aroused heated debate in the educational community.
xii INTRODUCTION

Many educators fear that an emphasis on high-stakes accountability

testing will cause schools and teachers to focus their priorities on test
preparation rather than on developing the wide range of learning activ-
ities that brain research supports. Although it would not be wise for ed-
ucators to shrink from accountability, I firmly believe that we must
view high performance on standardized assessments of basic skills
not as the goal of instruction, but only as a beginning—a launching
point, as it were, to true learning that must, as brain research insists,
emerge from experience.
 CHAPTER 1

The ABCs of Brain Anatomy

Teachers are educators, not neurobiologists. .. . Do we really need to

know brain structure and function to be effective teachers? The truth
is, no; you could quickly skip to chapter 3 and implement brain-
targeted teaching methods without knowing how the brain actually
works. A fundamental understanding of the structures and functions
of brain, however, will allow us, as educators, to comprehend the
workings of the incredible brain and become better consumers of
the mountains of research that have emerged since the 1990s, which
was designated by the scientific community as the “decade of the
brain.” Perhaps this new decade and new century should be dubbed
“the decade of teaching to the brain” to recognize the need to design
practical applications of neuroscience to the teaching and learning
process.

AMAZING BRAIN FACTS

Weighing in at about three pounds, the brain has the size of a grape-
fruit and the shape of a nut. It is made up of about 78% water,
10% fat, and 8% protein. The brain’s one hundred billion
(100,000,000,000) cells use about eight gallons of blood per hour
and need about eight glasses of water per day. Although the brain
makes up less than 2.5% of the body’s total weight, it consumes
about 20% of the body’s energy— 10 times the rate of the rest of the
body. This enormous energy consumption is needed to process an
amazing amount of information, estimated to be between 10 to the
2 CHAPTER 1

27th power and 10 to the 100 billionth power bits of data per second
(Greenleaf, 1999).

BRAIN ANATOMY

The human brain is composed of identifiable structures, the organiza-

tion of which we will examine first from back to front, then from left
to right.

The Hindbrain

The hindbrain contains the brain stem, which includes the medulla
oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum (see Figure 1.1). Scientists be-
lieve that the brain stem is the oldest part of the evolving brain,
controlling such autonomic functions as breathing, heartbeat, blood cir-
culation, tongue movements, and vocal sounds. Sensations such as
touch, taste, and sound pass through the medulla oblongata in the brain
stem before moving to the cerebral cortex for conscious awareness. The
pons controls facial expressions and chewing and connects the brain
stem to the cerebral cortex (Diamond & Hopson, 1998). Within the
brain stem is a system of neurons known as reticular formation (RF),
which regulate all vital life-support systems of the body as well as in-
voluntary movements such as pupil constriction. Another vital function
of the RF is the reticular activating system (RAS), which controls the
body’s sleep and arousal systems. The RAS also controls how infor-
mation is received in the brain by filtering sensory information and al-
lowing us to focus on a stimulus and ignore background information.
Your students’ RAS is hard at work if they are focusing on your voice
and ignoring the hum of fluorescent lights overhead or the distant
sounds of traffic on the street. _
At the back of the skull, attached to the brain stem, is the cerebellum,
which controls the body’s execution and planning of movement and
balance. The cerebellum serves as a conductor of the body’s muscle
systems, directing muscle groups to work together to produce harmo-
nious movements needed to perform the simplest or most complex mo-
tor activities. When a certain movement is repeated over and over, the
 THE ABCs OF BRAIN ANATOMY 3

Medulla
Oblongata

Figure 1.1. The hindbrain.

cerebellum stores it so that it becomes automatic, not needing con-

scious thought to perform the skill. When children first learn to write
their names in cursive, for example, they must concentrate on. how to
form each stroke. When these movements are stored in the cerebel-
lum’s kinesthetic memory, this skill becomes fluid and automatic. The
cerebellum is hard at work storing repeated motor memories, from hit-
ting that perfect serve in tennis, to riding a bike, to signing hall passes.
Recently, scientists have come to believe that the cerebellum stores not
only automatic motor activity but also repetitive learning, such as the
alphabet, multiplication tables, and the blending of phonemes into ~
words (Sprenger, 1999).
4 CHAPTER 1

The Limbic System

Located just above the brain stem is the limbic system, known to
control our emotions. This system connects the lower parts of the brain
responsible for automatic and motor functions with the higher cerebral
cortex, the area responsible for cognitive thought. The parts of the lim-
bic system that most influence learning are the thalamus, hypothala-
mus, hippocampus, and amygdala (see Figure 1.2).
Thalamus. In our brain’s core is the thalamus, a walnut-sized
structure that directs information between our senses and our cere-
bral cortex. After receiving information, the thalamus relays it from
all senses except smell to other parts of the brain for further pro-
cessing.
Hypothalamus. Just as the thalamus relays external information to
various parts of the brain, the hypothalamus relays internal information
to certain areas of the brain. The hypothalamus controls the process of
homeostasis, regulating and adjusting the body’s functions to maintain
a normal state. For example, the hypothalamus increases perspiration

Hypothalamus

Figure 1.2. The cerebrum and limbic system.

 THE ABCs OF BRAIN ANATOMY 5

to lower body temperature when it becomes hot. The hypothalamus

regulates appetite and induces the body’s fight-or-flight response when
it senses danger, adjusting in a split second the body’s chemical make-
up to increase heart rate and respiration.
Hippocampus. Shaped like a seahorse, the hippocampus is the
workhorse of the brain’s memory system. It holds a memory of
the immediate past and compares it to experiences stored in long-term
memory, a process essential for creating meaning. Once events are
stored in the hippocampus, some will eventually become long-term
memory, moving from storage in the hippocampus to the cortex
(LeDoux, 1996).
Amygdala. The amygdala is an almond-shaped structure most often
cited as playing a central role in the control of emotions. This structure
receives information from the thalamus and evaluates it relative to its
emotional content. If the amygdala senses threat or danger, it sends a
signal to the hypothalamus, which relays the message to the endocrine
system to increase hormones to raise heart rate and blood pressure and
ready our muscles for activity. Scientists believe that the emotional
component of an experience is stored in the amygdala, while more fac-
tual events related to the experience, such as where or when the event
occurred, are stored in other parts of the brain. According to LeDoux
(1996), the amygdala receives a stimulus 40 milliseconds before the in-
tellectual centers of the brain. When you see a log that looks like a
snake, for example, you may initially experience a fear response be-
cause the brain’s logical center has not yet processed the fact that the
object is only a log and not a snake.

The Cerebrum

The largest and most complex section of the brain, the cerebrum, is
divided into two sections, referred to as cerebral hemispheres (see Fig-
ure 1.2). The left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum are connected
by a thick bundle of nerve fibers called the corpus callosum, which
allows the two sides of the brain to function as one unit. Each hemi-
sphere controls motor activity on the opposite side of the body. Cov- .
ering the cerebrum is a 1/10th-inch layer of tissue rich in nerve cells
and connecting fibers called the cortex. Its surface area appears as
6 CHAPTER 1

grayish folds and, if stretched out, would be about the size of a large
pizza. It is estimated that the cerebrum makes up 80% of the total brain
weight and that its cells are connected by a million miles of nerve
fibers. The cortex is divided into four lobes, each controlling a differ-
ent brain function (see Figure 1.3).
Occipital lobe. At the back of the brain rests the occipital lobe,
which is primarily responsible for processing visual stimuli. As visual
information comes from the thalamus, it is sent to the visual cortex to
be processed and subsequently matched with previously stored mem-
ories.
Temporal lobe. The brain’s temporal lobes are located in the left and
right hemispheres above and around the ears. They are responsible for
processing visual recognition, such as object shapes, in addition to pro-
cessing auditory stimuli. The left hemisphere temporal lobe contains
Wernicke’s area, the seat of our understanding of spoken language.
Parietal lobe. Located on the top and along the sides of the head,
each parietal lobe receives sensory information from the opposite side

Motor Cortex

Frontal Lob
Parca

Figure 1.3. The four lobes and motor cortex.

 THE ABCs OF BRAIN ANATOMY it

of the body. The parietal lobes include the sensory strip, which receives
and processes stimuli of pain, pressure on the skin, body position, tem-
perature, and touch. It is also responsible for locating where things are
in the world relative to our bodies, allowing us to grasp objects, and
redirecting our focus of attention to new salient stimuli in the environ-
ment.
Frontal lobe. The front of the cerebrum holds the brain’s thinking
center, the area responsible for working memory, higher-order thought,
problem-solving, and language. The frontal lobe contains our speech
center, known as Broca’s area. At the back of the frontal lobe, just in
front of the parietal cortex, are a set of cortical areas involved in move-
ment. They allow for decision-making, motor planning, and motor ex-
ecution.

Left Brain/Right Brain

Studies of hemispheric specialization that emerged during the 1970s

and 1980s sparked much popular interest in our “two-sided brain.” We
learned that the left hemisphere is largely the language center of the
brain and engages in logical, sequential information processing. Scien-
tists believe that the left hemisphere is analytical and attends to detail,
while the right hemisphere may be responsible for generalized con-
cepts. Researchers believe that the right hemisphere processes sensory
stimuli and thinks in pictures rather than words. It manages information
in a holistic fashion; our intuitive and creative thinking is centered in
this hemisphere.
The concept of cerebral dominance emerged from left/right brain
studies and led us to believe that an individual’s style of thinking and
behaving reflected the influence of one hemisphere over another. Sci-
entists maintained that artists, for example, who displayed superior
visual-spatial skills, had a dominant right hemisphere, whereas people
who excelled at manipulating language, like lawyers, were thought to
have a dominant left hemisphere.
We now know that this distinction is rather simplistic. Although re-
cent research has confirmed the specialization of our brain hemi-
spheres, we also know that the two hemisphere are continuously
working in tandem to produce the rich complexities of human thought.
8 CHAPTER 1

Listening to our favorite song, for example, involves both the right
hemisphere, as we enjoy the sounds of harmony and rhythm, and the
left hemisphere, as we analyze the song’s components, instruments,
and words.

Brain Cells

So far, we have examined the structures of the brain. Now we will fo-
cus on brain cells and the fascinating process of cell communication—
the essence of learning. The brain’s 100 billion cells are made up of two
basic types, neurons and glial cells.
Neurons. Comprising one-10th of the brain’s cells, neurons look like
bulbs with sprouting roots and a long tail (see Figure 1.4). The “roots”
are called dendrites and function as antennae that receive information
from other neurons, distant or nearby, or from the brain’s environment
(Diamond & Hopson, 1998). The “tail,” called the axon, performs the
task of carrying messages away from nerve cells to the dendrites of
other cells, which then transmit the information to their cell bodies. The
process is repeated when the receiving cell sends the signal through its
axon to yet another cell, which, in turn, receives the signal through
its dendrites. During this process, axons and dendrites never actually
touch. The electrical impulse that flows from the axon travels over a
small gap called a synapse through chemicals, neurotransmitters, that
are stored in sacs, called synaptic vesicles, located at the end of each
axon (see Figure 1.5). Frequently used axons send information faster.
These axons are surrounded by myelin, a fatty sheath that forms around
axons to speed up the electrical transmission and reduce interference
from other cell activity. These electrical impulses are known to travel
at speeds of up to 220 miles per hour (Greenfield, 1997).
As we can see, the axon sends information through both electrical
and chemical signals. The brain’s chemicals, neurotransmitters such as
endorphins, dopamine, serotonin, serve to either excite or inhibit cell
activity.
Glial cells. Glial cells make up about 90% of the brain. Their func-
tion is to support neural activity by producing myelin to coat the neu-
ral axons, transporting nutrients and waste to and from the brain, as
well as protecting neurons from harmful substances.
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