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The Verbal Domain
O X F O R D S T U D I E S I N T H E O R E T I C A L L I N GU I S T I C S
GENERAL EDITORS: David Adger and Hagit Borer, Queen Mary, University of London
ADVISORY EDITORS: Stephen Anderson, Yale University; Daniel Büring, University of Vienna;
Nomi Erteschik-Shir, Ben-Gurion University; Donka Farkas, University of California, Santa
Cruz; Angelika Kratzer, University of Massachusetts, Amherst; Andrew Nevins, University
College London; Christopher Potts, Stanford University; Barry Schein, University of Southern
California; Peter Svenonius, University of Tromsø; Moira Yip, University College London

RECENT TITLES

 Edges in Syntax
Scrambling and Cyclic Linearization
by Heejeong Ko
 The Syntax of Roots and the Roots of Syntax
edited by Artemis Alexiadou, Hagit Borer, and Florian Schäfer
 Causation in Grammatical Structures
edited by Bridget Copley and Fabienne Martin
 Continuations and Natural Language
by Chris Barker and Chung-chieh Shan
 The Semantics of Evaluativity
by Jessica Rett
 External Arguments in Transitivity Alternations
by Artemis Alexiadou, Elena Anagnostopoulou, and Florian Schäfer
 Control and Restructuring
by Thomas Grano
 The Interaction of Focus, Givenness, and Prosody
A Study of Italian Clause Structure
by Vieri Samek-Lodovici
 The Morphosyntax of Gender
by Ruth Kramer
 The Morphosyntax of Imperatives
by Daniela Isac
 Sentence and Discourse
edited by Jacqueline Guéron
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From Uni- to Bidirectional Optimization
edited by Géraldine Legendre, Michael T. Putnam, Henriëtte de Swart, and Erin Zaroukian
 The Morphosyntax of Transitions
A Case Study in Latin and Other Languages
by Víctor Acedo-Matellán
 Modality Across Syntactic Categories
edited by Ana Arregui, María Luisa Rivero, and Andrés Salanova
 The Verbal Domain
edited by Roberta D’Alessandro, Irene Franco, and Ángel J. Gallego
For a complete list of titles published and in preparation for the series, see pp. –.
The Verbal Domain

Edited by
R O B E R T A D’A L E S S A N D R O , IR E N E F R A N C O ,
and Á N G E L J. G A LLE G O

1
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 3/3/2017, SPi

3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX DP,
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and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
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© editorial matter and organization Roberta D’Alessandro, Irene Franco,
and Ángel J. Gallego 
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 Contents
General preface vii
List of abbreviations ix
About the contributors xiii
Introduction: the verbal domain xvii
Roberta D’Alessandro, Irene Franco, and Ángel J. Gallego

Part I. Root and Verbalizer

. The “bundling” hypothesis and the disparate functions of little v 
Heidi Harley
. Little v as a categorizing verbal head: evidence from Greek 
Phoevos Panagiotidis, Vassilios Spyropoulos, and Anthi Revithiadou
. Agreement between arguments? Not really 
Maria Polinsky, Nina Radkevich, and Marina Chumakina
. On the division of labor between roots and functional structure 
Artemis Alexiadou and Terje Lohndal

Part II. Voice

. Voice, manners, and results in adjectival passives 
Elena Anagnostopoulou
. Romance and Greek medio-passives and the typology of Voice 
Florian Schäfer
. The articulated v layer: evidence from Tamil 
Sandhya Sundaresan and Thomas McFadden
. The features of the voice domain: actives, passives, and restructuring 
Susi Wurmbrand and Koji Shimamura

Part III. Event and Argument Structure

. Omnipresent little v in Pazar Laz 
Balkız Öztürk and Eser Erguvanlı Taylan
. The event domain 
Gillian Ramchand
vi Contents

. The interpretation of external arguments 

Jim Wood and Alec Marantz

References 
Index 
 General preface
The theoretical focus of this series is on the interfaces between subcomponents of the
human grammatical system and the closely related area of the interfaces between the
different subdisciplines of linguistics. The notion of “interface” has become central
in grammatical theory (for instance, in Chomsky’s Minimalist Program) and in
linguistic practice: work on the interfaces between syntax and semantics, syntax
and morphology, phonology and phonetics, etc. has led to a deeper understanding
of particular linguistic phenomena and of the architecture of the linguistic compo-
nent of the mind/brain.
The series covers interfaces between core components of grammar, including syntax/
morphology, syntax/semantics, syntax/phonology, syntax/pragmatics, morphology/
phonology, phonology/phonetics, phonetics/speech processing, semantics/pragmatics,
and intonation/discourse structure, as well as issues in the way that the systems of
grammar involving these interface areas are acquired and deployed in use (including
language acquisition, language dysfunction, and language processing). It demonstrates,
we hope, that proper understandings of particular linguistic phenomena, languages,
language groups, or inter-language variations all require reference to interfaces.
The series is open to work by linguists of all theoretical persuasions and schools of
thought. A main requirement is that authors should write so as to be understood by
colleagues in related subfields of linguistics and by scholars in cognate disciplines.
The verb phrase is a core component of the syntactic structure of sentences, and its
proper analysis has developed over the decades from a very intuitive notion (the verb
and some of its arguments and modifiers) to an expanded and more theoretically
articulated structure, where functional elements do the work of creating the relevant
linkages between meaning and form. In the present volume, the editors have brought
together recent work on verbal syntax, focusing on the analysis of the verb phrase
covering the three main areas of current research: how verbal roots are connected
with the syntactic structures which they give content to, how transitivity and
agentivity are expressed, and how the verbal domain is embedded in larger structures
that signal the temporal contours of the event denoted by the root. The chapters
present contrasting perspectives on one of the most central and controversial aspects
of current syntactic theory.
David Adger
Hagit Borer
 List of abbreviations
ABS absolutive case
ACC accusative case
ACT active voice
AG agent
Agr agreement
ANAPH anaphoric
aP adjectivizer phrase
AdjP adjectivizer phrase (in Anagnostopoulou)
Appl applicative voice
ApplP applicative phrase
Asp aspect
ATTR attributative
AUG augment
AV actor voice
CAUS causative
CausP Causative phrase
CI conceptual-intentional
CL classifier (noun class)
COP copula
CONT contessive
CP complementizer phrase
CVB converb
DAT dative case
DEM demonstrative
DIR direct
DP determiner phrase
DM Distributed Morphology
EA external argument
ECM exceptional case marking
ecause caused dynamic event
edyn dynamic event
x List of abbreviations

EL elative case
EMPH emphatic
EPP Extended Projection Principle
ERG ergative case
ESS essive case
EV epenthetic vowel
EVID evidential
EXCL exclusive person
EXIST existential
EXPL expletive
F feminine
F:— unvalued feature
F:val valued feature
F:val feature valued during the derivation
FIN finalis
FUT future
GB Government and Binding
GEN genitive case
HPL human plural
IA internal argument
IMPF imperfective (IMPFV in Panagiotidis, Spyropoulos, and Revithiadou)
INCH inchoative
INCL inclusive
IND indicative
INDIR indirect
INF infinitive
Infl inflection
initP initiator phrase
INST instrumental
INTR intransitive
IP inflectional phrase
LAD Language Acquisition Device
LOC locative case
LOM long object movement
LV locative voice
 List of abbreviations xi

M masculine
MID middle
MS masdar
NACT non-active (morphology)
NEC Northeast Caucasian
NEG negative
N neuter
NHPL non-human plural
NOM nominative
NMLZ nominalizer
NPL non-plural, number-neutral
NPN non-possessed noun marker
OBL oblique case
P person
PASS passive voice
Perf perfective
PF phonological form
PFV perfective (PRF in Harley)
PL plural
PL Pazar Laz
POL politeness marker
POSS possessive
pP prepositionalizer phrase
PP prepositional phrase
PredP predicative phrase
PREP prepositional case
PRES present tense
procP process phrase
PROG progressive aspect
PRT participle
PST past tense
PV preverbal marker
PV patient voice
Q question marker
RC restructuring complement
xii List of abbreviations

REAL realis
REFL reflexive
ResultP result phrase (resP in Ramchand)
RootP root phrase
RSAP resultant state adjectival passives
SBJ subject
SE “reflexive pronoun”
SG singular
SOD spell-out domain
Spec,IP specifier inflectional phrase
ST Icelandic -st morphology
STATE state
StatP stativizer phrase
SUP superessive
TP Tense phrase
TR transitive
TrP transitive phrase
TS thematic suffix
TSAP target state adjectival passives
uCL unvalued class feature
UG universal grammar
□V empty vocalic slot
VAL valency marker
VoiceP Voice phrase
VOC vocative case
vP (light) verb phrase
VP verb phrase
VRB verbalizer
vtr transitive v
XP phrase
 About the contributors
ARTEMIS ALEXIADOU is Professor of English Linguistics at the Humboldt University in Berlin
and the Vice-Director of the Leibniz-Zentrum Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft (ZAS) in Berlin
(ZAS) in Berlin. She received her Ph.D. in Linguistics in  from the University of Potsdam,
and has held a professorial position at the University of Stuttgart. Her research interests lie in
theoretical and comparative syntax, morphology, and most importantly in the interface
between syntax, morphology, the lexicon, and interpretation. She has published in journals,
edited volumes, and conference proceedings. External Arguments in Transitivity Alterna-
tions: A Layering Approach (co-authored with Elena Anagnostopoulou and Florian Schäfer)
was published in  by Oxford University Press.
ELENA ANAGNOSTOPOULOU is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Crete. She obtained her
Ph.D. in Linguistics from the University of Salzburg in . Her research interests lie in
theoretical and comparative syntax, with special focus on the interfaces between syntax,
morphology, and the lexicon, argument alternations, case, agreement, clitics, and anaphora.
MARINA CHUMAKINA is Research Fellow in the Surrey Morphology Group, University of Surrey.
Her work focuses on Nakh-Daghestanian languages and typology. She has done extensive
fieldwork on the Archi language resulting in an online Archi Dictionary (together with
Dunstan Brown, Greville G. Corbett, and Harley Quilliam, ), and works on Archi
morphosyntax (Chumakina ) and agreement in Archi (Bond et al. ).
ESER ERGUVANLI TAYLAN is Professor of Linguistics at Boğaziçi University in Istanbul, Turkey.
She received her Ph.D. in Linguistics from the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA)
in . Her research and publications comprise various aspects of Turkish (morpho)-syntax,
such as word order and complement structure, the aspectual and modal system of Turkish,
Turkish phonology, and the verbal system of Laz.
HEIDI HARLEY is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Arizona. She works on argument
structure, morphology, and lexical semantics, and is particularly interested in understanding
the structure of the verb phrase, as well as the morphology-syntax interface. She has investi-
gated these and related questions in English, Italian, Japanese, Hiaki, Korean, Irish, Persian, and
Icelandic.

TERJE LOHNDAL, a graduate of the University of Maryland (), is Professor of English

Linguistics (%) at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim
and Professor II (%) at UiT The Arctic University of Norway. His work focuses on formal
grammar and language variation, but he also has interests in the philosophy of language and
neuroscience. He has published a monograph with Oxford University Press, and many papers
in journals such as Linguistic Inquiry, Journal of Semantics, and Journal of Linguistics. In
addition to research and teaching, Lohndal is also involved with numerous outreach activities
and is a regular columnist in Norwegian media on linguistics and the humanities.
xiv About the contributors

ALEC MARANTZ is Silver Professor of Linguistics and Psychology at New York University. He
received his Ph.D. in Linguistics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in  and
taught at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and at MIT before joining the NYU
faculty. He is perhaps best known for his work on the morphology-syntax interface and for his
role in proposing and developing the theory of Distributed Morphology. His current research
includes neurolinguistic investigations of morphology exploiting MEG technology at NYU and
at the Neuroscience of Language Lab at NYU Abu Dhabi, which he co-directs.

THOMAS MCFADDEN is Research Fellow and Coordinator at the ZAS in Berlin. He received his Ph.D.
from the University of Pennsylvania in  and was previously a post-doc at the University of
Stuttgart and Associate Professor at the University of Tromsø. His research specializations are in
syntax, morphology, and historical linguistics, focusing primarily on case, argument structure,
auxiliary selection, finiteness, and clausal embedding. He has published articles in journals like
Linguistic Inquiry, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, and Language and Linguistics Compass,
as well as in several edited volumes and conference proceedings.
BALKIZ ÖZTÜRK received her Ph.D. in Linguistics from Harvard University in . She is
currently Associate Professor of Linguistics at Boğaziçi University, Istanbul. Her main research
interests lie in the interfaces of syntax, morphology, and the lexicon specifically focusing on
Altaic (Turkish, Uyghur, Mongolian) and South Caucasian languages (Laz and Georgian). She
has published various articles on argument structure, Case, relative clauses, pseudo-incorpor-
ation, NP-structure, null-arguments in journals, edited volumes, and conference proceedings.
She is the author of Case, Referentiality and Phrase Structure (John Benjamins ), and has
co-edited the volumes Exploring the Turkish linguistic landscape (John Benjamins ) and
Pazar Laz (Lincom ).
PHOEVOS PANAGIOTIDIS is Associate Professor of Theoretical Linguistics and Vice-Chair of
English Studies at the University of Cyprus. He earned his Ph.D. from Essex University in
 and has published extensively in journals and jointly authored volumes. He is the author
of a successful Greek-language popular science introduction to Linguistics, published by
Crete University Press in , and of two monographs: Pronouns, Clitics and empty nouns
(Benjamins ) and Categorial Features: A Generative Theory of Word Class Categories
(Cambridge University Press ). His research interests include lexical categories, roots,
pronouns, the nominal domain, mixed projections, and the syntax of Greek and Balkan
languages.

MARIA POLINSKY is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Maryland, College Park. She
investigates the syntax of natural languages, with a particular emphasis on language universals
and the range of variation in sentence structure. She has produced detailed syntactic analyses
of a number of lesser-studied languages and has a long-standing interest in the ways different
grammatical models can be used to analyze syntactic phenomena.

NINA RADKEVICH is a post-doctoral researcher at the University of York, UK. She received her
Ph.D. in Linguistics at the University of Connecticut working on morphosyntax of spatial
expressions. Her main research interests lie in the areas of syntax and morphology and their
 About the contributors xv

interaction. More specifically, she has worked on agreement and case licensing in Nakh-
Dagestanian, locality in portmanteau morphology and allomorphy.
GILLIAN RAMCHAND pursues a research programme investigating the formal relationship
between the syntactic and semantic representations of natural language. She has worked in
the areas of tense, aspect, predication, and argument structure in languages as diverse as
Bengali, Scottish Gaelic, Swedish, and English. She is the author of two books—Aspect and
Predication (Oxford University Press ) and Verb Meaning and the Lexicon (Cambridge
University Press )—where she argues for a syntactic implementation of an event-struc-
tural view of verbal meaning and participant relations. Ramchand is currently Professor of
Linguistics at the University of Tromsø, Norway’s Arctic University. She holds a Ph.D. in
Linguistics from Stanford University, and bachelors degrees in Mathematics and Philosophy
from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
ANTHI REVITHIADOU is currently Associate Professor of Linguistics at the Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki. She received her Ph.D. from Leiden University/HIL in . Her research interests
focus on phonological theory, the morphosyntax-phonology interface, and language contact. She
also has a profound interest in contact-induced systems and, especially, those varieties of Greek that
have been in long-term contact with Turkish (e.g., Asia Minor Greek, Ofitika Pontic, Rhodian
Muslim Greek, etc.). She has published in journals, edited volumes, and conference proceedings.
FLORIAN SCHÄFER is guest Professor for English Linguistics at the Humboldt University in Berlin
and researcher at the the collaborative research center SFB  ‘Incremental Specification in
Context’ at the University of Stuttgart. He studied General and Theoretical Linguistics at the
University of Potsdam and completed his dissertation on the (anti-) causative alternation in
 at the University of Stuttgart. His main research interests are located in the theories of
syntax, morphology, and lexical semantics and the interaction of these modules of grammar.

KOJI SHIMAMURA is Assistant Professor at Ritsumeikan University, Japan and affiliated to the
Department of Linguistics at the University of Connecticut. He is currently working on the
syntax and semantics of complementation in Japanese with a cross-linguistic perspective.
VASSILIOS SPYROPOULOS is Assistant Professor of Generative Syntax at the National and Kapo-
distrian University of Athens. He received his Ph.D. in Linguistics in  from the University
of Reading. His research interests lie in theoretical and comparative syntax and morphology,
the interface between syntax and morphology/phonology, the description of the morphosyn-
tactic structure of Standard Modern Greek and its dialects as well as historical linguistics and
language contact, especially between Greek and Turkish. He has published in journals, edited
volumes, and conference proceedings.
SANDHYA SUNDARESAN is Assistant Professor (“Juniorprofessorin”) for Syntax at the Department
of Linguistics, University of Leipzig. She received her Ph.D. jointly from the University of
Tromsø (CASTL) and the University of Stuttgart in . Her doctoral dissertation, Context
and (Co)reference in the Syntax and its Interfaces, investigated the structural nature of
perspectivally regulated anaphora using the Dravidian language Tamil as a case study. Her
research looks at issues that lie at the syntax-semantics interface, in particular, referential
dependency (control and anaphora), clausal dependency (finiteness), argument-structure,
xvi About the contributors

agreement, and case. She currently has a joint DFG research project investigating interactions
between anaphora and agreement, and has published articles in journals like Natural Language
and Linguistic Theory and Journal of South Asian Linguistics as well as in several edited
volumes and conference proceedings.
JIM WOOD is Assistant Professor of Linguistics at Yale University and Associate Editor of the
Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics. His primary research interests lie in syntax and
its interfaces with morphology and semantics. His dissertation work at New York University
was recently published in Springer’s Studies in Natural Language and Linguistic Theory series
as Icelandic Morphosyntax and Argument Structure (). Since , he has been a leading
member of the Yale Grammatical Diversity Project and is a co-principal investigator on the
National Science Foundation grant currently funding its work. His research has been published
in Natural Language & Linguistic Theory, Linguistic Inquiry, Syntax, Lingua, and elsewhere.
SUSI WURMBRAND is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Connecticut. She holds an MA
from the University of Vienna and a PhD in Linguistics from the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. She is the Editor-in-chief of the Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics and
one of the editors of Open Generative Syntax. Her research specialty is theoretical syntax and
the syntax-semantics interface, and she has published works in the major journals of
linguistics.
 Introduction: the verbal domain
RO B E R T A D ’ A L E S S A ND R O , IR E N E F R A N C O ,
AN D Á N G EL J. G ALL EGO

The verb phrase (VP) is the core of the sentence, and one of the oldest projections
ever postulated. In the generative tradition, Chomsky () already talks about a
VP, but the definition of a verb phrase, albeit different from the one we use today,
dates back at least to Saussure (). The VP was intuitively and primitively defined
as the phrase containing the verb and its arguments.
The existence and importance of VP within the clause has never been in doubt;
however, the structure of the VP and the argument positions within it have been the
subject of extensive debate, even as far back as the Government and Binding (GB) era
(Chomsky ).
The VP head is the verb: even this simple assumption has been controversial.
Different hypotheses have been proposed: one is that the whole verb is base-
generated (or first-merged) in V (for instance, as in Chomsky’s () early Minim-
alist Program, according to which fully inflected material is merged and subject
to feature matching). A second hypothesis is that the verbal root is base-generated,
and inflection is acquired via verb movement (Belletti ; Kayne , and
many others) or via affix hopping, in languages in which the verb does not move
(Lasnik ).
Another possibility, formulated in the Distributed Morphology (DM) framework,
is that only bare roots, with minimal semantic content but no functional/categorial
specification, constitute the core of a V. In order to build a verb, a V root must
combine with a “verbalizing” head, v, turning the root into a “base,” i.e., into a verb.
Inflection is acquired later on in the derivation. While most researchers share the idea
that roots are category-neutral elements encoding non-compositional and encyclo-
pedic information, there is disagreement on whether these units can encode other
types of information (cf. Harley : ).
With regard to the other constituents of the VP—the arguments—the discussion
was not centered so much on their nature, which is usually that of a determiner
phrase (DP) or a complementizer phrase (CP), but on their position with respect to
the verb, or to the VP, and their theta-roles. The Extended Projection Principle (EPP)
for instance, formulated as a universal principle, together with the idea that subjects
should be defined structurally and not semantically, led to the idea of externalization
xviii Roberta D’Alessandro, Irene Franco, and Ángel J. Gallego

of the subject, base-generated in specifier inflectional phrases (Spec,IP). Given that

the subject receives its thematic role from the verb (but see Marantz ), however,
it is plausible for it to be first-merged in the verbal domain, as argued by Sportiche
() on the basis of evidence from floating quantifiers, as well as maintained by
McCloskey (). The co-occurrence of the subject with an expletive in sentences
like, ‘There is someone in the garden’ also seemed to call for a VP-internal subject
position (as discussed extensively by Kitagawa ; Speas ; Kuroda ;
Sportiche ; and more recently McIntyre ; among others). Regarding the
subject, then, the debate during the GB era mainly revolved around whether it should
be base-generated within the VP or directly in Spec,IP. The two positions have been
reconciled with the postulation of v as a head hosting the external argument as its
first-merge position, as proposed by Chomsky () and Kratzer ().
To arrive at this hypothesis, different paths and analyses had to converge. One of
the key papers proposing the hypothesis of a complex V field was Larson (), in
which the Split-VP Hypothesis is formulated. This hypothesis argues for a layered
verbal projection in which the highest head is a light verb. While Larson’s paper was
mainly concerned with double-object constructions, and hence with identifying the
position of the two internal arguments of the verb, the idea of a layered v gained a
foothold and opened the way to the discussion of the complexity of v.
Dating from a similar time to Larson’s paper, Marantz () shows, mainly by
means of idioms, that internal and external arguments have a different degree of
connection to the verb. Before assigning an external theta-role, the verb must first
combine with its internal argument(s). This hypothesis suggests a looser link between
the external argument and the verb.
Taking inspiration from these papers, Hale and Keyser () introduce an outer
VP as the locus of merge of the Agent, and Kratzer () proposes the existence of a
Voice phrase (VoiceP), a projection hosting the external argument. Finally, Chomsky
() proposes a v as an agent-introducing, transitivity head: a head which would
soon become crucial for his theory of phases (Chomsky  and subsequent work).
These three proposals all converged in assuming a layered V field, with a head, V,
introducing the lexical verb, and a v/V/Voice head introducing the Agent/external
argument.
The last step in the history of the verbal domain consists of interpreting v as the
head transforming a root (V) into a verb: this is a DM hypothesis, as in Harley ()
and Marantz ().
Since its first formulation, v/Voice has been conceptualized in different ways: as a
phase head (Chomsky  et seq.), as a light verb head (like in Larson ), as the
head encoding transitivity (with direct connection to phasehood, but not necessarily;
see the discussion in D’Alessandro and Scheer ), and as a verbalizer (in the DM
tradition). The first decade of the Minimalist Program “conflates” the two heads, v
and Voice, into one: the head introducing the external argument.
 Introduction: the verbal domain xix

Others claim that the VP—now conceived as a lexical V and a functional v—can be
more complex, i.e., it can be composed of more layers. In this perspective, Voice and
v arguably need to be kept separate. Specifically, several works propose that different
v-features are not encoded on a single head, but on distinct functional heads. Belletti
() proposes that the v field may also encode discourse-related features in the
so-called lower left periphery.
The way Aktionsart is encoded in the VP, and the inner structure of the event
encoded in it, has given rise to a parallel line of research, notably represented by
Ramchand’s () monograph and also debated in this volume.
The structure of the VP, its complexity, its semantics, its function, and the univer-
sality of the heads that it contains continue to be debated even today,  years after the
appearance of Kratzer’s paper. A lot of progress has been made: this volume features
cutting-edge research on the verbal domain, while tackling the problem of the nature
and structure of the vP-VP domain. The book includes some chapters based on
papers presented at the “Little v” workshop, which was held at Leiden University on
October –, .
The volume is divided into three main sections, representing the areas in which
contemporary debate on the verbal domain is most active. The first part, entitled
Root and Verbalizer, includes four chapters discussing the set-up of verbal roots,
their syntax, and their combination with other functional heads like Voice and v.
This part focuses on the V head. The second section, Voice, discusses the content and
necessity of a Voice head in the structure of a clause, and whether Voice is different
from v. Voice was originally intended as the head hosting the external argument in its
specifier, but what is its role in expressing transitivity? And what about voice,
intended as the alternation between actives and passives?
The third section is dedicated to event structure, inner aspect, and Aktionsart. The
main issue it tackles is the one-to-one relation between argument structure and event
structure, and whether there can be minimal structural units at the basis of the
derivation of any sort of X phrase (XP), including the VP.

I. Roots and verbalizers

The idea of a complex verbal domain featuring a light verb, or an extra verbal
projection, was originally adopted to distinguish between different verb classes.
Along with aspectual (achievements, accomplishments, etc.), argument-taking
(transitives, unergatives, etc.), and semantic (epistemics, volitives, etc.) properties,
verbs have been classified into different classes in the recent literature (cf. Hale and
Keyser ; Harley , ; Arad ; Folli and Harley , ; Marantz
a,b; Ramchand , among others) according to the basic (non-decomposable)
predicate they instantiate: BE, BECOME, GO, HAVE, DO, CAUSE, PUT, PROVIDE, etc. Typically,
these meanings are attributed to the v head, and referred to as “flavors of v.”
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