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oS _ ae - Oxford. .
_ LINGUISTICS
 Vas9&
Sagi
hud 5

20 APR 2029

OXFORD TEXTBOOKS IN LINGUISTICS

Meaning in Language

HHI
ork St Jo ersit

3 8025 00588398 1
 OXFORD TEXTBOOKS IN LINGUISTICS

PUBLISHED
The Grammar of Words: An Introduction to Linguistic Morphology
(SECOND EDITION)
by Geert Booij

A Practical Introduction to Phonetics (SECOND EDITION)

by J. C. Catford

Natural Language Syntax

by Peter W. Culicover

Principles and Parameters: An Introduction to Syntactic Theory

by Peter W. Culicover

A Semantic Approach to English Grammar

by R. M. W. Dixon

Semantic Analysis: A Practical Introduction

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Cognitive Grammar: An Introduction

by John R. Taylor

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Meaning in Language
An Introduction to
Semantics and
Pragmatics
Third Edition

Alan Cruse

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
 OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP

United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Alan Cruse 2011

The moral rights of the author have been asserted

First edition published 1999

Second edition published 2004
This edition first published 2011
Reprinted 2013

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Data available
ISBN 978-0-19-955946-6 %
 To Paule
Se ae ee ie en ie ee eee ae
Contents

Typographic conventions
From the preface to the first edition
Preface to the second edition
Preface to the third edition xii

Part 1 Fundamental Notions

1 Introduction
2 Logic and meaning
3 Concepts and meaning

Part 2 Words and Meanings

4 Lexical units
5 Contextual variability of word meaning
6 Paradigmatic relations of inclusion and identity
7 Paradigmatic relations of exclusion and opposition 149
8 Lexical hierarchies 165
9 Syntagmatic semantic relations 177
10 Describing lexical senses 1: dimensions and structures
41 Describing lexical senses 2: approaches to the specification
of word meaning
412 Extensions of meaning
vill Contents

Part 3 Grammatical Meaning 263

13 Grammatical meaning; nouns and noun phrases 265
14 Argument structure 279
15 Verbs and adjectives 295
16 Prepositions 319
17 Derivational affixes 343

Part 4 Pragmatics 359

18 Speech acts 361
19 Reference and deixis 379
20 Conversational implicatures 411

Epilogue 447
Answers to questions 451
References 469
Author index 479
Subject index 482
Typographic conventions

Small capitals
For concepts; occasionally for lexical roots

Small capitals in square brackets

For semantic features

Angled brackets
For selectional restrictions

Bold type
For technical terms when first introduced

Italics
- For citation forms when not set as displayed examples

Bold italics
For emphasis and stress placement

Single quotation marks

For quotations from other authors; ‘scare quotes’

Double quotation marks

For meanings

Question marks
For semantic abnormality

Asterisks
For ungrammaticality or extreme semantic abnormality
From the preface to the first edition

The aim of this book is not to present a unified theory of meaning in language (I am
not even sure that that would be a worthwhile project), but to survey the full range
of semantic phenomena, in all their richness and variety, in such a way that the
reader will feel, on completing the book, that he or she has made face-to-face
contact with the undeniably messy ‘real world’ of meaning. At the same time, it
aims to show that even the messy bits can, at least to some extent, be tamed by the
application of disciplined thinking. As far as semantic theories are concerned,
I have been unashamedly eclectic, adopting whatever approach to a particular
problem seems genuinely to shed light on it. If there is a theoretical bias, it is in
favour of approaches which, like the cognitive linguistic approach, embrace the
continuity and non-finiteness of meaning.
This is not intended to be a ‘baptismal’ text; it would probably not be suitable for
absolute beginners. The sort of readership | had in mind is second- or third-year
undergraduates and beginning postgraduates who have completed at least an
introductory course in linguistics, and who require an overview of meaning in
language, either as preparation for a more detailed study of some particular area,
or as background for other studies. |would hope it would be found useful, not only
by students of linguistics, but also students of ancient and modetn languages,
translation, psychology, perhaps even literature.
Most of the material in the book has grown out of courses in general semantics,
lexical semantics, and pragmatics, given to second- and third-year undergraduates
and postgraduates at Manchester University over a number of years. I owe a debt
to generations of students in more than one way: their undisguised puzzlement at
some of my explanations of certain topics led to greater clarity and better
exemplification; critical questions and comments not infrequently exposed weak-
nesses in the underlying arguments; and very occasionally, a genuine flash of
insight emerged during a classroom discussion.
The final form of the text was significantly influenced by constructive comments
on a draft by Jim Miller of the University of Edinburgh, an anonymous American
reviewer, and John Davies of Oxford University Press, although, of course, full
responsibility for remaining imperfections lies with myself,
Preface to the second edition

In this revised edition, the original overall plan, purpose, and character of the book
have not been changed. The revisions are of three principal kinds. The first involves
updating. Although only three years have elapsed since the publication of the first
edition, there have been significant theoretical advances, particularly in lexical
semantics. Accordingly, a new chapter has been added (Chapter 14), which outlines
new thinking on word meaning. References have also been brought up to date. The
second type of revision is the filling in of perceived gaps. There are of course
constraints of space, and some omissions are unavoidable, but I have become
aware of missing topics which really deserve a mention, such as frames,
generalized conversational implicatures, and constraints on relevance, to name
but three. In the end, of course, the selection is a personal one. The third sort of
revision has involved the improvement of existing treatments of topics, sometimes
by reorganizing whole chapters, as in the case of Chapters 2 and 18 (originally
Chapter 17), in other cases by rewriting short passages to improve clarity and/or
consistency.
In preparing this edition, I have benefited from the comments and suggestions
of two anonymous referees, although I of course accept full responsibility for the
final result.
Preface to the third edition

This edition contains a number of changes vis-a-vis the second edition. The most
obvious is that Part Three, on grammatical semantics, has been divided into
separate chapters. In addition to the material covered in the second edition, there
are two new chapters, one on the semantics of prepositions and one on the
semantics of derivational affixes. There has also been a good deal of reorganiza-
tion, in an attempt to achieve a more logical grouping of material. For instance,
quantifiers are now dealt with in Chapter 2, on logical matters, where they naturally
belong. Readers familiar with the second edition may need to consult the table of
contents and the index to locate topics. A number of chapters have been consider-
ably expanded and updated.
In preparing the new edition, I have benefited greatly from detailed questions
and comments on the second edition by Ernie Davis and Jim Feist, and from
conversations on many topics with Delia Bentley. I am, of course, entirely respon-
sible for the final text.
Part 1
Fundamental Notions

In this first section of the book, a number of fundamental, but fairly general, notions
are introduced, which need to be grasped before the more detailed discussions in
later sections can be properly appreciated. Chapter 1 has a scene-setting function,
identifying the place of linguistic signs and linguistic communication in the broader
domains of semiotics and communication in general. Chapter 2 introduces a number
of vital conceptual tools drawn from the field of logic. Chapter 3 outlines the nature
and properties of concepts, which underlie a conceptual approach to meaning.
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 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1.1 Communication 5 1.4 The linguistic study of

meaning 15
1.2 Language as a sign system: some
basic notions of semiotics 10 1.5 Plan of the book 18

1.3 Approaches to the study of

meaning 14
—
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1.1 Communication

Meaning makes little sense except in the context of communication: the notion of
communication therefore provides as good a place as any to start an exploration of
meaning. Communication can be conceived very broadly, including within its
scope such matters as the transfer of information between biological generations
via the genetic code, the interaction between a driver and his car, and indeed any
sort of stimulus-response situation. Here we shall take a narrower perspective on
communication and confine ourselves principally to what is surely the paradigm
communicative scenario, namely, linguistic interaction between human beings.

1.1.1 Linguistic communication: an overview

The following components or stages can be identified in a typical act of linguistic
communication involving a speaker and an addressee:
(i) The speaker normally has a purpose in communicating.
(ii) The speaker constructs a message to be communicated.
(iti) The speaker constructs an utterance with which to convey the message.
(iv) The speaker transforms the utterance into a physical signal.
(v) The speaker transmits the signal.
(vi) The addressee receives the signal.
(vii) The addressee decodes the signal to recover the utterance.
(viii) The addressee reconstructs the message from the utterance.
(ix) The addressee infers the purpose of the communication.
Let us now look at the individual stages in more detail.

1.1.2 Purpose
It is probably not controversial to say that every act of communication (or
attempted act) is driven by some desire or purpose, or complex of desires or
purposes on the part of the communicator. But we can say more. Communication
6 Meaning in Language

is a social act and presupposes an audience. While the purpose of the communica-
tion is the fulfilment of a desire or achievement of an aim, the means of achieving
this is via the effect of the communicative act on the audience. We may start, then,
with a speaker (confining our attention, for the sake of simplicity, to spoken
communication) who is motivated to attempt to achieve some goal by producing
an utterance. Obviously, some utterances will be better adapted than others
for the achievement of the speaker’s goal, so a major task for the speaker is to
construct an appropriate utterance. This is no simple matter, even though as
speakers we are generally not aware of the complications.

1.1.3 Message
An essential component of the vast majority of messages that humans transmit
linguistically consists of one or more propositions. (As we shall see, however, it is
not possible for a message to consist only of propositions.) We shall not enquire
deeply into the nature of propositions here (for more detailed discussion, see
Chapter 2): it is enough for present purposes to say that propositions may
be viewed as mental entities that correspond to potential events or states of affairs
in the world, and are true or false with respect to some actual events or states of
affairs. (The reader is warned that the topic of propositions is a philosophical
minefield.)
Two important points must be made at this juncture. The first is that propositions
are not to be confused with sentences. Take the sentence John loves Mary. \s this
true or false? The question does not make sense, even though we understand
the sentence perfectly well, unless and until we can identify some specific individ-
ual designated by John, a second individual designated by Mary, and the time at
which the sentence was uttered. Only with this information to hand can we identify
the proposition expressed by the utterance. This leads to a second point, namely,
that a proposition or set of propositions does not exhaust the content of a message.
Two types of non-propositional meaning are especially important, ywhat is some-
times called propositional attitude, and expressive meaning.
Identifying a proposition is only part of the process of interpreting a message.
A proposition on its own does not actually communicate anything. The addressee
needs to know, for instance, whether the speaker is presenting the proposition as
true (as opposed to expressing it, say, for the purpose of ridiculing it), and if so,
with what strength of commitment to its truth; whether it forms part of a question
or command; whether it is intended as a promise, warning, prediction, or com-
plaint, and so on. (Matters of this sort are discussed in Chapter 18 under the
heading of ‘speech acts’.) In addition to this type of psychological orientation
towards the proposition expressed, a speaker may also wish to convey attitudes or
emotions with regard to the things, people, or events, and so on referred to in the
utterance (for more on this aspect of meaning see Chapter 10). Think, for instance,
of the role of the (currently ubiquitous) expletive in He always forgets to lock the
 Introduction 7

fucking door: including it or omitting it has no effect on the proposition expressed,

but it is nonetheless an important part of the message.

1.1.4 Constructing the utterance

Let us now put ourselves in the position of a speaker who has a purpose in mind,
who knows what message they wish to convey in order to achieve that purpose, and
now has to formulate an utterance to transmit to the hearer. (The sequence of
events described here must not be taken too literally: there is undoubtedly a lot
of ‘parallel processing’ going on; also, a lot of the decision-making occurs at
an unconscious level.) The message, let us assume for the sake of simplicity,
consists of a proposition and a propositional attitude. The linguistic resources
at the disposal of the speaker consist of words, grammar, and prosodic features
such as intonation and stress. Again, for the sake of simplicity, we shall put aside
prosodic matters, and we shall also ignore paralinguistic features such as
facial expressions and body language (without, however, implying that these are
unimportant).
There are two important basic facts about the relationship between messages
and utterances which must be confronted at this point. The first concerns the
relation between type information and token information. Take the utterance
The cat is sitting on the windowsill. Normally we can take it that the proposition
this sentence is intended to express relates to a particular cat sitting on a particular
windowsill on a particular occasion. Consider the word cat. There is nothing in
the meaning of cat which points to any particular cat: cat gives only type informa-
tion, namely, that the individual entity referred to belongs to the category CAT.
“However, in order to understand the message, an addressee will need to be
able to identify which cat the utterance is about, that is to say, will need token
information. This information cannot be encoded directly in an utterance: lan-
guage encodes only type information. Even mentioning the cat’s name does not do
this: Socks is sitting on the windowsill. This indicates to the addressee that a
specific cat must be identified, as does the definite article in the cat, but the actual
identity of the cat is not encoded in the name, since many cats have the same
name. The same applies to the windowsill. (For more details on definiteness
and reference, see Chapter 19.) It is a general feature of language that token
information cannot be directly encoded.
The second important point is that utterances rarely directly encode all of the
type information necessary to understand the message. Speakers normally expect
addressees to work out some parts of a message for themselves. The following is a
simple example:
(1) A: Have you cleared the table and washed the dishes?
B: I’ve cleared the table.

The normal interpretation of B’s answer is that B has not washed the dishes. This
type of inference is called an implicature (for fuller treatment see Chapter 20).
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