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Book Title: Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences
Edition: 4th Edition
Author: Harold O. Kiess , Bonnie A. Green
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Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank
for
Statistical Concepts for the
Behavioral Sciences
Fourth Edition
Harold O. Kiess
Framingham State College
Bonnie A. Green
East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania
Allyn & Bacon
Boston New York San Francisco
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may be reproduced with Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences, Fourth Edition, by
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 13 12 11 10 09
ISBN-10: 0-205-62625-4
www.pearsonhighered.com ISBN-13: 978-0-205-62625-0
Contents
Chapter 1 Making Sense of Variability: An Introduction to Statistics 1
Chapter 2 Statistics in the Context of Scientific Research 16
Chapter 3 Looking at Data: Frequency Distributions and Graphs 32
Chapter 4 Looking at Data: Measures of Central Tendency 51
Chapter 5 Looking at Data: Measures of Variability 67
Chapter 6 The Normal Distribution, Probability, and Standard Scores 83
Chapter 7 Understanding Data: Using Statistics for Inference and Estimation 103
Chapter 8 Is There Really a Difference? Introduction to Statistical
Hypothesis Testing 122
Chapter 9 The Basics of Experimentation and Testing for a Difference
Between Means 147
Chapter 10 One-Factor Between-Subjects Analysis of Variance 175
Chapter 11 Two-Factor Between-Subjects Analysis of Variance 206
Chapter 12 One-Factor Within-Subjects Analysis of Variance 240
Chapter 13 Correlation: Understanding Covariation 265
Chapter 14 Regression Analysis: Predicting Linear Relationships 288
Chapter 15 Nonparametric Statistical Tests 306
References for Instructor’s Manual 328
Preface
The authors of the text have prepared this Instructor’s Manual to provide suggestions and ideas for activities for a
course in behavioral statistics using Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences (4th ed.). The Instructor’s
Manual is composed of a general introduction to the course material, and specific ideas and suggestions for each
chapter of the text.
Introduction
The introduction reviews a variety of ideas and suggestions useful for teaching behavioral statistics. References are
given for further detail on the activities suggested. A number of links to online resources are also included. We have
taken every effort to ensure these links are correct and will provide useful information for you, however, we offer
this list only for informational purposes and cannot verify the accuracy of the information provided on each of the
sites.
Ideas and Suggestions for Each Chapter
For each chapter of the text, we have included Goals and Objectives, a Chapter Outline, Key Terms and Symbols,
and Discussion Questions.
Goals and Objectives
The goals and objectives list the important knowledge and skills students should acquire from each chapter of the
text. Given that higher level cognitive processes are the cornerstone of the text, the objectives go beyond rote
learning and memorization, and include the application and evaluation of statistical concepts.
Chapter Outline
The chapter outline is based on the key information from the textbook. The outline follows the order of presentation
in the textbook. Critical terms for each chapter, including the marginal definitions from the text, are underlined and
defined within the outline.
Key Terms and Symbols
The important terms and symbols from the chapter are identified and listed. They are identical to the key terms and
symbols that are listed near the end of each chapter.
Discussion Questions
The discussion questions have been selected to focus on areas where students are most likely to experience
challenges, and thus may benefit from additional practice. Most questions require students to not only identify the
critical concepts covered in each chapter, but to take that knowledge and apply it in a manner that requires the
integration of concepts from multiple sections of the textbook. The discussion questions may be used to augment the
Testing Your Knowledge, Review Questions, and Integrating Your Knowledge sections of the textbook to ensure that
students have the ability to integrate and apply the important concepts of each chapter. There are a number of ways
in which the questions may be used. For example, a question could be used for a quick quiz at the beginning or
ending of a class to assess students’ mastery of objectives. The questions could also serve as essay questions on
exams, or they could be used as a form of a study guide to assist students to prepare for an upcoming exam. Students
may also benefit from working in small groups during class time, and by using these questions, students may not
only evaluate the quality of their understanding, but may also obtain the benefit that comes from having to articulate
statistical concepts. These questions can also be used for in-class or out-of-class writing assignments. As we indicate
in the Introduction of the Instructor’s Manual, writing about statistical concepts can be very beneficial to students.
Finally, in the Instructor’s Manual, you will find a brief introduction to a pedagogical practice referred to as
Interteaching. The discussion questions have been written following the criteria for Interteaching questions and thus
may be useful in preparing for an Interteaching activity.
Additional Supplemental Materials for the Instructor
The text is also accompanied by a Test Bank, Exercises and Assignments for Students, and PowerPoint® slides.
Test Bank
The test bank provides a number of multiple choice questions for each chapter. The questions are presented in the
order in which the information necessary for answering the questions appear in the text. The page upon which
information is initially presented is listed with each question. In some cases, particularly with more complex
questions, students may need to integrate information from multiple pages in order to answer the question, though
not all pages are listed with the question.
Many questions assess knowledge level learning and are indicated with a K. Following Bloom’s taxonomy of
learning objectives (e.g., see Clark, 1999), knowledge questions include the direct recall of information. Typical
learning outcomes of knowledge questions include defining, identifying, knowing, or recognizing concepts. Other
questions require students to apply information to answer the question and are indicated with an A. Application
questions require students to apply knowledge of concepts to arrive at answers to the questions. Typical learning
outcomes of application questions include applying, computing (though not the selecting of proper statistics or the
interpretation of statistical results), predicting, and relating of concepts. Questions that require students to evaluate a
problem, including the selection, calculation, and interpretation of a statistic, are indicated with an E. Evaluation
questions require students to make judgments about information presented in the question. These questions will
often require that students select the proper statistic as well as having to interpret statistical results. Typical learning
outcomes of evaluation questions include comparing, contrasting, critiquing, selecting, interpreting, and
summarizing.
The questions fall under three different categories of difficulty: 1, 2, or 3. Questions labeled with a 1 are of the
lowest level of difficulty and answers can most often be found in a marginal definition or directly in the textbook.
As such level 1 questions typically involve a single concept. Answers labeled with a 2 are at an intermediate level of
difficulty. Level 2 questions often involve a single concept, but the wording of the question often requires additional
interpretation from students (i.e., it is not verbatim from the textbook). Answers labeled with a 3 typically require
the knowledge or the integration of two or more concepts in order for students to successfully answer the question.
Level 3 questions also often require students to complete multiple steps (e.g., selecting the proper statistic,
calculating it, and making a decision based on the statistic).
Exercises and Assignments for Students
The exercises and assignments for students provide a set of printable exercises. Depending on the chapter content,
the exercises include practice in learning and understanding terms and concepts, and data sets for calculation of
statistics introduced in the chapter. Answers are provided for all exercises requiring calculations. A set of 15
multiple choice questions, similar to those in the test bank, is also included for each chapter. The exercises and
assignments are designed to provide additional practice for students in targeted areas. They are intended to augment
the assignments found in the textbook under Testing Your Knowledge, Review Questions, and Integrating Your
Knowledge. In addition to using the exercises and assignments for graded or nongraded homework assignments,
these exercises can be used as test or quiz questions, or for in-class activities.
PowerPoint® Slides
PowerPoint® slides are provided for each chapter of the textbook. Critical terms and their definitions along with
general statistical concepts are covered in these slides. In earlier chapters, where numerous new concepts are
introduced, the PowerPoint® presentations include examples to assist students in better conceptualizing the
information. The material in the slides corresponds to the presentation style and order of information occurring in
the textbook.
To avoid creating very complex presentations, we generally did not create slides showing statistical computations,
especially for later chapters where calculations may become rather extensive. If you wish to demonstrate
calculations, one method of doing so would be to use one of the problems given in the Assignments and Exercises
for Students as an in-class example.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of a number of people who brought this Instructor’s Manual
to fruition. Angela Pickard, Supplements Editor for Psychology at Allyn & Bacon Publishers, provided guidance
and encouragement on all aspects of preparation of these supplementary materials, including the test bank and
PowerPoint® slides. We thank her for her assistance and patience. Joshua Sandry and Christopher Poherence,
students of Bonnie A. Green, were instrumental in providing feedback through the preparation of the material.
Edwin Henriquez and Dianne Gasiewski aided us with typing assistance, and Kathy Perrine provided administrative
support throughout the preparation process.
Introduction
Teaching Ideas and Suggestions
Students often approach introductory statistics with both concern and apprehension. They may doubt their own
mathematical skills and also be skeptical of the potential value of the course to them. How should an instructor deal
with these apprehensions and concerns? One approach is to acknowledge these issues in the first class meeting. For
example, Dillon (1982, p.117) suggests opening the course by asking students to respond to a brief questionnaire
such as:
"When I think of taking this course in statistics, I feel ."
and
"When I look at this formula,
X −μ
t=
sX
I feel ."
A discussion of the responses allows students to recognize that their concerns and feelings are shared by others in
the class and that you are aware of them. This discussion also presents an opportunity for you to suggest how
students can approach the course to achieve maximum success. Knowledge in statistics is cumulative, a student can't
understand the t test if he or she doesn't know what a mean is or how it is found. Thus it is important for students to
stay current in the course and daily study is a necessity. Students should also be encouraged to ask questions. To this
end it is important to allow sufficient time for questions and to answer all questions fully. Our teaching suggestions
for Chapter 1 present several exercises allowing students to address their apprehensions about the course and to
develop strategies for success in the course.
It is also worth discussing how students should use the supplementary materials provided in the course, whether they
are materials provided with the text, or other materials provided by the instructor either as hard copy or online. In
addition there are many Internet sites that also provide materials that students can use to test their knowledge of the
material. Yet, several studies have indicated that many students may use these questions ineffectively, using online
quizzes as the major learning vehicle for the material rather than as feedback mechanisms to test their understanding
of study of the text. For example, Brothen and Wambach (2001) found evidence that students who used online
quizzes in a “quiz-to-learn” strategy rather than as feedback to test their study of the text had poorer performance on
course exams than those students who prepared by studying the text and then using the quizzes to test their
preparation.
To encourage students to use online quizzes, instructors may award extra credit for completion of these materials,
such as in the Brothen and Wambach (2001) study. This approach, however, may lead students to view the quizzes
as an alternative to studying the text. Grimstead and Grabe (2004) offered students voluntary access to an online test
bank where course credit was not offered for completion of any of the online materials. They then categorized
students into “users” and “nonusers” of the online test materials. Their results indicated that for all three of their
course exams, users of the online test bank scored significantly higher than the nonusers. This study, however, is
correlational in nature, thus it offers no explanation of whether the online activities lead to better exam performance
or simply if the voluntary users of the online materials were also the students who studied their text more diligently.
The use of in-class quizzes verses online quizzes was investigated in a study by Daniel and Broida (2004). They
found that specific conditions had to be implemented to prevent “cheating” on the online quizzes. When such
conditions were employed they found in-class quizzes and online quizzes to be about equally effective and both
were associated with improved performance compared to a no-quiz control group. Clearly, then, it is important for
instructors to carefully consider how they will use the supplementary materials in the course and to structure
conditions for successful use of such materials. Brothen, Daniel, and Finley (2004) provide a discussion of best
practices for online quizzing.
Activities and Demonstrations
Many instructors have observed that engaging students in the study of statistics is a challenging task. We know of no
foolproof solutions for this problem, however, one component of a successful course is the use of realistic examples
and numerous class activities. We have tried to incorporate examples in the text drawn from actual research in a
variety of areas of behavioral science that are likely to be of interest to students. Yet, textbook problems cannot be
as meaningful to students as problems and data generated by students themselves. Several suggestions for activities
and data generation are offered below.
Thompson (1994) suggests obtaining data for class analysis by having students help design a questionnaire for
distribution to other students. This exercise can introduce some of the basic ideas of behavioral science research into
the course, including the necessity of asking answerable questions, and formulating and testing research hypotheses.
A variety of questions such as the student's age, height, weight, gender, daily amount of time spent studying, typical
amount of sleep per night, or the typical number of hours worked per week can be asked. Provided the questionnaire
is used for class assignment purposes, is anonymous, does not ask questions about illegal or sensitive personal
behaviors, and is given to students 18 years old or older, it is exempt from the requirement of obtaining informed
consent from respondents (American Psychological Association, 2003), although individual institutional review
boards may have more stringent requirements. The ethical guidelines for using such questionnaires may be found on
the American Psychological Association website, http://www.apa.org/ethics.
Responses to this questionnaire can provide data sets to illustrate various statistical procedures throughout the
course. Thompson (1994) reports students find this approach considerably more interesting than using artificial data
sets. Using such a questionnaire also allows the instructor to develop the concept that statistical methods are tools
used by behavioral scientists to answer research questions. Similar approaches are described by Stedman (1993) and
Wolfe (1992).
Data sets can also be obtained from archival data such as newspaper obituaries. Morgan (2001) describes an exercise
of having students use obituaries to obtain data sets such as age at death and the number of children of the deceased.
She points out that using data such as these leads to students having to deal with the difficulties often encountered
when analyzing real data, such as missing data points and outliers. In addition, questions such as whether there is a
difference in the typical or average age of death between males and females can be posed and answered with these
data.
Kolar and McBride (2003) describe an approach having students collaboratively create word problems and data sets
for various statistical tests. They give an example of one student-created problem comparing the number of minutes
it takes cats and dogs to eat their food. The students then solve the problems and share them with their classmates.
To increase student involvement in a statistics course, Perkins and Saris (2001) suggest using a "jigsaw classroom"
exercise with student worksheets. In this exercise, small groups of students each complete different steps for the
solution of a problem. After each group completes its portion of the problem, the groups collaborate to solve the
whole problem. Perkins and Saris (2001) report that students perceived this approach very positively and performed
well on exams on the material. The technique has the added benefit of using class time devoted to problem solutions
very efficiently.
Four different learning enhancement activities: peer mentoring, clear and not clear sessions, consult corners, and
applied projects are described by Harlow, Burkholder, and Morrow (2006). Peer mentors were students who had
recently completed the course. Clear and not clear sessions involved students working outside class to identify clear
and unclear lecture points. The instructor shared these summaries with the class. For consult corners, small groups
of students consulted with one another in class to solve an instructor provided problem. Finally, all students were
required to conducted an applied project outside of class and give a report to other class members. A pre-test, post-
test design was used to test student response to the activities. The evaluation indicated a decrease in reported student
anxiety, an increase in reported self-efficacy in quantitative methods, and a generally positive response to the
activities.
If you are in fine voice and feel like singing in class, Wilson VanVoorhis (2002) recommends using jingles as
mnemonic devices for remembering specific statistical facts. She presents jingles for facts about the standard
deviation, the normal curve, and standard scores. A comparison of a class in which the jingles were sung against a
class in which definitions were simply recited aloud indicated better retention of the relevant concepts for the jingles
class. Given the interest of many students in music, this exercise could be broadened to have students create their
own jingles for statistical concepts.
Getting students up and moving is often an energizing activity in any course. Connor (2003) describes several
exercises that use students’ bodies in the classroom. She describes a first-class exercise in which she reads a list of
reasons why students might take the course. Students are to indicate their level of agreement with the reason by how
high they raise their hands. The last reason is “because the course is required” and always generates a high level of
agreement. Connor uses this exercise to both break the ice in the course and to introduce the nature of variables and
methods of obtaining information. She also presents descriptions of other exercises in which students form human
frequency distributions and scatterplots.
There are a number of valuable resources for additional activities and ideas in teaching statistics. Mark E. Ware and
Charles L. Brewer have edited two handbook: Handbook of Demonstrations and Activities in Teaching of
Psychology, Volume 1: Introductory, Statistics, Research Methods, and History (1996), and the Handbook for
Teaching Statistics and Research Methods (1999). These handbooks are oriented toward teaching statistics in the
behavioral sciences. A number of the references we have cited here are reprinted in these volumes. A more recent
book is Best Practices in Teaching Statistics and Research Methods in the Behavioral Sciences edited by Dana S.
Dunn, Randolph A. Smith, and Bernard C. Beins (2007).
The Journal of Statistics Education (www.amstat.org/publications/jse), an electronic journal published by the
American Statistical Association, is also an excellent source of teaching ideas. Current and archived articles are
available online. The journal Teaching of Psychology, published by the Society for the Teaching of Psychology, also
contains numerous articles related to teaching behavioral science statistics. Teaching of Psychology
(teachpsych.org/top/topindex.php) also provides a variety of online resources. Teaching Statistics: An International
Journal for Teachers (http://www.rsscse.org.uk/ts/index.htm) offers a number of archived articles describing
activities and examples useful in the classroom.
Writing About Statistics
As authors, we have often noted that writing about statistical concepts has enhanced and clarified our understanding
of those materials. In this vein, several authors have suggested writing assignments for statistics classes. These
assignments have the goal of aiding students in understanding statistical topics.
Dunn (2000) suggests an exercise where students are required to write a letter to a peer in the course. The letter is to
explain one thing or concept about statistics and to indicate why it is important for a psychology student to know it.
Recipients of the letter are required to write a response within a week requesting clarification if needed. Students
report this exercise useful in evaluating their understanding of statistical concepts, and some even reported that it
was fun. Dunn (1996) also suggests a collaborative writing exercise with peer review.
An approach suggested by Beins (1993) involves students writing press releases free of statistical jargon and
terminology. The press releases are based on data sets generated in class or taken from popular sources such as
almanacs. Beins reports that this exercise improved students’ capabilities to interpret the results of statistical tests.
This approach is also discussed by Dolinsky (2001). Smith (1995) describes a writing exercise in which students are
asked to use critical interpretation skills in comparing data in the context of a professional communication.
Interteaching
Interteaching is a pedagogical method in which an instructor constructs a preparation guide for students with a
variety of questions on the course material (Boyce & Hineline, 2002; Saville, Zinn, & Elliot, 2005; Saville, Zinn,
Neef, Van Norman, & Ferreri, 2006). Students form groups of two although some professors have tried groups of
three as well. In the groups, students are expected to discuss the questions during a portion of a class period. The
instructor moves from group to group in this time to help clarify information, answer questions, and informally
assess students’ understanding. After the discussion period, the students complete a feedback form creating three
lists: (1) a list of all topics or questions each member of the group completely understands, (2) a list of specific
questions identifying points that need clarification, and (3) a list of topics or questions they find confusing. The
instructor uses this information to prepare a short lecture either finishing the class period or for the next class
meeting. In general, students spend about 60% – 70% of class time working in groups, while the professor spends
30% – 40% of class time in direct teaching. In the chapter materials that follow, we have included questions that
could be used in preparing an interteaching preparation guide for each chapter.
The Controversy Over Statistical Hypothesis Testing
As most statistics instructors are aware, there has been a lively controversy over the use of statistical hypothesis
testing in the last several years culminating in the American Psychological Association appointing a Task Force on
Statistical Inference. Rejoinders to the report of the task force were published in the August 2000 American
Psychologist (Volume 55, Number 8, pages 960 to 966). We discuss this controversy and the report of the task force
(Wilkinson & the Task Force on Statistical Inference, 1999) in Chapter 9 of the text.
One concern of the task force is that the increasing availability and ease of using computer programs for data
analysis may lead researchers to use statistical methods which they may not fully understand and which may be
inappropriate for the data being analyzed. It is for this reason we have stressed introducing statistics in the text with
definitional formulas and using those formulas to work through a problem. We believe this approach provides
students with a better conceptual understanding of the statistical method being discussed. Thus, we encourage
instructors to thoroughly develop the conceptual understanding of a statistic before having students use a computer
program to calculate it.
Definitional vs. Computational Formulas
We have removed all computational formulas from the fourth edition of the text. The focus of all editions of the text
has been to develop statistics conceptually using definitional formulas. Computational formulas were included in
previous editions only because definitional formulas often lead to clumsy and error prone computations with actual
data. But computational formulas provide no value in understanding the nature and function of a statistic. They are a
product of a pre-computer age when computations were done with paper and pencil. Today, however, it is highly
unlikely that students will use them unless required by an instructor. It seems senseless, then, to use valuable text
pages to present a feature that will be rarely, if ever, used by students. Guttmannova, Shields, and Caruso (2005)
argue that instructors should place an emphasis on definitional formulas and offer guidelines on constructing data
sets for use with definitional formulas.
Using the Internet in Teaching Statistics
The rapid growth and development of the Internet along with the increasing ease of creating online materials has
lead to its use as a teaching resource in almost all areas of education. One of the difficulties in discussing the
Internet and specific resources on it is that the Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) used to identify and locate
websites often change as the site is changed or revised. Thus it is difficult to provide totally accurate lists of websites
dealing with statistical issues, and we cannot guarantee that the URLs we give will be functional at the time you are
reading this.
Just-in-Time Teaching (JiTT)
Just-in-Time Teaching (JiTT) is a new teaching approach using the immediacy of the Internet. Benedict and
Anderton (2004) describe this approach as providing students with short answer or multiple choice questions online.
Students are required to answer the questions and submit them to the instructor no later than several hours before
class. The instructor then uses the student responses to structure class discussion. Students responded favorably to
this approach and scored higher on the final exam than students in a control group who were not exposed to the JiTT
method. The JiTT (http://jittdl.physics.iupui.edu/jitt/) website provides more detail on this approach as well as
sample materials for a statistics course. (http://psychweb.cisat.jmu.edu/jitt/pcqsite.htm)
Online Resources for Instructors and Students
The URLs listed below provide a variety of online resources for the statistics teacher and student. Each site offers
numerous links to additional statistics resources on the Internet, including online texts, computational applets,
tutorials, email lists and listservs, data bases, instructor manuals, statistics-related articles, and online experiments.
This list, however, represents only a sample of the vast variety of material on statistics available on the Internet. We
offer this list only for informational purposes and cannot verify the accuracy of the information provided on each of
the sites. The URLs provided were accurate at the time of publication of this manual, but they may have changed in
the interim.
Teaching of Psychology. (teachpsych.org/top/topindex.php)
Journal of Statistics Education. (www.amstat.org/publications/jse)
Teaching Statistics. An International Journal for Teachers. (http://www.rsscse.org.uk/ts/index.htm)
Chance. (http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/)
The website for the Chance course on quantitative literacy by J. Laurie Snell, Peter Doyle, Joan Garfield, Tom
Moore, Bill Peterson, and Ngambal Shah. The site contains a newsletter of articles useful for class examples,
video and audio materials, and an extensive Teacher’s Guide.
Statistics and Statistical Graphics Resources. (http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/StatResource.html)
A listing of over 580 links to statistical resources on the Internet prepared by Michael Friendly of York
University.
Robin Lock’s Page. (http://it.stlawu.edu/~rlock/)
This link is to materials prepared by Robin Lock of St. Lawrence University. The website includes a number
of links to online course materials, texts, and demonstrations.
WISE: Web Interface for Statistics Education. (http://wise.cgu.edu/)
This site is maintained by the Claremont Graduate University. It has links to a number of tutorials and statistics
applets. There are also several online quizzes available.
Virtual Laboratories in Probability and Statistics©. (http://www.math.uah.edu/stat/)
This site is maintained by Kyle Siegrist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville. Materials include
explanations of various statistical topics, data sets, and biographical information on well-known statisticians.
Social Psychology Network©. (http://www.socialpsychology.org/)
This site is maintained by Scott Plous of Wesleyan University. The URL given is to the homepage of the site.
Links for statistics can be obtained by clicking on Links by Psychology Area and then on Research Methods
and Statistics links. Links to online texts, data analysis calculators, and power analysis are provided.
Psych Web. (http://www.psychwww.com/)
Psych Web is a large collection of resources for psychology in general maintained by Russ Dewey. Resources
for statistics are reached by clicking on Scholarly Resources and then Statistics for Psychologists.
World Lecture Hall. (http://web.austin.utexas.edu/wlh/)
Links to online materials for courses in a variety of areas. Statistics courses can be found under Education,
Psychology, Sociology, and, of course, Statistics. The site is maintained by the University of Texas.
Psychological Research on the Net. (http://psych.hanover.edu/research/exponnet.html)
This site, prepared and maintained by John Krantz of Hanover College, provides a listing of behavioral science
experiments on the Internet.
Probability Web. (http://www.mathcs.carleton.edu/probweb/probweb.html)
This site, maintained by Bob Dobrow of Carleton College, contains a variety of resources for instructors
seeking additional information on teaching probability.
Yahoo!, Inc.© listing of statistics sites. ( http://dir.yahoo.com/Science/Mathematics/Statistics)
Galaxy.com© listing of statistics sites. (http://www.galaxy.com/directory/14879/Statistics.htm)
The next section provides suggestions and ideas for each of the chapters of the text. We hope these materials will be
helpful to you.
Instructor's Manual and Test Bank for Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences, 4e
Chapter 1
Making Sense of Variability: An Introduction to Statistics
Part A: Overview and Suggestions
The first chapter presents the idea that there is both consistency and variability in the events that surround our lives
to introduce the need for the study of statistics. Following the initial introduction the next section of the text focuses
on helping the student become acclimated to studying behavioral statistics and the use of the textbook. The four
most critical piece of information in this section are (a) the benefit of adopting a “Growth Mindset” (e.g., Dweck,
2006), (b) helpful vs. distracting behaviors (e.g., Gurung, 2005), (c) the benefits of self testing (e.g., Roediger &
Karpicke, 2006), and (d) being intellectually engaged in and out of class.
Four major uses of statistics in the behavioral sciences are introduced: (a) summarizing or describing data; (b)
making inferences about population values from sample data; (c) statistical hypothesis testing to analyze data from
experiments; and (d) determining if two sets of scores are related, and how related scores form the basis for
predictions from regression equations. The last section of the chapter stresses that the common thread among these
uses is the problem of dealing with variability in behaviors and events.
Students should understand that statistics are used to describe sets of scores and that information from a sample can
be used to make inferences about larger populations. One way to help students appreciate these concepts is to ask
them to relate the chapter content to their everyday lives. For example, in what ways have they observed behavior to
be variable? Is there also consistency to be found among this variability? One such example could be what does a
typical first day of class look like, as certain activities are consistent (e.g., handing out a syllabus) while other
activities vary widely depending on the professor or class (e.g., having class dismissed, with the real learning
beginning during the second class or beginning the first class with a lecture or the discussion of the first major
assignment). Students also may be asked to identify populations they are members of, and what is the common
characteristic of each of these populations. Examples of descriptive statistics familiar to students may be used for
class discussion purposes. For example, grade point averages (GPA) and average incomes by occupational category
are descriptive statistics that usually are familiar to students.
A topic from social psychology, how we form impressions of others, provides an interesting analogy for discussion
of the problem of making inferences from sample data. First impressions of others simply are samples from the
population of behaviors of a person. Students can then consider how well first impressions serve to provide
information about what a person is actually like.
The example of first impressions also can be used when introducing the experimental method. Discuss how first
impressions may lead to hypotheses about a person and how such hypotheses can be tested by subsequent
information about the person. You also can ask students to suggest other research hypotheses about behavior,
identifying the independent variable and the behavior they think it acts upon. The class can then discuss designing a
simple experiment to test one of these hypotheses.
The topic of correlation and prediction can be brought to a very personal level by pointing out that most students
have made a prediction of how they expect to do in the course. What information was used to make this prediction?
How certain are students of its correctness? Other examples of variables expected to covary, such as SAT scores and
freshmen college grades, or the number of hours studied per week and course performance, may be introduced here
also. If you are planning to collect information about students using a questionnaire, you might ask which variables
students anticipate covarying.
The last section of Chapter 1 stresses that variability among individuals and behavior underlies the need for
statistics. In this respect, ask students to consider whether people are more alike than they are different, or whether
they are more different than they are alike. Point out that some behavioral researchers look for similarities and
consistencies among people in search of general principles of behavior that hold for all individuals; these researchers
often use the experimental method and tend to look at the average scores for a group. In contrast, other researchers
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Chapter 1
are more interested in exploring how people differ from each other and tend to use correlational statistics in their
research.
Part B: Goals and Objectives
Goal 1.1
Students will recognize behaviors and attitudes that will maximize their success in behavioral statistics.
Objective 1.1.a.
Students will implement attitudes and behaviors that increase the likelihood of success in a behavioral
statistics class (e.g., adopting a growth mindset and helpful behaviors associated with academic success,
practicing self testing, and being intellectually engaged in and out of class).
Goal 1.2
Students will understand that statistics is a method of gaining understanding of variability in data.
Objective 1.2.a.
Students will define data and identify examples of data used in behavioral research.
Objective 1.2.b.
Students will be able to define and identify examples of statistics used in behavioral research.
Objective 1.2.c.
Students will define and identify examples of variability and variables in their life and in the behavioral
sciences.
Objective 1.2.d.
Students will possess a basic understanding that statistics can aid in the understanding of variability seen in
behavioral science variables.
Goal 1.3
Students will know four common uses of statistics.
Objective 1.3.a.
Students will identify, define, and provide an example of the four common uses of statistics: descriptive,
inferential, hypothesis testing, and finding associations.
Objective 1.3.b.
Students will recognize that different statistics have different uses, and that each statistic brings with it
information it can provide and information it cannot provide.
Objective 1.3.c.
Students will understand that some uses of statistics require different research methodology than other uses
of statistics.
Goal 1.4
Students will know and appropriately use terminology and symbols in statistics.
Objective 1.4.a.
Students will define, and when appropriate, provide examples of the terminology and symbols necessary
for mastering the objectives listed in this chapter.
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Instructor's Manual and Test Bank for Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences, 4e
Part C: Chapter Outline
• Making sense of variability
o Variable
Any environmental condition or event, stimulus, personal characteristic or attribute, or
behavior that can take on different values at different times or with different people
• Success in behavioral statistics
o Benefit of adopting a “growth mindset“
o Helpful vs. distracting behaviors
o Benefits of self testing
o Being intellectually engaged
• What is statistics?
o Data
Scores or measurements of behavior or characteristics obtained from observations of
people or animals
Quantifying a variable, putting the variable into numbers
o Statistics
Methods or procedures used to summarize, analyze, and reach conclusions from a set of
data
Used to understand consistency and variability in data
• Building the foundation for understanding statistics
o Statistics
Helps us to find patterns of consistency in seeming randomness
Like tools in a toolbox
• Each has its own purpose
• In order to be able to use the different tools you must be able to understand their
strengths and limitations
• Using statistics: four examples
o Plain yet mighty: descriptive statistics
o Making sense of the world from a little piece: inferential statistics
o More than a chance difference: statistical hypothesis testing
o Finding associations between variables: correlation and regression
• Plain yet mighty: descriptive statistics
o Descriptive statistics
Often called a statistic
Single number used to describe or analyze a set of data from a sample
Describes data objectively
Only to illustrate what is going on in the sample
Cannot use to draw conclusions
o Sample
Subset of the population.
o Population
A complete set of people, animals, objects, or events that share a common characteristic
• Making sense of the world from a little piece: inferential statistics
o Inferential statistics
Taking information that we obtained from the sample and using it to draw inferences
about the population
Inferring what is going on with the population given what is observed in the sample data
o Random sample
Subset of the population where
• Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
• Every member is selected independently
o Parameter
A number used to capture or characterize the entire population
Seldom known because an entire population is rarely measured
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Chapter 1
• More than a chance difference: statistical hypothesis testing
o Statistical hypothesis testing
Purpose is to determine the anticipated size of chance differences between groups in an
experiment
Used to analyze data and tell whether there is a difference between two or more groups
Statistic tests whether an observed difference is a chance difference or a statistically
significant difference
o Hypothesis
Logically deduced statement about the relationship between two or more variables
A statement of an expected or predicted relationship between two or more variables
o Experiment
A type of research method that makes use of random assignment so we can test if
changes in the independent variable are causing changes in the dependent variable
o Independent variable
A variable manipulated in an experiment to determine its effect on the dependent variable
o Dependent variable
The variable in an experiment that depends on the independent variable
In most instances it is some measure of a behavior
o Subjects or participants
The people or animals participating in the research study
o Equivalent groups
Groups of subjects that are not expected to differ in any consistent or systematic way
prior to receiving the independent variable of the experiment
o Random assignment
A method of assigning subjects to treatment groups
• Any individual selected for the experiment has an equal probability of
assignment to any of the groups
• Assignment of one person to a group does not affect the assignment of any other
individual to that same group
Aids in obtaining equivalent groups
o Between subject design
A research design in which two or more groups are created
o Score
The measurement value obtained on the subject’s performance of a task
o Raw data
The scores obtained from all the subjects before the scores have been analyzed
statistically
o Chance difference
A difference between equivalent groups due to random variation
• Finding associations between variables: correlation and regression
o Association
Looking for relationship between variables
• Just because there is a relationship between variables does not mean one
variable causes the other
o Subject variable
A characteristic or attribute of a subject that can be measured but not manipulated by the
researcher
o Covary
A change in one variable is related to a consistent change in the other variable
o Correlation coefficient
The measure of the association or relationship between two variables
A statistic that provides a numerical description of the extent of the relatedness of two
sets of scores and the direction of the relationship
o Regression analysis
The use of statistical methods to predict one set of scores from a second set of scores.
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Instructor's Manual and Test Bank for Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences, 4e
Part D: Key Terms and Symbols
between-subjects design
chance difference
correlation coefficient
covary
data
dependent variable
descriptive statistic
descriptive statistics
equivalent groups
independent variable
parameter
participant
population
random assignment
random sample
raw data
regression analysis
research hypothesis
sample
score
statistic
statistical hypothesis testing
statistical inference
statistics
subject
subject variable
variable
Part E: Discussion Questions
The following questions can be assigned to students for homework or can be used for an interteaching activity,
assessment, or discussion.
1. What is statistics? What can statistics tell a researcher?
2. What are some techniques discussed in the book that you can use to maximize your success in behavioral
statistics?
3. What are four common uses for statistics? How are they similar? How are they different?
4. What is the difference between using statistics to describe vs. infer?
5. What is an experiment? What use of statistics is often associated with an experiment? What information
can you obtain from conducting an experiment and using the right kind of statistics?
6. When conducting an experiment, why can’t researchers just look at descriptive statistics and if they see a
small difference in the values, accept that the independent variable caused the difference in the dependent
variable? When answering this question make sure to use the term “chance difference” and define what it
means.
7. What are the similarities and differences between an independent variable and a subject variable?
8. If you have two subject variables how could you use statistics to understand how they are related?
9. In finding associations between two variables, what conclusion can a researcher not reach from this type of
statistic?
10. What type of information does regression analysis provide us? What type of information does it not
provide?
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Chapter 1
Chapter 1
MAKING SENSE OF VARIABILITY
AN INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
1-1 A is any environmental condition or event, stimulus, personal characteristic or
attribute, or behavior that can take on different values at different times.
a. statistic
* b. variable
c. datum
d. population
Information p 2, K, 1
1-2 was a 19th century professor who attempted to characterize the "average" man.
a. Gaston
b. Talbert
c. Quincy
* d. Quetelet
Information: p 3, K, 1
1-3 refers to the scores or measurements obtained by a behavioral scientist.
a. Statistics
b. A sample
* c. Data
d. A parameter
Information: p 6, K, 1
1-4 refers to the procedures used to summarize, analyze, and draw conclusions from data.
* a. Statistics
b. Parameters
c. Sampling
d. Hypotheses
Information: p 7, K, 1
1-5 The process of summarizing, analyzing, and reaching conclusions from numerical
measurements uses methods.
* a. statistical
b. sampling
c. hypothesis generation
d. parameter estimation
Information: p 7, K, 1
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Instructor's Manual and Test Bank for Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences, 4e
1-6 A single number used to describe data from a sample is a .
a. variable
b. sample
c. parameter
* d. statistic
Information: p 7, K, 1
1-7 A statistic is .
a. a population
b. a sample
* c. a single number used to describe a set of data
d. always difficult to calculate
Information: p 7, K, 1
1-8 A is a complete set of people, animals, objects, or events sharing a common
characteristic.
a. sample
b. statistic
* c. population
d. variable
Information: p 7, K, 1
1-9 A population is .
a. the same as a sample
* b. a complete set of people, animals, objects, or events that share a common
characteristic
c. selected from a sample
d. a complete set of people, animals, objects, or events possessing a variety of
different characteristics
Information: p 7, K, 1
1-10 A(n) is a subset, or subgroup, selected from a population.
a. dependent variable
b. equivalent group
c. subject
* d. sample
Information: p 7, K, 1
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Chapter 1
1-11 A sample is .
a. larger than a population
b. a complete set of people, animals, objects, or events that share a common
characteristic
* c. selected from a population
d. the same as a population
Information: p 7, K, 1
1-12 A professor surveys a sample of 25 students to find how many hours per week they work
at a job. She finds the typical number of hours reported is 15. The value of 15 hours is
a(n) .
a. parameter
b. inference
* c. statistic
d. estimate
Information: p 7, K, 1
1-13 Population values inferred from statistics of a sample are called .
a. independent variables
b. dependent variables
c. hypotheses
* d. parameters
Information: p 9, K, 1
1-14 A characteristic of a population is called a(n) .
a. independent variable
* b. parameter
c. statistic
d. research hypothesis
Information: p 9, K, 1
1-15 A parameter is .
* a. a characteristic of a population
b. a characteristic of a sample
c. the same as a statistic
d. measured on a sample
Information: p 9, K, 1
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Instructor's Manual and Test Bank for Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences, 4e
1-16 In an experiment, the variable that is manipulated to determine its effect on behavior is
called the variable.
a. extraneous
b. dependent
* c. independent
d. subject
Information: p 10, K, 1
1-17 An independent variable is in an experiment.
a. presented to participants
b. the variable that affects an individual's responding
c. manipulated by an experimenter
* d. all the above
Information: p 10, K, 2
1-18 A dependent variable is in an experiment.
a. a placebo
* b. the behavior measured
c. the conditions manipulated
d. none of the above
Information: p 10, K, 1
1-19 In an experiment, the behavior that is expected to be affected by some manipulation is
called the variable.
a. random
b. extraneous
c. independent
* d. dependent
Information: p 10, K, 1
1-20 If a researcher used an experiment to assess whether or not a certain drug would increase
reading comprehension scores, then the independent variable would be the .
* a. amount of the drug given to participants
b. age of the participants
c. gender of the participants
d. reading comprehension scores
Information: p 10, A, 2
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Chapter 1
1-21 If a researcher used an experiment to assess whether or not a certain drug would increase
reading comprehension scores, then the dependent variable would be the
a. gender of the participants
b. age of the participants
* c. reading comprehension scores
d. amount of the drug given to participants
Information: p 10, A, 2
1-22 If a researcher used an experiment to test two different methods of teaching geometry,
then the independent variable would be the .
* a. type of teaching method
b. gender of the students
c. geometry test scores obtained by participants
d. grade level of the participants
Information: p 10, A, 2
1-23 If a researcher used an experiment to test two different methods of teaching geometry,
then the dependent variable could be the .
a. teaching methods
b. gender of the students
* c. geometry test scores obtained by participants
d. correlation coefficient
Information: p 10, A, 2
1-24 An experimenter created two different groups of participants and gave each group a
different instructional program on the anatomy of the eye. After the instructional
program each group was given a multiple choice test to assess their knowledge of the eye.
In this experiment, the instructional program condition was the variable.
* a. independent
b. dependent
c. subject
d. extraneous
Information: p 10, A, 3
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Instructor's Manual and Test Bank for Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences, 4e
1-25 An experimenter created two different groups of participants and gave each group a
different instructional program on the anatomy of the eye. After the instructional
program each group was given a multiple choice test to assess their knowledge of the eye.
In this experiment, the multiple choice test used to assess the participant’s knowledge
was the variable.
a. independent
* b. dependent
c. subject
d. extraneous
Information: p 10, A, 3
1-26 Which of the following best describes an experiment?
a. The dependent variable is manipulated and then the independent variable
is measured.
* b. The independent variable is manipulated and then the dependent variable is
measured.
c. The independent and dependent variables are measured at the same time.
d. The dependent variable is measured first and then the independent variable is
measured.
Information: p 10, K, 3
1-27 The term equivalent groups means that .
a. the independent variable affects all groups equally
b. the dependent variable is the same among all groups
c. only chance factors influence differences among groups after the independent
variable has been manipulated
* d. the groups of participants do not differ in any systematic way prior to the
manipulation of the independent variable
Information: p 10, K, 2
1-28 Groups of subjects that are not expected to differ in any systematic way before the
independent variable is presented in an experiment are called groups.
a. equal
* b. equivalent
c. population
d. between-subjects
Information: p 10, K, 2
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Chapter 1
1-29 An experiment that creates two or more groups uses a(n) design.
a. across-subjects
b. equal-subjects
c. within-subjects
* d. between-subjects
Information: p 10, K, 1
1-30 A(n) experiment uses two or more equivalent groups.
* a. between-subjects
b. across-subjects
c. within-subjects
d. equal-subjects
Information: p 10, K, 2
1-31 A between-subjects experiment uses two or more groups.
a. equal
b. population
c. nonequivalent
* d. equivalent
Information: p 10, K, 1
1-32 A measurement obtained from a participant in an experiment is called a(n) .
a. independent variable
b. parameter
* c. score
d. statistic
Information: p 10, K, 1
1-33 A(n) is a statement of the expected or predicted relationship between two or more
variables.
a. dependent variable
* b. research hypothesis
c. independent variable
d. correlation coefficient
Information: p 11, K, 1
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Instructor's Manual and Test Bank for Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences, 4e
1-34 In an experiment, a research hypothesis is a .
* a. predicted relationship between an independent and a dependent variable
b. statement of a sample value
c. prediction of a population parameter
d. prediction of how a dependent variable will affect an independent variable
Information: p 11, K, 1
1-35 People who participate in research studies often are called .
a. parameters
b. data
* c. subjects or participants
d. associates
Information: p 11, K, 1
1-36 A chance difference refers to .
* a. a difference between equivalent groups that occurs because of random
variation
b. differences between equivalent groups due to the effect of the independent
variable
c. the fact that equivalent groups will be exactly equal in all ways
d. the fact that statistics differ from each other
Information: p 11, K, 2
1-37 A(n) allows a researcher to estimate the possibility of chance differences between
groups.
a. independent variable
* b. statistical hypothesis test
c. population parameter
d. sample statistic
Information: p 11, K, 2
1-38 When an observed difference between two groups on the dependent variable is attributed
to the effect of the independent variable through statistical hypothesis testing, then we
know that .
* a. it is unlikely that the difference would occur by chance alone
b. the raw data have been refined
c. the groups were not equivalent before the independent variable was introduced
d. it is likely that the difference would occur by chance alone
Information: p 11, A, 3
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Chapter 1
1-39 If two variables change consistently in relation to each other, they are said to .
* a. covary
b. be independent
c. represent equivalent groups
d. be random samples
Information: p 12, K, 1
1-40 A psychologist finds that performance on learning a poem decreases as room temperature
increases above 72°F. In this instance, learning of the poem and room temperature .
a. are independent
* b. covary
c. are both independent variables
d. do not vary
Information: p 12, A, 2
1-41 A is a number indicating the relatedness of two sets of scores and the direction of the
relationship.
a. research hypothesis
b. population parameter
* c. correlation coefficient
d. descriptive statistic
Information: p 12, K, 2
1-42 The correlation coefficient may range in value from .
a. -10.00 to +10.00
b. 0.00 to +10.00
c. 0.00 to +100
* d. -1.00 to +1.00
Information: p 12, K, 1
1-43 Which of the following gives a numerical description of the extent and direction of the
relationship between two sets of scores?
a. A sample.
b. A parameter.
* c. A correlation coefficient.
d. A score relation.
Information: p 12, E, 1
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Instructor's Manual and Test Bank for Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences, 4e
1-44 A is used to predict one set of scores from a different set of scores.
a. parameter
b. statistical hypothesis test
c. statistical revision process
* d. regression analysis
Information: p 13, K, 2
1-45 Statistics are necessary in behavioral research because .
* a. of variability in behaviors among people
b. raw data cannot be reliably interpreted
c. population parameters are so variable
d. people are almost all alike on many different characteristics
Information: p 13, A, 1
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