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LOGIC
THE BASICS
Logic: The Basics is an accessible introduction to several core areas
of logic. The first part of the book features a self-contained
introduction to the standard topics in classical logic, such as:
• mathematical preliminaries
• propositional logic
• quantified logic (first monadic, then polyadic)
• English and standard ‘symbolic translations’
• tableau procedures.
Alongside comprehensive coverage of the standard topics,
this thoroughly revised second edition also introduces several
philosophically important nonclassical logics, free logics, and
modal logics, and gives the reader an idea of how they can take
their knowledge further. With its wealth of exercises (solutions
available in the encyclopedic online supplement), Logic: The Basics
is a useful textbook for courses ranging from the introductory level
to the early graduate level, and also as a reference for students and
researchers in philosophical logic.
Jc Beall is Board of Trustees Distinguished Professor of Philosophy
at the University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA; and Professor of
Philosophy at the University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia.
Shay Allen Logan is a Postdoctoral Scholar in Logic at North
Carolina State University, USA.
The Basics
Available: Forthcoming:
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHY CONSCIOUSNESS
NANCY STANLICK KEITH FRANKISH
ANIMAL ETHICS EASTERN PHILOSOPHY (SECOND
TONY MILLIGAN EDITION)
VICTORIA HARRISON
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
KEVIN WARWICK ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
BEN DIXON AND MAHESH ANANTH
BIOETHICS
ALASTAIR CAMPBELL GLOBAL JUSTICE
CARL DEATH
EVOLUTION
SHERRIE LYONS PHENOMENOLOGY
DAN ZAHAVI
FOOD ETHICS
RONALD SANDLER PHILOSOPHY OF MIND
AMY KIND
FREE WILL
MEGHAN GRIFFITH
HUMAN GENETICS (SECOND EDITION)
RICKI LEWIS
METAPHYSICS
MICHAEL RAE
PHILOSOPHY (FIFTH EDITION)
NIGEL WARBURTON
LOGIC
THE BASICS
Second Edition
Jc Beall and Shay Allen Logan
Second edition published 2017
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Jc Beall and Shay Allen Logan
The right of Jc Beall and Shay Allen Logan to be identified as authors of this work
has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent
to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2010
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data
Names: Beall, J. C., author.
Title: Logic : the basics / Jc Beall and Shay Allen Logan.
Description: New York : Routledge, 2017. |
Series: The basics | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016037843 | ISBN 9781138852266 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781138852273 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781315723655 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Logic.
Classification: LCC BC108 .B347 2017 | DDC 160–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016037843
ISBN: 978-1-138-85226-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-85227-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-72365-5 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo and Scala Sans
by Out of House Publishing
Visit the eResource: www.routledge.com/9781138852273
To Katrina Higgins & Kimberly Ann Klinger Logan – for
absolutely everything.
And to our parents – for everything else.
CONTENTS
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xxi
PART I BACKGROUND IDEAS 1
1 Consequences 3
1.1 Relations of support 4
1.2 Logical consequence: the basic recipe 5
1.3 Valid arguments and truth 7
1.4 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 9
1.5 Exercises 10
1.6 Notes 11
2 Models, modeled, and modeling 12
2.1 Models 12
2.2 Models in science 13
viii CONTENTS
2.3 Logic as modeling 15
2.4 A note on notation, metalanguages, and so on 15
2.5 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 16
2.6 Exercises 16
2.7 Notes 17
3 Language, form, and logical theories 18
3.1 Language and formal languages 18
3.2 Languages: syntax and semantics 19
3.3 Atoms, connectives, and molecules 23
3.4 Connectives and form 27
3.5 Validity and form 29
3.6 Logical theories: rivalry 31
3.7 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 32
3.8 Exercises 33
3.9 Notes 34
4 Set-theoretic tools 36
4.1 Sets 36
4.2 Ordered sets: pairs and n-tuples 40
4.3 Relations 42
4.4 Functions 44
4.5 Sets as tools 46
4.6 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 46
4.7 Exercises 47
4.8 Notes 48
PART II THE BASIC CLASSICAL THEORY 51
5 Basic classical syntax and semantics 53
5.1 Cases: complete and consistent 54
5.2 Classical ‘truth conditions’ 55
CONTENTS ix
5.3 Basic classical consequence 57
5.4 Motivation: precision 59
5.5 Formal picture 60
5.6 Defined connectives 66
5.7 Some notable valid forms 67
5.8 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 69
5.9 Exercises 70
5.10 Notes 71
6 Basic classical tableaux 74
6.1 What are tableaux? 74
6.2 Tableaux for the basic classical theory 77
6.3 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 83
6.4 Exercises 83
6.5 Notes 84
7 Basic classical translations 86
7.1 Atoms, punctuation, and connectives 86
7.2 Syntax, altogether 90
7.3 Semantics 92
7.4 Consequence 92
7.5 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 94
7.6 Exercises 94
7.7 Notes 96
PART III FIRST-ORDER CLASSICAL THEORY 97
8 Atomic innards: unary 99
8.1 Atomic innards: names and predicates 99
8.2 Truth and falsity conditions for atomics 101
x CONTENTS
8.3 Cases, domains, and interpretation
functions 102
8.4 Classicality 104
8.5 A formal picture 105
8.6 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 108
8.7 Exercises 108
8.8 Notes 109
9 Everything and something 111
9.1 Validity involving quantifiers 111
9.2 Quantifiers: an informal sketch 113
9.3 Truth and falsity conditions 114
9.4 A formal picture 115
9.5 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 119
9.6 Exercises 120
9.7 Notes 122
10 First-order language with any-arity innards 123
10.1 Truth and falsity conditions for atomics 124
10.2 Cases, domains, and interpretation functions 126
10.3 Classicality 126
10.4 A formal picture 127
10.5 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 130
10.6 Exercises 130
10.7 Notes 132
11 Identity 133
11.1 Logical expressions, forms, and sentential forms 135
11.2 Validity involving identity 135
11.3 Identity: informal sketch 137
11.4 Truth conditions: informal sketch 138
CONTENTS xi
11.5 Formal picture 139
11.6 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 142
11.7 Exercises 142
11.8 Notes 144
12 Tableaux for first-order logic with identity 145
12.1 A few reminders 145
12.2 Tableaux for polyadic first-order logic 146
12.3 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 157
12.4 Exercises 157
12.5 Notes 158
13 First-order translations 160
13.1 Basic classical theory with innards 160
13.2 First-order classical theory 162
13.3 Polyadic innards 163
13.4 Examples in the polyadic language 164
13.5 Adding identity 166
13.6 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 168
13.7 Exercises 169
13.8 Notes 170
PART IV NONCLASSICAL THEORIES 171
14 Alternative logical theories 173
14.1 Apparent unsettledness 173
14.2 Apparent overdeterminacy 176
14.3 Options 177
14.4 Cases 178
14.5 Truth and falsity conditions 179
14.6 Logical consequence 183
xii CONTENTS
14.7 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 187
14.8 Exercises 188
14.9 Notes 189
15 Nonclassical sentential logics 190
15.1 Syntax 190
15.2 Semantics, broadly 191
15.3 Defined connectives 196
15.4 Some notable forms 196
15.5 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 198
15.6 Exercises 199
15.7 Note 200
16 Nonclassical first-order theories 201
16.1 An informal gloss 201
16.2 A formal picture 202
16.3 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 205
16.4 Exercises 206
16.5 Notes 207
17 Nonclassical tableaux 208
17.1 Closure conditions 208
17.2 Tableaux for nonclassical first-order logics 210
17.3 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 215
17.4 Exercises 215
18 Nonclassical translations 216
18.1 Syntax and semantics 216
18.2 Consequence 220
18.3 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 222
18.4 Exercises 222
18.5 Note 223
CONTENTS xiii
19 Speaking freely 224
19.1 Speaking of nonexistent ‘things’ 224
19.2 Existential import 225
19.3 Freeing our terms, expanding our domains 226
19.4 Truth conditions: an informal sketch 227
19.5 Formal picture 228
19.6 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 231
19.7 Exercises 232
19.8 Notes 233
20 Possibilities 235
20.1 Possibility and necessity 236
20.2 Towards truth and falsity conditions 237
20.3 Cases and consequence 242
20.4 Formal picture 243
20.5 Remark on going beyond possibility 247
20.6 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 250
20.7 Exercises 251
20.8 Notes 252
21 Free and modal tableaux 254
21.1 Free tableaux 254
21.2 Modal tableaux 257
21.3 Summary, looking ahead, and further reading 261
21.4 Exercises 262
22 Glimpsing different logical roads 264
22.1 Other conditionals 265
22.2 Other negations 267
22.3 Other alethic modalities: actuality 270
22.4 Same connectives, different truth conditions 271
xiv CONTENTS
22.5 Another road to difference: consequence 273
22.6 Summary, looking behind and ahead, and
further reading 275
22.7 Exercises 277
22.8 Notes 277
References 279
Index 283
PREFACE
A book should have either intelligibility or correctness;
to combine the two is impossible.
– Bertrand Russell 1901
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
We have left the preface to the (single-authored) first edition
in its original state (see page xvi). That preface provides useful
background to the current (jointly authored) second edition.
This edition of the book was driven by reader feedback. On
one hand, readers liked the friendly and philosophically driven
approach of the first edition, in addition to the discussion of
increasingly popular ‘deviant’ or ‘nonclassical’ logical theories.
Readers – and Routledge – wanted those features to remain. On
the other hand, readers wanted some sort of ‘deductive apparatus’
or ‘proof theory’ or ‘syntactic procedure’ to accompany the various
semantically specified consequence relations – but a user-friendly
sort. Experts disagree on what’s best in this context. We went with
familiar tableaux procedures. As a result this new edition presents
xvi PREFACE
adequate tableaux procedures for each (semantically specified)
canvassed consequence relation.
Another reader-driven desideratum of the second edition
concerns structure: readers wanted the standard (classical) account
of logical consequence up front – all the way through (polyadic)
first-order logic (without identity, which we treat as non-logical
or extra-logical, much like modal notions). So, instead of
starting broadly with a weak subclassical logic (as the first edition
did) the first significant chunk of the new edition presents the
standard classical logic. Subsequent chapters then look at various
philosophically driven logical theories according to which logical
validity is weaker than classical logic.
This second edition truly is a new edition, almost completely
rewritten. We hope that the new edition has all the virtues of the
first edition and none of its vices, and that its virtues go beyond the
first edition too.
The ‘unsolicited advice to readers’ on pages xvii–xviii is hereby
given again (though in our voice). The same is true of ‘miscellany’
on page xix.
There is an online supplement, which contains a lot of
important material. In particular:
• Most important: many additional exercises are provided online.
• Metatheory: proofs of the adequacy of the tableau systems are
given (for advanced students or interested instructors).
The online material is sited here: www.routledge.com/978113
8852273.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
This book presents a few basic ideas in logical studies, particularly
some ideas in philosophical logic – logic motivated largely by
philosophical issues. The book aims not only to introduce you to
various ideas and logical theories; it aims to give you a flavor for
logical theorizing – theorizing about logic in the face of apparently
logic-relevant phenomena. If the book is successful, you’ll not only
PREFACE xvii
be in position to pursue logic at a deeper level; you’ll be motivated
to do so.
The book [viz., the first edition, unlike the second edition]
takes a wholly one-sided approach to logic: namely, the so-
called ‘semantic’ or ‘model-theoretic’ side. You should be warned:
there is much, much more to logic than is found – or even
hinted at – in this book. A particularly conspicuous omission
is so-called proof theory: no ‘deductive systems’ of any sort are
discussed in this book. This omission is unfortunate in various
ways but – given space limitations on this book – it allows a more
leisurely discussion of a wider array of ideas than would otherwise
be possible. A handful of widely available ‘further readings’ are
suggested throughout, and a few of them – namely, ones that
are repeatedly mentioned – provide adequate proof systems for the
canvassed logics (model-theoretically understood).
UNSOLICITED ADVICE TO READERS
This book is intended to be read in order, with each chapter pre-
supposing its predecessors. If you’ve already had some elementary
logic training, some of the early chapters can be skipped; however,
the book is intended chiefly for those who have had very little, if
any, logic training.
While mastering them often requires patience and careful
thinking, logical ideas are often fairly intuitive. Usually, when
an idea initially seems hard or too abstract, a bit more thinking
will eventually do the trick. Our advice is that in times of initial
difficulty you give the matter a bit more thought. Moreover,
don’t just work to master the given matters. Try hard to think
about different logical options from those explicitly canvassed in the
book. For example (though this won’t make much sense before
you read a few chapters), if a theory claims that the ‘right logic’
works this way, try to think about an alternative theory according
to which the ‘right logic’ works that way. The benefit of such
alternative thinking is twofold: you’ll get the chance to do some
logical theorizing on your own, and perhaps even come up with a
new logical theory; and, more importantly, the exploration will
xviii PREFACE
probably be quite enjoyable, no matter how hard you have to
think.
UNSOLICITED ADVICE TO TEACHERS
This book has been used successfully in three different classroom
settings.
• First course in logic. The text has been used as a fairly gentle
introduction to logical studies for all manner of majors (science
and humanities/arts), supplemented with handouts giving
adequate ‘proof systems’ (e.g., tableau or natural deduction).
Many students often go on to do a regular classical first-order
logic course, and then proceed to do further studies, either as a
major or minor, in philosophy or philosophical logic.
• Supplement to philosophy of logic. The text has been used as
a required supplemental text in introductory and advanced
philosophy of logic courses. In such courses, the focus is the
philosophy of logic(s), with this book providing some of the logical
ideas that feed the philosophy.
• Early (post-) graduate course. The text has been used as a sort
of transition text for students entering analytic programs in
philosophy. In this capacity, the text is used as a source of basic
logical ideas, with a slant on philosophically motivated logical
ideas, and is usually used as a predecessor to much more in-
depth study of philosophical logic (i.e., formal logics motivated
by philosophy).
Despite such success, the book can undoubtedly be improved,
and teachers are hereby encouraged to send suggestions for
improvement. (Note that an online supplement is available at
www.routledge.com/9781138852273.)
BRIEF HISTORY OF THE [FIRST EDITION OF THIS]
BOOK
I [viz., Beall, author of first edition] was invited to write a book
on logic for the Routledge Basics series, which I think is a good
PREFACE xix
and useful series, and I was happy to contribute. The trouble –
as logicians and logic teachers will know – is that the universe
cannot possibly fit another introductory logic textbook; it is already
overly stuffed, indeed bursting to rid itself of elementary logic texts.
As a result, this book was not to be – and, given the state of the
universe, could not be – another introductory logic textbook. And
so it isn’t. On the other hand, the book was not to be another
‘logic for dummies’ or picture-book presentation of logical ideas.
(Actually, the latter would have been good, but, alas, I didn’t – and
still don’t – know how to do it.) Instead, the book was to give at
least a bit of ‘real logical content’ for those wanting to introduce
themselves to aspects of logical theorizing; and the book was to do
so with the goal of breadth over depth; but, again, there was to be
‘real content’, and so breadth had to suffer a little bit while depth
had to be deep enough – but not too deep.
What you have before you is my first attempt to do what was
to be done. Though it was not my aim when I set about writing
the chapters, I found it difficult not to conform to earlier ideas
expressed in some of my previous work. This is particularly the
case with Logical Pluralism 2005, which I wrote with my friend and
longstanding logical colleague Greg Restall. That book – namely,
Logical Pluralism – is suggested as further reading for those who wish
to pursue the philosophy of logic, and in particular the philosophy of
logical rivalry, in more depth. While philosophical issues motivate
this book’s contents, the philosophy of logic is barely discussed.
The tension between breadth, depth, and short-but-intelligible
is a challenging constraint. My hope, in the end, is as above: that
this book not only prepares you for deeper, more detailed logical
study, but that it motivates you to do so.
MISCELLANY
‘Further reading’ sections, found at the end of each chapter,
attempt not to be historical remarks, but rather only pointers to
either very broad survey-like material, wherein fuller bibliographic
references are found, or more advanced work that is nonetheless
fairly accessible and full of adequate bibliographical pointers.
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