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Real World OCaml: Functional Programming for the Masses
YA R O N M I N S K Y
Jane Street Group
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
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www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781009125802
DOI: 10.1017/9781009129220
First edition © Yaron Minsky, Anil Madhavapeddy, Jason Hickey 2014
Second edition © Anil Madhavapeddy and Yaron Minsky 2022
This work is in copyright. It is subject to statutory exceptions
and to the provisions of relevant licensing agreements;
with the exception of the Creative Commons version the link for which is provided below,
no reproduction of any part of this work may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
An online version of this work is published at doi.org/10.1017/9781009129220 under a
Creative Commons Open Access license CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 which permits re-use,
distribution and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial purposes providing
appropriate credit to the original work is given. You may not distribute derivative works
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All versions of this work may contain content reproduced under license from third parties.
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When citing this work, please include a reference to the DOI 10.1017/9781009129220
First edition published in 2014 by O’Reilly Media, Inc.
Second edition 2022
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ Books Limited, Padstow Cornwall
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978-1-009-12580-2 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
For Lisa, a believer in the power of words,
who helps me nd mine. Yaron
1 Prologue page 1
2 A Guided Tour 9
2.1 OCaml as a Calculator 10
2.2 Functions and Type Inference 11
2.2.1 Type Inference 13
2.2.2 Inferring Generic Types 14
2.3 Tuples, Lists, Options, and Pattern Matching 15
2.3.1 Tuples 15
2.3.2 Lists 17
2.3.3 Options 21
2.4 Records and Variants 22
2.5 Imperative Programming 24
2.5.1 Arrays 24
2.5.2 Mutable Record Fields 25
2.5.3 Refs 26
2.5.4 For and While Loops 28
2.6 A Complete Program 29
2.6.1 Compiling and Running 30
2.7 Where to Go from Here 30
viii Contents
6 Records 85
6.1 Patterns and Exhaustiveness 87
6.2 Field Punning 89
6.3 Reusing Field Names 90
6.4 Functional Updates 93
6.5 Mutable Fields 94
6.6 First-Class Fields 95
7 Variants 99
7.1 Catch-All Cases and Refactoring 102
7.2 Combining Records and Variants 104
7.2.1 Embedded Records 107
7.3 Variants and Recursive Data Structures 108
7.4 Polymorphic Variants 111
7.4.1 Example: Terminal Colors Redux 113
7.4.2 When to Use Polymorphic Variants 117
10 GADTs 166
10.1 A Little Language 166
10.1.1 Making the Language Type-Safe 168
10.1.2 Trying to Do Better with Ordinary Variants 169
10.1.3 GADTs to the Rescue 170
10.1.4 GADTs, Locally Abstract Types, and Polymorphic Recursion 172
10.2 When Are GADTs Useful? 173
10.2.1 Varying Your Return Type 173
10.2.2 Capturing the Unknown 176
10.2.3 Abstracting Computational Machines 177
10.2.4 Narrowing the Possibilities 180
10.3 Limitations of GADTs 187
10.3.1 Or-Patterns 188
10.3.2 Deriving Serializers 188
11 Functors 191
11.1 A Trivial Example 191
11.2 A Bigger Example: Computing with Intervals 193
11.2.1 Making the Functor Abstract 196
11.2.2 Sharing Constraints 197
11.2.3 Destructive Substitution 199
11.2.4 Using Multiple Interfaces 201
11.3 Extending Modules 205
13 Objects 223
13.1 OCaml Objects 224
13.2 Object Polymorphism 225
13.3 Immutable Objects 227
13.4 When to Use Objects 228
13.5 Subtyping 228
13.5.1 Width Subtyping 229
13.5.2 Depth Subtyping 229
13.5.3 Variance 230
13.5.4 Narrowing 234
13.5.5 Subtyping Versus Row Polymorphism 235
14 Classes 237
14.1 OCaml Classes 237
14.2 Class Parameters and Polymorphism 238
14.3 Object Types as Interfaces 239
14.3.1 Functional Iterators 242
14.4 Inheritance 243
14.5 Class Types 244
14.6 Open Recursion 245
14.7 Private Methods 246
14.8 Binary Methods 247
14.9 Virtual Classes and Methods 251
14.9.1 Create Some Simple Shapes 251
14.10 Initializers 254
14.11 Multiple Inheritance 254
14.11.1 How Names Are Resolved 254
14.11.2 Mixins 255
14.11.3 Displaying the Animated Shapes 258
18 Testing 325
18.1 Inline Tests 326
18.1.1 More Readable Errors with test_eq 327
18.1.2 Where Should Tests Go? 328
18.2 Expect Tests 329
18.2.1 Basic Mechanics 329
18.2.2 What Are Expect Tests Good For? 330
18.2.3 Exploratory Programming 331
18.2.4 Visualizing Complex Behavior 333
18.2.5 End-to-End Tests 336
18.2.6 How to Make a Good Expect Test 339
18.3 Property Testing with Quickcheck 339
18.3.1 Handling Complex Types 341
18.3.2 More Control with Let-Syntax 342
18.4 Other Testing Tools 343
18.4.1 Other Tools to Do (Mostly) the Same Things 343
18.4.2 Fuzzing 344
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