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Real World OCaml: Functional Programming for the Masses

This fast-moving tutorial introduces you to OCaml, an industrial-strength program-


ming language designed for expressiveness, safety, and speed. Through the book’s
many examples, you’ll quickly learn how OCaml stands out as a tool for writing fast,
succinct, and readable systems code using functional programming.
Real World OCaml takes you through the concepts of the language at a brisk pace,
and then helps you explore the tools and techniques that make OCaml an effective
and practical tool. You’ll also delve deep into the details of the compiler toolchain and
OCaml’s simple and efficient runtime system.
This second edition brings the book up to date with almost a decade of improve-
ments in the OCaml language and ecosystem, with new chapters covering testing,
GADTs, and platform tooling. All of the example code is available online at
realworldocaml.org.
This title is also available as open access on Cambridge Core, thanks to the support
of Tarides. Their generous contribution will bring more people to OCaml.

Anil Madhavapeddy is an associate professor in the Department of Computer Science


and Technology at the University of Cambridge. He has used OCaml professionally
for over two decades in numerous ventures, such as XenSource/Citrix and Unikernel
Systems/Docker, and co-founded the MirageOS unikernel project. He is a member of
the OCaml development team.

Yaron Minsky is Co-head of Technology at Jane Street, a major quantitative trading


firm, where he introduced OCaml, and helped it become the firm’s primary develop-
ment platform. He is also the host of Jane Street’s tech podcast, Signals & Threads,
and has worked on everything from developer tools to trading strategies.
Real World OCaml: Functional
Programming for the Masses
A N I L M A D H AVA P E D DY
University of Cambridge

YA R O N M I N S K Y
Jane Street Group
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre,
New Delhi – 110025, India
103 Penang Road, #05–06/07, Visioncrest Commercial, Singapore 238467

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.


It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781009125802
DOI: 10.1017/9781009129220
First edition © Yaron Minsky, Anil Madhavapeddy, Jason Hickey 2014
Second edition © Anil Madhavapeddy and Yaron Minsky 2022
This work is in copyright. It is subject to statutory exceptions
and to the provisions of relevant licensing agreements;
with the exception of the Creative Commons version the link for which is provided below,
no reproduction of any part of this work may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
An online version of this work is published at doi.org/10.1017/9781009129220 under a
Creative Commons Open Access license CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 which permits re-use,
distribution and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial purposes providing
appropriate credit to the original work is given. You may not distribute derivative works
without permission. To view a copy of this license, visit
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
All versions of this work may contain content reproduced under license from third parties.
Permission to reproduce this third-party content must be obtained from these third-parties directly.
When citing this work, please include a reference to the DOI 10.1017/9781009129220
First edition published in 2014 by O’Reilly Media, Inc.
Second edition 2022
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ Books Limited, Padstow Cornwall
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978-1-009-12580-2 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
For Lisa, a believer in the power of words,
who helps me nd mine. Yaron

For Mum and Dad, who took me to the library


and unlocked my imagination. Anil
Contents

1 Prologue page 1

1.1 Why OCaml? 1


1.1.1 A Brief History 2
1.1.2 The Base Standard Library 3
1.1.3 The OCaml Platform 4
1.2 About This Book 4
1.2.1 What to Expect 5
1.2.2 Installation Instructions 5
1.2.3 Code Examples 6
1.3 Contributors 6

Part I Language Concepts 7

2 A Guided Tour 9
2.1 OCaml as a Calculator 10
2.2 Functions and Type Inference 11
2.2.1 Type Inference 13
2.2.2 Inferring Generic Types 14
2.3 Tuples, Lists, Options, and Pattern Matching 15
2.3.1 Tuples 15
2.3.2 Lists 17
2.3.3 Options 21
2.4 Records and Variants 22
2.5 Imperative Programming 24
2.5.1 Arrays 24
2.5.2 Mutable Record Fields 25
2.5.3 Refs 26
2.5.4 For and While Loops 28
2.6 A Complete Program 29
2.6.1 Compiling and Running 30
2.7 Where to Go from Here 30
viii Contents

3 Variables and Functions 31


3.1 Variables 31
3.1.1 Pattern Matching and Let 33
3.2 Functions 34
3.2.1 Anonymous Functions 34
3.2.2 Multiargument Functions 36
3.2.3 Recursive Functions 37
3.2.4 Prex and Inx Operators 38
3.2.5 Declaring Functions with function 41
3.2.6 Labeled Arguments 42
3.2.7 Optional Arguments 45

4 Lists and Patterns 50


4.1 List Basics 50
4.2 Using Patterns to Extract Data from a List 51
4.3 Limitations (and Blessings) of Pattern Matching 52
4.3.1 Performance 53
4.3.2 Detecting Errors 54
4.4 Using the List Module Eectively 55
4.4.1 More Useful List Functions 58
4.5 Tail Recursion 60
4.6 Terser and Faster Patterns 62

5 Files, Modules, and Programs 66


5.1 Single-File Programs 66
5.2 Multile Programs and Modules 69
5.3 Signatures and Abstract Types 70
5.4 Concrete Types in Signatures 73
5.5 Nested Modules 74
5.6 Opening Modules 76
5.6.1 Open Modules Rarely 76
5.6.2 Prefer Local Opens 76
5.6.3 Using Module Shortcuts Instead 77
5.7 Including Modules 77
5.8 Common Errors with Modules 79
5.8.1 Type Mismatches 79
5.8.2 Missing Denitions 80
5.8.3 Type Denition Mismatches 80
5.8.4 Cyclic Dependencies 81
5.9 Designing with Modules 82
5.9.1 Expose Concrete Types Rarely 82
5.9.2 Design for the Call Site 82
5.9.3 Create Uniform Interfaces 83
Contents ix

5.9.4 Interfaces Before Implementations 83

6 Records 85
6.1 Patterns and Exhaustiveness 87
6.2 Field Punning 89
6.3 Reusing Field Names 90
6.4 Functional Updates 93
6.5 Mutable Fields 94
6.6 First-Class Fields 95

7 Variants 99
7.1 Catch-All Cases and Refactoring 102
7.2 Combining Records and Variants 104
7.2.1 Embedded Records 107
7.3 Variants and Recursive Data Structures 108
7.4 Polymorphic Variants 111
7.4.1 Example: Terminal Colors Redux 113
7.4.2 When to Use Polymorphic Variants 117

8 Error Handling 119


8.1 Error-Aware Return Types 119
8.1.1 Encoding Errors with Result 120
8.1.2 Error and Or_error 121
8.1.3 bind and Other Error Handling Idioms 122
8.2 Exceptions 124
8.2.1 Helper Functions for Throwing Exceptions 126
8.2.2 Exception Handlers 127
8.2.3 Cleaning Up in the Presence of Exceptions 128
8.2.4 Catching Specic Exceptions 129
8.2.5 Backtraces 130
8.2.6 From Exceptions to Error-Aware Types and Back Again 132
8.3 Choosing an Error-Handling Strategy 133

9 Imperative Programming 134


9.1 Example: Imperative Dictionaries 134
9.2 Primitive Mutable Data 138
9.2.1 Array-Like Data 138
9.2.2 Mutable Record and Object Fields and Ref Cells 139
9.2.3 Foreign Functions 140
9.3 For and While Loops 140
9.4 Example: Doubly Linked Lists 141
9.4.1 Modifying the List 143
9.4.2 Iteration Functions 144
x Contents

9.5 Laziness and Other Benign Eects 145


9.5.1 Memoization and Dynamic Programming 146
9.6 Input and Output 152
9.6.1 Terminal I/O 153
9.6.2 Formatted Output with printf 154
9.6.3 File I/O 156
9.7 Order of Evaluation 158
9.8 Side Eects and Weak Polymorphism 159
9.8.1 The Value Restriction 160
9.8.2 Partial Application and the Value Restriction 161
9.8.3 Relaxing the Value Restriction 162
9.9 Summary 164

10 GADTs 166
10.1 A Little Language 166
10.1.1 Making the Language Type-Safe 168
10.1.2 Trying to Do Better with Ordinary Variants 169
10.1.3 GADTs to the Rescue 170
10.1.4 GADTs, Locally Abstract Types, and Polymorphic Recursion 172
10.2 When Are GADTs Useful? 173
10.2.1 Varying Your Return Type 173
10.2.2 Capturing the Unknown 176
10.2.3 Abstracting Computational Machines 177
10.2.4 Narrowing the Possibilities 180
10.3 Limitations of GADTs 187
10.3.1 Or-Patterns 188
10.3.2 Deriving Serializers 188

11 Functors 191
11.1 A Trivial Example 191
11.2 A Bigger Example: Computing with Intervals 193
11.2.1 Making the Functor Abstract 196
11.2.2 Sharing Constraints 197
11.2.3 Destructive Substitution 199
11.2.4 Using Multiple Interfaces 201
11.3 Extending Modules 205

12 First-Class Modules 209


12.1 Working with First-Class Modules 209
12.1.1 Creating First-Class Modules 209
12.1.2 Inference and Anonymous Modules 210
12.1.3 Unpacking First-Class Modules 210
12.1.4 Functions for Manipulating First-Class Modules 210
12.1.5 Richer First-Class Modules 211
Contents xi

12.1.6 Exposing types 211


12.2 Example: A Query-Handling Framework 213
12.2.1 Implementing a Query Handler 215
12.2.2 Dispatching to Multiple Query Handlers 216
12.2.3 Loading and Unloading Query Handlers 219
12.3 Living Without First-Class Modules 222

13 Objects 223
13.1 OCaml Objects 224
13.2 Object Polymorphism 225
13.3 Immutable Objects 227
13.4 When to Use Objects 228
13.5 Subtyping 228
13.5.1 Width Subtyping 229
13.5.2 Depth Subtyping 229
13.5.3 Variance 230
13.5.4 Narrowing 234
13.5.5 Subtyping Versus Row Polymorphism 235

14 Classes 237
14.1 OCaml Classes 237
14.2 Class Parameters and Polymorphism 238
14.3 Object Types as Interfaces 239
14.3.1 Functional Iterators 242
14.4 Inheritance 243
14.5 Class Types 244
14.6 Open Recursion 245
14.7 Private Methods 246
14.8 Binary Methods 247
14.9 Virtual Classes and Methods 251
14.9.1 Create Some Simple Shapes 251
14.10 Initializers 254
14.11 Multiple Inheritance 254
14.11.1 How Names Are Resolved 254
14.11.2 Mixins 255
14.11.3 Displaying the Animated Shapes 258

Part II Tools and Techniques 261

15 Maps and Hash Tables 263


15.1 Maps 263
15.1.1 Sets 265
15.1.2 Modules and Comparators 265
xii Contents

15.1.3 Why Do We Need Comparator Witnesses? 267


15.1.4 The Polymorphic Comparator 269
15.1.5 Satisfying Comparator.S with [@@deriving] 270
15.1.6 Applying [@@deriving] to Maps and Sets 272
15.1.7 Trees 273
15.2 Hash Tables 274
15.2.1 Time Complexity of Hash Tables 274
15.2.2 Collisions with the Polymorphic Hash Function 275
15.3 Choosing Between Maps and Hash Tables 276

16 Command-Line Parsing 280


16.1 Basic Command-Line Parsing 280
16.1.1 Dening an Anonymous Argument 281
16.1.2 Dening Basic Commands 281
16.1.3 Running Commands 282
16.1.4 Multi-Argument Commands 284
16.2 Argument Types 285
16.2.1 Dening Custom Argument Types 286
16.2.2 Optional and Default Arguments 286
16.2.3 Sequences of Arguments 288
16.3 Adding Labeled Flags 289
16.4 Grouping Subcommands Together 291
16.5 Prompting for Interactive Input 293
16.6 Command-Line Autocompletion with bash 294
16.6.1 Generating Completion Fragments from Command 295
16.6.2 Installing the Completion Fragment 295
16.7 Alternative Command-Line Parsers 296

17 Concurrent Programming with Async 297


17.1 Async Basics 297
17.1.1 Using Let Syntax 300
17.1.2 Ivars and Upon 301
17.2 Example: An Echo Server 303
17.2.1 Improving the Echo Server 306
17.3 Example: Searching Denitions with DuckDuckGo 309
17.3.1 URI Handling 309
17.3.2 Parsing JSON Strings 310
17.3.3 Executing an HTTP Client Query 310
17.4 Exception Handling 312
17.4.1 Monitors 314
17.4.2 Example: Handling Exceptions with DuckDuckGo 316
17.5 Timeouts, Cancellation, and Choices 318
17.6 Working with System Threads 320
Contents xiii

17.6.1 Thread-Safety and Locking 323

18 Testing 325
18.1 Inline Tests 326
18.1.1 More Readable Errors with test_eq 327
18.1.2 Where Should Tests Go? 328
18.2 Expect Tests 329
18.2.1 Basic Mechanics 329
18.2.2 What Are Expect Tests Good For? 330
18.2.3 Exploratory Programming 331
18.2.4 Visualizing Complex Behavior 333
18.2.5 End-to-End Tests 336
18.2.6 How to Make a Good Expect Test 339
18.3 Property Testing with Quickcheck 339
18.3.1 Handling Complex Types 341
18.3.2 More Control with Let-Syntax 342
18.4 Other Testing Tools 343
18.4.1 Other Tools to Do (Mostly) the Same Things 343
18.4.2 Fuzzing 344

19 Handling JSON Data 345


19.1 JSON Basics 345
19.2 Parsing JSON with Yojson 346
19.3 Selecting Values from JSON Structures 348
19.4 Constructing JSON Values 351
19.5 Using Nonstandard JSON Extensions 353
19.6 Automatically Mapping JSON to OCaml Types 354
19.6.1 ATD Basics 354
19.6.2 ATD Annotations 355
19.6.3 Compiling ATD Specications to OCaml 355
19.6.4 Example: Querying GitHub Organization Information 357

20 Parsing with OCamllex and Menhir 361


20.1 Lexing and Parsing 362
20.2 Dening a Parser 363
20.2.1 Describing the Grammar 364
20.2.2 Parsing Sequences 365
20.3 Dening a Lexer 367
20.3.1 OCaml Prelude 367
20.3.2 Regular Expressions 368
20.3.3 Lexing Rules 368
20.3.4 Recursive Rules 370
20.4 Bringing It All Together 371
xiv Contents

21 Data Serialization with S-Expressions 374


21.1 Basic Usage 374
21.1.1 S-Expression Converters for New Types 376
21.2 The Sexp Format 378
21.3 Preserving Invariants 379
21.4 Getting Good Error Messages 382
21.5 Sexp-Conversion Directives 383
21.5.1 @sexp.opaque 383
21.5.2 @sexp.list 384
21.5.3 @sexp.option 385
21.5.4 Specifying Defaults 385

22 The OCaml Platform 388


22.1 A Hello World OCaml Project 389
22.1.1 Setting Up an Opam Local Switch 389
22.1.2 Choosing an OCaml Compiler Version 390
22.1.3 Structure of an OCaml Project 391
22.1.4 Dening Module Names 391
22.1.5 Dening Libraries as Collections of Modules 392
22.1.6 Writing Test Cases for a Library 392
22.1.7 Building an Executable Program 393
22.2 Setting Up an Integrated Development Environment 394
22.2.1 Using Visual Studio Code 394
22.2.2 Browsing Interface Documentation 395
22.2.3 Autoformatting Your Source Code 396
22.3 Publishing Your Code Online 396
22.3.1 Dening Opam Packages 396
22.3.2 Generating Project Metadata from Dune 397
22.3.3 Setting up Continuous Integration 398
22.3.4 Other Conventions 399
22.3.5 Releasing Your Code into the Opam Repository 400
22.4 Learning More from Real Projects 401

Part III The Compiler and Runtime System 403

23 Foreign Function Interface 405


23.1 Example: A Terminal Interface 406
23.2 Basic Scalar C Types 410
23.3 Pointers and Arrays 411
23.3.1 Allocating Typed Memory for Pointers 412
23.3.2 Using Views to Map Complex Values 413
23.4 Structs and Unions 414
23.4.1 Dening a Structure 414
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