ARCHER | Cat. No.

276-5025
 Building
Power Supplies

By
Davip LINES

WITH CONTRIBUTIONS By:

JERRY LUECKE
MASTER PUBLISHING, INC.

Radie Shack
A DIVISION OF TANDY CORPORATION
FT. WORTH, TEXAS 76102
eee
This book was developed and published by:
Master Publishing, Inc.
Richardson, Texas

Edited by:
Charles Battle

Design and artwork by:

Plunk Design
Dallas, Texas

Printing by:
Custom Printing Company
Fort Worth, Texas

Acknowledgements:
All photographs not credited are either courtesy of Author,
Radio Shack or Master Publishing, Inc.

Copyright © 1991
Master Publishing, Inc.
14 Canyon Creek Village MS31
Richardson, Texas 75080
(214) 907-8938
All Rights Reserved

REGARDING THESE BOOK MATERIALS

Reproduction, publication, or duplication of this book, or any part thereof, in any
manner, mechanically, electronically, or photographically is prohibited without the
express written permission of the publisher.
The Author, Publisher or Seller assume no liability with respect to the use of the
information contained herein.

For permission and other rights under this copyright, write Master Publishing, Inc.
—

") 8 vk 6 5 4 3 2

ii
) |

Table of Contents

Page
EBS [om aroetemeds ere thas sopciynede bes rod Rertes dh ante ibaateohshe Redhat ieee iv

CHAPTER 1
BASIC OUBCES OOF. LG AND AG CPOWER soccnstanacctiantcccne i)
CHAPTER 2
UNREGULATED POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS .....ccssscsssssssssssseseseeeees 10
CHAPTER 3
Basic REGULATED POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS .....:.e:scsessssecseseeees 27,
CHAPTER 4
TINFAR POWER SUPPLY, PROJECT S eit otto noche ec en 34

CHAPTER 5
SWITCHING POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS .....csccccssssessssessssessesecesseeees 58
CHAPTER 6
SWITCHING POWER SUPPLY PROJECTS ......cccccesscsssesessssesessescseeess vt
CHAPTER 7
MEASUREMENTS, CALIBRATION AND
FFROUBERSHOOTING le Sa is eG ue SIN OSs 86

BAB PRINTS oo ee en en, nee et Sena 90

BS
CSRARY See OE a eee ee 9]

PREY eo eee ern, © SR OTIS CO Sem eget, 92

lll
— tt” (

Preface

All electronic equipment requires a source of power—a power supply. A power

supply can bea separate assembly, or integrated into an electrical or electronic
system. It supplies load current at a particular voltage or voltages to the
system’s circuits. In most cases, a power supply is required to control its
output voltage (or voltages) to within close limits as its input voltage and/or
output load are changed. This is a regulated power supply. If the output were
not regulated, the variations in its output voltage could become signals within
the system circuits being powered and cause errors, distortions, extra signals,
etc.
Building Power Supplies has two goals. First, to help you, the reader, un-
derstand the basic function of each of the components in a power supply and
how the components work together to function as a power supply. Second, to
show how to build useful working power supplies. Easy to understand illustra-
tions visually enhance the learning.
Building Power Supplies begins with a refresher on basic sources of dc and
ac power. If you already know these basic principles, you may bypass this
material and start with Chapter 2.
Chapter 2 describes the functions of transformation, rectification, and
filtering that are required to convert common ac line voltage to a dc voltage. It
explains the components needed and identifies the important parameter
specifications. The system output is an unregulated voltage.
Chapter 3 begins a pattern that continues through Chapter 6: The basic
principles of a system regulating a dc voltage are discussed, and then instruc-
tions are presented for building useful power supplies. Chapters 3 and 4 deal
with power supply circuits that operate continuously in the linear region, and
Chapters 5 and 6 deal with switching power supplies. Specifications, compo-
nent selection, parts lists, construction plans, design techniques and operating
principles are covered. All parts used are readily available from Radio Shack.
Preformance measurements of each power supply, a calibration procedure
for the switching power supplies, and troubleshooting tips are contained in
Chapter 7.
Building Power Supplies should be a good teaching tool because if you
complete it, you should understand power supply system principles, and, if
you wish, you can build a useful power supply. Those are our objectives. We
hope we have succeeded.

D.G.
MP1

iv
) CHAPTER 17

Basic Sources
of DC and AC Power
INTRODUCTION
Power supplies are the energy sources that are required to operate any electri-
cal equipment, including electronic equipment. All types of electronic equip-
ment—from the simplest AM radio to complex computers; from a child’s
cassette player to the most sophisticated space electronics—need some kind
of power supply.
One goal of this book is to show how to build various types of power
supplies—from unregulated supplies to regulated switching supplies. With
photographs and other illustrations, Building Power Supplies lists the com-
ponents to use, shows how to interconnect the components to construct a
power supply, and shows performance measurements of the completed as-
sembly.
However, Building Power Supplies has another goal—to help you under-
stand the function of each component and the basic principles that are at work
as the components perform their functions. If you already know the basic
principles, the material in Chapter 1 can serve as a refresher, or you may chose
to skip ahead to Chapter 2.

POWER
What is power? Power is the rate at which energy is used. A common unit of
electrical power is the watt. A watt is the use of one joule of energy per second.
A watt-hour (the unit you see on your monthly electrical bill) is the supply of
one watt for one hour, or one joule per second for 3600 seconds. A joule is the
amount of energy that one would expend lifting a kilogram (1,000 grams = 2.2
pounds) about 100 centimeters (about 39 inches, or 3.3 feet).
Power supplies for electronic equipment commonly have a wattage rating
as a measure of the energy that can be delivered. Technicians and engineers
know that the power supply voltage (in volts) times the current (in amperes)
delivered to its load (the circuit to which the power is being supplied) is the
watts of power supplied. For example, a power supply delivering 5 volts at 10
amperes to its load is providing 50 watts of power.

DC POWER an
The most common type of power supply that all of us recognize is a battery.
Switch on your flashlight and the batteries inside supply current through the
completed circuit to the light bulb. The current through the filament of the
light bulb causes it to glow. Power flows from the battery through the light
bulb. If the flashlight uses two 1.5-volt batteries (for a total voltage of 3 volts)
 |
Buitoinc Power SUPPLIES

and the current supplied to the light bulb is 0.1 ampere, the power supplied is
0.3 watt.
The simple circuit for the flashlight is shown in Figure 1-1a. This repre-
sentation of an electrical circuit is called a schematic diagram. Standard sym-
bols are used on schematic diagrams to represent the various components.
Notice that the battery symbol is a combination of alternating short and long
parallel lines, with the short line indicating the negative (—) terminal.
Figure 1-1bshowsa graphical plot of the current supplied by the battery in
the circuit of Figure 1-1a. The current is constant against time and always in
the positive direction. This current is called direct current (abbreviated as dc)
because the current always flows in one direction.

ENERGY FROM
CHEMICALS IN
BATTERY

\Y LIGHT eves
ENERGY, flee areee es
— ;+¢ —)+ Q +0.16

woe = +0.14
1.5V - +0.12
/Z Z +0.10
_— +0.08
Read c
< a + 0.06
ON-OFF \ +0.04
SWITCH : +0.02

0 1 2 3 4 5
TIME — MINUTES

a. Circuit b. Current vs Time

Figure 1-1. Simple DC Circuit

Battery
A battery is an electrochemical power source. The basic building block of a
battery is the electrochemical cell. Higher battery voltages are obtained by
connecting several cells together in series. This is how the word “battery” was
derived. The cell cross-section shown in Figure 1-2a and the schematic shown
in Figure 1-2b show a battery supplying current to a load of series-connected
resistors.
As shown in Figure 1-2a, an electrochemical cell contains two plates, called —
the negative and positive electrodes, and a liquid or semi-liquid between the |
electrodes, called the electrolyte. When a circuit (conductive path) is com-
pleted between the terminals of the electrodes, a chemical reaction takes place
between the positive electrode and the electrolyte that “pulls” electrons from
the circuit to the positive terminal and into the electrolyte. An opposite reac-
tion takes place at the negative electrode, “pushing” electrons out the negative
terminal and into the circuit. Electrons and positive ions flow in the electrolyte
to maintain the chemical reaction.
2
 1
Basic Sources or DC ano AC Power

ea

= POTENTIAL ON-OFF
fe <— DIFFERENCE —> SWITCH
= (IN VOLTS)
z The potential difference rege Nie
° (pressure), in volts, is
— called the electromotive
o force (EMF) provided
i] ||NEGATIVE —| by the battery. + POSITIVE
TERMINAL TERMINAL
CONVENTIONAL
= CURRENT
Return of DIRECTION
_ 7) electrons
Electrons flow 5 ON-OFF
through the <| SWITCH
circuit due =
to voltage POSITIVE
pressure. 2 TERMINAL = Ss

S<| ® TOTAL
VOLTAGE }a
= a
<
©<| positive @ —
S
NEGATIVE
TERMINAL
==>

ELECTROLYTE ELECTRON CURRENT

a. Cross Section of Cell b. Schematic

Figure 1-2. Batteries Supply Current to a Load

In Figure 1-2a, two directions are shown for the current in the circuit
across the battery. One is electron current; the other is conventional current.
Electrons have a negative charge and flow from a point of negative voltage toa
point more positive in voltage. Because early scientists who discovered elec-
tricity assumed that conventional current was the movement of positive charges
(opposite from electrons), the conventional circuit current direction is oppo-
site to the electron current direction.
Conventional current direction is the standard most commonly used by
the electrical and electronic industries; therefore, it will be used in the remain-
der of this book. Just remember, electron current will be in the opposite
direction to the conventional current direction shown.
The chemical reaction develops a potential difference, called voltage,
between the positive and negative terminals. Voltage is measured in units of
volts. The pressure caused by the voltage is called the electromotive force. The
number of electrons that actually flow through a conductor per second is
called current, and is measured in units called amperes, commonly called
amps. The voltage of a battery decreases as the battery supplies current to its
load; therefore, batteries are commonly rated in “ampere-hours.” This rating
specifies the number of hours the battery can supply one ampere of current
3
 1
Buitoine Power SupPLiés

before the battery voltage decreases to a specified minimum value. For batter-
ies that are designed to supply less than one ampere, this rating is expressed in
“milliampere-hours,” where one milliampere equals 0.001 ampere.

Primary and Secondary Batteries

Batteries are available in many types and voltages for many different purposes.
Some are rechargeable (secondary cells) and some are non-rechargeable
(primary cells). An example of a primary battery is the alkaline cell used in
everything from flashlights to cameras to portable stereos. Examples of secon-
dary batteries are the nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries in some cordless
tools, and the lead-acid batteries used in automobiles. Batteries are constantly
being improved to increase the power delivered or to reduce the physical size
required for a given power. Such developments increase their use in portable
electronic equipment.

DC Generator
Another power supply for direct current is a dc generator. To understand the
operation of a generator, you must understand the basic principles at work
when a wire is moved in a magnetic field.

Generator Principles
Look at Figure 1-3. Here a loop of wire is mounted on a shaft and positioned in
amagnetic field. The magnetic field, represented by lines in Figure 1-3, runs from
the North pole of the magnet to the South pole. This field is invisible, but it is
present. You know this is so because if a nail is brought close to the magnet it
will be pulled to the magnet. The lines are made visible in Figure 1-3 to illus-
trate the principle. Notice that a voltmeter is connected across the ends of the
wire loop. The loop’s 90 degree position is as shown—the loop sides are closest
to the pole pieces, and the face of the loop is parallel with the magnetic field.
Now, if the loop starts at 0 degrees and is rotated rapidly clockwise 180
degrees, the voltmeter needle will deflect to indicate a momentary voltage and
then fall back to zero. When the loop cut across the magnetic field lines, an
electromotive force was generated in each side of the wire loop to cause
current in the same direction through the meter circuit and deflect the meter.
The amplitude of the generated voltage depends on three factors: the strength
of the magnetic field, the speed of the rotating loop, and the number of turns of
wire on the loop. Increasing any factor increases the generated voltage.
If the loop is again rotated clockwise another 180 degrees, the voltmeter
needle will again deflect, but in the opposite direction. However, if before the
second 180-degree turn, the meter leads were reversed, the meter needle
would deflect in the same direction as for the first rotation. Thus, if the loop is
continually rotated while the leads are reversed at each 180-degree point, the
generated voltage plotted against time will look like the waveform shown in
Figure 1-4a. This is the basis of a direct-current generator.
; 1
Basic Sources of DC ano AC Power

CONVENTIONAL
CURRENT
Kd VOLTMETER
WIRE IS FLEXIBLE ENOUGH Cv.)
FOR THE LOOP TO ROTATE
HALFWAY AROUND. ae:

LOOP IS TURNING
CLOCKWISE.

WIRE IS HELD
WITH TAPE ON
WOODEN SHAFT.

CURRENT
DIRECTION

LOOP : LOOP
MOVES MOVES

Figure 1-3. Simple Generator

VOLTAGE
+

oO
Oy 90° 180° 270° *360° 450° — 540°

TIME (IN DEGREES ROTATION) —_

a. Simple DC Generator

YI IKK KKK
///KKXXKKXXKKKA \\\
J/1/1 1 KKKKAKXKKAAA\\A\N ee
FALL ERRRAIID ARAN
VOLTAGE
+
"og owes ichay at MgOo
fo)

TIME —>

b. Commercial DC Generator

Figure 1-4. DC Generator Voltage Versus Time

A peel eee eg a
 1
Buitoing Power Supplies

Commercial Generator
A commercial de generator has many windings, each with many turns of wire,
wound on an iron core. This assembly is called an armature. The ends of the
windings connect to split slip rings, called the commutator, on the generator
shaft. The output terminals are connected to sliding connectors, called brushes,
which are in contact with the commutator. This combination reverses the
winding connections to the output terminals as the armature rotates so that
the generated voltage is always the same polarity. The windings are positioned
on the generator shaft so that the output voltage waveform looks like that
shown in Figure 1-4b when plotted against time. The output voltage is nearly
constant and when connected to a circuit load, the current in the circuit will
flow in only one direction. It will be direct current from a dc generator—a dc
power supply.
As mentioned above, the voltage level produced by a generator depends
on the number of turns in the generator windings, on the speed at which the
generator shaft is driven, and on the strength of the magnetic field. The
maximum current that a dc generator can produce depends on the size of the
wire in the generator windings, the design of the commutator and brushes,
and the way the generator is cooled. The rated power wattage is equal to the
rated voltage times the rated current.

Induction
The voltage in the loop that caused a current in the meter connected to the
loop is said to be induced by the magnetic field. The induction can occur either
by moving the loop through the magnetic field, or by moving the magnetic
field through the loop. The principle of induction is very important to the dc
generator, to the ac generator discussed next, to inductors, and to transform-
ers discussed in Chapter 2.

AC POWER
Alternating current (ac) differs from dc in that the circuit current doesn’t flow
only in one direction; it reverses and flows in the opposite direction as well. It
changes direction at regular time intervals. The regular periodic rate at which
the current reverses direction is called the frequency. AC-powered equipment
must be able to operate at the frequency at which the alternating current is
generated.
AC power runs trains, factories, and the appliances in our homes. What
makes it especially useful is that transformers can be used to convert ac to
different voltages, as we will see in Chapter 2.

AC Generator
The primary source of ac power is the ac generator, which is usually called an
alternator. It is very similar to the dc generator. Look again at Figure 1-3. Recall
that when the loop coil was rotated the first 180 degrees, the meter deflectedin —
one direction; and if continued through a second 180 degrees without revers-
tr
6 rt ip ks:
 : |
Basic Sources of DC ano AC Power

ing the leads, the meter deflected in the opposite direction. The change in
direction of the meter’s deflection meant that the current changed its direc-
tion through the meter. The voltage induced in the loop was in the opposite
direction so the current in the circuit changed direction.
Look at Figure 1-5a. The shaft on which the loop of wire of Figure 1-3 is
mounted is now driven by a motor that turns the loop so it makes 60 complete
rotations each second. The ends of the loop are connected to slip rings so the
meter is connected to the loop through brushes on the slip rings at all times as
the loop turns. The voltage indicated by the meter as the loop turns is shown in
Figure 1-5b. Notice that in the first 180 degrees, the voltage is positive, and in
the next 180 degrees, the voltage is negative.
As the loop turns, the voltage repeats itself each 360 degrees, or each cycle.
If the loop makes one 360 degree rotation in 1/60 of asecond, then 60 cycles of
voltage will be induced or generated in one second, and the frequency of the ac
voltage is 60 cycles per second. The official name for “cycles per second” is
“hertz,” so the generated voltage has a frequency of 60 hertz. If the number of
turns on the loop of wire is increased until the generated voltage is 110 volts,
then a 110VAC, 60Hz ac generator will have been constructed. This is the
principle of an ac generator—the primary ac power supply. Because of its
simpler construction (continuous slip rings instead of a split commutator),
and because dc is easily derived from ac, as we will see in Chapter 2, the ac
generator or alternator is much more widely used than the dc generator.

Inductance
Let’s review up to this point. A wire cutting across a magnetic field will have a
voltage induced in it and there will be a current in the wire when it is connected
in a complete circuit. Thereis a counter principle to this as shown in Figure
1-6a. When there is current in a wire, a magnetic field will be formed around
the wire as shown. As current increases in the wire, the magnetic field in-
creases around the wire; as current decreases in the wire, the magnetic field
decreases around the wire. If other wires are near the wire carrying the varying
current, as shown in Figure 1-6b, the varying magnetic field cuts acrossthe wires
and induces a voltage in them. The varying magnetic field expanding and
collapsing around the nearby wires is the same as if the magnetic field were
stationary and the nearby wires where cutting across the magnetic field. This is
the principle of the transformer which will be discussed further in Chapter 2.
Inductors also use this principle to produce an electrical property called
inductance. ae

Inductive Reactance
When current passes through wire which is wound in a coil, a magnetic field
will be produced around the coil which is the result of the interactions of the
magnetic fields around each loop of wire in the coil. With alternating current
through the coil, the field expands and collapses around the coil. The expand-
ing and collapsing field induces a counter voltage in the coil that opposes the
:
 |
Buitoing Power SUPPLIES

CONVENTIONAL CURRENT
es VOLTMETER

- +
Ste
GENERATED
LOOP IS TURNING
CLOCKWISE.

SLIP
WIRE IS HELD RING
WITH TAPE ON
WOODEN SHAFT. MAGNETIC
FIELD

CURRENT
DIRECTION
(1ST 180°)

LOOP MOVES
MOVES MOTOR TURNS
60 REVOLUTIONS
PER SECOND.

THIS WAVEFORM
IS CALLED A SINE WAVE

VOLTAGE
+—. 1/60 avs TIME —>

b. AC Generator vs Time

Figure 1-5. AC Generator

varying current that is producing the original field. This opposition or resis-
tance to ac is called inductive reactance. It has the symbol X, and is calculated
using the following equation with f as the frequency in hertz and L as the
inductance of the coil in henrys; 7 is a constant equal to 3.1416:

X, = 2nfL
a ct I ce a
8
 1
Basic Sources of DC ano AC Power

FIELD EXPANDS AND

COLLAPSES FROM A SMALL
FIELD TOALARGE FIELD TOA
WIRE SMALL FIELD AS THE CURRENT
MAGNETIC CARRYING VARIES FROM LOW TO HIGH TO
FIELD DIRECTION se a LOW CURRENT.
CURRENT

LARGER CURRENT A™\_ NEARBY

PRODUCES WIRES
LARGER FIELD CURRENT
DIRECTION
a. Single Wire b. Magnetic Field Cutting Nearby Wires

Figure 1-6. Magnetic Field Around Wires Carrying Curent

Inductance depends on the size (area and length) of the coil, the number
of turns, and the permeability of the material on which the coil is wound.
Permeability is a measure of how easily a material can be magnetized. Notice
that as the frequency of the varying current increases, the inductive reactance
increases. This will be important later when inductors used in power supply
filters are discussed.
The unit of inductive reactance is ohms, which is the same unit used for
the resistance ofa resistor. The total opposition (impedance) by an inductance
in an ac circuit is the sum of the inductive reactance and the dc resistance of
the wire in the inductor. An inductor with dc or very low frequency ac flowing
through it has an impedance close to the dc resistance of the wire used to wind
it. As the frequency increases, the impedance increases dramatically because
the inductive reactance increases dramatically.

SUMMARY
In this chapter, we have discussed the basic sources of dc and ac electricity —
electrochemical (batteries) and electromechanical (generators, alternators).
We have illustrated how magnetic principles are used in generators and alter-
nators to generate electricity and in inductors to produce inductive reactance,
an electrical property that opposes alternating current. In Chapter 2, we will
see how the magnetic principles are used in transformers, one of the main
components in unregulated power supplies.
 CHAPTER 2

Unregulated
Power Supply Systems
INTRODUCTION
Most electronic equipment circuits require a power supply that provides a dc
voltage at some maximum dc current. Batteries can be used to provide this
energy for equipment that has a low power requirement or if it is normally
used intermittently. Another possible power source is a dc generator, however,
neither batteries nor dc generators are practical or economical for many types
of electronic equipment. Since the 110VAC, 60-hertz power distributed by the
electric power company is readily available, most electronic equipment oper-
ates from a power supply that converts the ac line voltage to a dc voltage.
The basic unregulated dc power supply functions are transformation,
rectification, and filtering. These functions are indicated in Figure 2-1, along with
the input and output waveforms for each function.
The transformation function input is the 110VAC from the utility line. Its
ac output voltage, which can be lower or higher than the input voltage, is the
input to the rectification function. The rectification function output is a dc
voltage, but because it has large amplitude variations, it is called “pulsating
dc.” The filtering function reduces the large amplitude variations so that the

PULSATING
DC

TRANSFORMATION RECTIFICATION FILTERING

TRANSFORMER HALF-WAVE CAPACITIVE
STEP-DOWN FULL-WAVE CAPACITIVE-
STEP-UP BRIDGE INDUCTIVE

VOLTAGE VALUE
SELECTED
s FOR PROPER
DC OUTPUT
RIPPLE
VOLTAGE

Figure 2-1. Unregulated DC Power Supply

10
 2
Unregutatep Power Supply Systems

output is a dc voltage with only a small “ripple” voltage riding on it. This basic
power supply is called an unregulated dc power supply because its output
varies with changes in the ac input voltage as well as changes in the load on the
power supply output. To understand the operation ofthis power supply, let’s
discuss each of the functions in detail.

TRANSFORMATION
Transformation provides two primary functions:
m It changes the line voltage value to the voltage value required to produce
the proper dc voltage output.
m It electrically isolates the electronic equipment from the utility power
line.

Transformers
A transformer is the component that performs the transformation function. As
shown in Figure 2-2, it consists of at least two coils of wirewound on the same
iron core. The coil of wire receiving the input voltage is called the primary; the
coil providing the output voltage is called the secondary. Many times there are
two or more secondaries. The basic operating principle of a transformer is
induction, which was discussed in Chapter 1. Varying current from an ac
voltage applied to the primary creates a changing magnetic field in the iron
core. This magnetic field, coupled to the secondary through the core, cuts the
secondary windings and induces an ac voltage in each turn of the secondary.
Thus, energy is transferred from the primary to the secondary by the varying
magnetic field without any electrical connection between them.

IRON CONSTANTLY
CHANGING
MAGNETIC FIELD
SINE
WAVE —_ PRIMARY SECONDARY
+ +

” ep)
5 ay
9= g
| ! = ln
=F >

Figure 2-2. Transformer Construction

11
 2
Buitoing Power Supplies

Isolation
Because the energy transfer is accomplished only by the magnetic coupling
between the primary and the secondary, the secondary and any circuits con-
nected to it are isolated from the primary and any circuits connected to it. This
is important for safety because the primary is connected to the high current
supply of the utility line. Without such isolation, there is a serious shock
hazard. Another advantage is that no dc connection exists between circuit
ground in the primary circuit and circuit ground in the secondary circuit.

Turns Ratio
In an unregulated power supply, the transformation function must provide
the ac output voltage value required to produce the proper dc output voltage.
This is easily accomplished in a transformer by varying the ratio of the number
of secondary turns (N,) to the number of primary turns (N,). The ratio is formed
by dividing N, by N,; that is, N,/N,. The secondary voltage can be less than or
greater than the primary voltage just by varying the turns ratio, N,/N,.
The amount of voltage induced in a turn of the secondary winding is the
same as the voltage induced in a turn of the primary. The voltage induced in
each turn of the primary, e,, is the primary voltage, V,, divided by the primary
turns, N,. In equation form, it is:
e, = V,/N,
If the same voltage is induced in each turn of the secondary winding, then the
secondary voltage, V,, is the number of secondary turns, N,, times the induced
voltage, e,. In equation form, it is:
Vo ONe Se,
By substituting the value of e, from the first equation into the second equation,
V, equals the turns ratio times V,,. In equation form, it is:
VE NUN KV,
Knowing that the secondary voltage is the primary voltage times the turns
ratio, it is easy to see how the transformer can be used to vary the voltage level
of the ac voltage used in the unregulated power supply system. Let’s look at a
couple of examples using a schematic symbol fora transformer like that shown
in Figure 2-3a.

Step-Down Transformer
If the secondary turns are fewer than the primary turns, the secondary voltage
is less than the primary voltage. This is a step-down transformer. In the
example shown in Figure 2-3b, the turns ratio is 0.5 and the primary voltage is
LLOVAC; therefore, the secondary voltage is 110VAC x 0.5 = 55VAC.

12
 2
Unrecutatep Power Supply Systems

Np
Np = 100 Ng
TURNS TOaNG N
sets Wie
Np
ODI
Vp 110VAC | 55VAC eT
0.5 x 110
= 55V

a. Schematic — Center Tapped b. Step-Down 0.5 : 1

Np = 100 TURNS Ng = 318 TURNS

Vg =X Ve
Ng

_ 318
410VAC 350VAC SOs
= 3.18x 110
= 350V

c. Step Up 3.18 : 1

Figure 2-3. Transformers

Step-Up Transformer
If the secondary turns are more than the primary turns, the secondary voltage
is greater than the primary voltage. This is a step-up transformer. In the
example shown in Figure 2-3c, the turns ratio is 3.18 and the primary voltage is
110VAC; therefore, the secondary voltage is 110VAC X 3.18 = 350VAC.

Power Transfer and Efficiency

The power flowing out of the secondary in relation to the power flowing into
the primary is given by:
ieelen alee
where n is the transformer efficiency. If the efficiency were 100% or n = 1, the
power out would be equal to the power in. Therefore, if V, is smaller than V,, I,
must be larger than I,, and if V, is larger than V,, I, must be smaller than I,. A
power transformer’s efficiency usually is between 85% and 95%.
—

AC VOLTAGE VALUES
A dc voltage usually has only one measured value. An ac voltage, because it is
continually changing, can have several different measured values depending
on how it is measured. Study these voltage values because they are important
in power supply design. They will be used later in this book for the project
designs.

13
 2
Buitoing Power SupPLigs

Figure 2-4 shows the common ac power-line voltage waveform plotted

against time. The time axis is also calibrated in the degrees of rotation ofthe ac
cycle. For the first 180 degrees, the voltage is positive; for the next 180 degrees,
it is negative. Because the power-line frequency is 60 hertz, a 360 degree
rotation cycle takes one sixtieth of a second.

Vis

The value of the power-line voltage is typically stated as 110VAC, but this value
is really 110V imc: Vims» aS Shown in Figure 2-4, is the value normally measured on
an ac voltmeter. V,,,, is the usually stated value of an ac voltage because it is an
ac voltage that provides the same energy to a resistive load as an equivalent dc
voltage.

Vand V,,
Note in Figure 2-4 that other values can describe the ac voltage. The peak
voltage, V,,, is the maximum value of the voltage in its cycle. The peak-to-peak
voltage, V,,, is the total value of the voltage from the maximum positive peak to
the maximum negative peak. For a sine-wave voltage (which is a voltage that
varies as the mathematical sine function of the angle of rotation) as shown in
Figure 2-4, V,n, equals 70.7% of the peak voltage (V,,,, = 0.707 X V,,). Con-
versely, V,, is 141.4% of the V,,,, voltage (V,, = 1.414 x V,,,,). The peak-to-peak
voltage for a sine-wave is twice the peak voltage (V,, = 2 x V,,).

RECTIFICATION
Rectification converts an ac voltage into a dc voltage. The component that
performs the rectification function is called a rectifier.

100VAC

VOLTAGE
AC

~141.4
<—— 1/60 (0.167) SEC.
— 200.0
TIME ——————_>

Figure 2-4. AC Voltage Values

14
 : 2
Unwrecutateo Power Supply Systems

Rectifier
The rectifier is a type of diode. Simply stated, it is a one-way valve for electric-
ity. As indicated in Figure 2-5, it allows electrons to flow freely in only one
direction, called the forward-biased direction, where the anode voltage is
more positive than the cathode voltage. In the opposite direction, called the
reverse-biased direction, electrons cannot flow easily. In this direction, the
anode voltage is more negative than the cathode voltage.

V,
A forward-biased diode is not like a piece of wire because it has enough
resistance to produce a significant voltage drop across it. The forward-biased
voltage drop, shown as V, in Figure 2-5a, varies according to the type of mate-
rial used in the diode. A commonly used silicon diode has a V, of 0.5-0.7V, and
a germanium diode has a V, of 0.2-0.3V. V; varies from 0.05V to 0.2V with large
changes in I,.

V, and PIV
The maximum reverse-bias voltage, shown as V, in Figure 2-5b, that can be
applied to a diode is called the peak inverse voltage (PIV). If this voltage is
exceeded, the anode-cathode junction may break down and allow a large
current to flow in the reverse direction. If breakdown is exceeded, the diode is
usually permanently damaged.

Half-Wave Rectifier
A simple half-wave rectifier circuit has a diode connected in series with a
transformer secondary output as shown in Figure 2-6a. The input primary
voltage is a power-line, 60-hertz, sine-wave voltage. The positive cycle alter-
nation is labeled A and the negative one is labeled B. The polarities of the
primary and secondary voltages are noted for each alternation.
DIODE
MECHANICAL VALVE Tel Ve pa

| aby 7 onEoren
OPEN
| eo
aby 7 onEoren
ANODE
Pa ™\ catHope
EASY FLOW
(Large Current for Small Voltage)
a. Forward Biased
DIODE
MECHANICAL VALVE Psa irae
4 @==-=
- +
GATE CLOSED |__-“FLOW BLOCKED ow LS aaa
ANODE CATHODE
BLOCKED FLOW
(Very Small Current for Large Voltage)
b. Reversed Biased
Figure 2-5. Diode: A One Way Valve for Current
15
 2
Buitoing Power SupPLiés

On alternation A, diode D1 conducts because its anode is more positive

than its cathode. A voltage equal to the secondary voltage (minus the diode’s
V,) is developed across the load, R,. On alternation B, D1 blocks current so no
voltage is developed across R,. The secondary voltage appears as reverse volt-
age, Vz, across the diode. To withstand this voltage, D1’s PIV must be greater
than the secondary voltage’s V,,.
The output voltage (Figure 2-6a) is a series of 60-hertz, half-cycle alterna-
tions of the secondary voltage. The voltage is always in one direction and is
known as “pulsating dc.” If the area under the positive pulses is averaged over
a complete cycle, the average dc voltage is 0.318 times the secondary’s V,,.
A half-wave rectifier circuit is used for low current applications such as
battery chargers and ac-dc adapters for calculators. Note that ifa battery were
placed across the dc output as a load, it would charge to the peak voltage of the
secondary minus the V, of the diode.

Full-Wave Rectifier
The rectifier circuit in Figure 2-6b converts both alternations of the secondary
voltage to a dc voltage; therefore, it is known as a full-wave rectifier. A diode is
in series with each secondary output and the center tap is grounded. The
voltage between the center tap (See Fig.2-3a) and each secondary output is
equal in value, but opposite in direction. When V,, is positive, V., is negative.
D1 conducts during the A alternation and D2 conducts during the B
alternation. The center tap is a common return for the current from each
diode. Because both diodes conduct current to the load in the same direction,
the pulsating dc has positive half-cycles on both alternations of the secondary
voltage. The output is pulsating dc at 120 hertz with an average dc voltage of
0.636V,,.
Only half of the secondary is used at one time; therefore, the transformer
secondary output voltage must be twice that needed to provide the proper dc
voltage. Also, each diode’s PIV must be at least the full secondary’s V,,,.

Bridge Rectifier
The rectifier circuit of Figure 2-6c is called a full-wave bridge rectifier. It uses
four diodes in a bridge network. One output terminal of the bridge network is
a common ground for the return of the load current. The other output terminal
is connected to the load.
D1 and D2 conduct on alternation A, and D3 and D4 conduct on alterna-
tion B. Both conducting paths deliver current to the load in the same direction.
The pulsating dc output is the same as the full-wave rectifier. The output dc
voltage is the secondary voltage minus two forward diode drops. The diodes’
PIV must be greater than the secondary peak voltage, Vopk

FILTERING
The pulsating dc output after transformation and rectification is nota satisfac-
tory power source for most electronic circuits. The filtering function smooths
the output so that a nearly constant dc is available for the load.
16
 p 4
UwreGulaTep Power Supply SYSTEMS

V
F POSITIVE
a D2 CATHODE ALTERNATION

VOLTS
Viy
- VOLTS
Vo- t—»> AVG

Average DC = 0.318V,,
f = 60Hz

POSITIVE
ALTERNATION

Ve
A+B-
i\
ie)

Veg
3>
ps DC
> NEGATIVE AVG
pee. —! ALTERNATION
t—_

Average DC = 0.636V,,,
= 120Hz

= ae b. Full-Wave Rectifier

Ui ALTERNATION A
CURRENT
A+B-

Vin

ie)
A-B+
-
ALTERNATIONB = ae
on Average DC = 0.636V,,
AACA CURRENT f = 120Hz
g
tze) Gee feapeXe/
>

2 Peon c. Bridge Rectifier

Figure 2-6. Rectifier Circuits

17
2
Buitping Power SuPPLies

The pulsating dc output from the rectifier contains an average dc value

and an ac portion called a ripple voltage. A filter circuit reduces the ripple
voltage to an acceptable value. Resistors, inductors and capacitors are used to
build filters. None of these components have amplification. Resistors oppose
current and normally function the same way in dc or ac circuits by not varying
with frequency. Inductors oppose current changes, and their inductive reac-
tance increases with frequency. Capacitors oppose voltage changes, and their
capacitive reactance decreases with frequency. Let’s take a closer look at
capacitors and understand what they do.

Capacitor
A capacitor consists of two conductive plates separated by an insulator, called
the dielectric, as shown in Figure 2-7a. When a dc voltage is applied across the
plates, electrons collect on one plate and positive ions on the other. The
difference in the electrical charges on the plates equals the voltage applied. If
the voltage is removed, the electrical charges remain in place and maintain the
voltage difference between the plates. In other words, the charge is stored by
the capacitor. The charge storage characteristic gives a capacitor in a circuit
the effect of opposing voltage changes. This effect is very important to the
filtering function in dc power supplies.
The electrical unit of capacitance is the farad. A farad is a very large
quantity so actual capacitors are usually rated in microfarads. One microfarad
is 0.000001 (1 X 10°) farad.

Discharging a Capacitor
To understand how a capacitor is used in filtering, let’s examine a capacitor’s
discharge characteristic. In Figure 2-7c, a capacitor has already been charged
to a voltage V.. Switch S, which has been open, is closed and the capacitor
discharges through resistor R. The voltage across the capacitor decreases as
time passes according to the very predictable curve shown in Figure 2-74. It is
called an RC discharge curve because the time scale is in RC time constant
units. To find the RC time constant (in seconds) for the discharge curve,
multiply the resistance (in ohms) discharging the capacitor by the capacitance
(in farads). If the capacitor is 10 microfarads (0.00001 farad) and the resistance
is 100 ohms, one RC time constant is 0.001 second (100 x 0.00001 = 0.001). The
resistance discharging a power supply filter capacitor is the power supply load.
The discharge curve of Figure 2-7d shows that V. will decrease to 37% of its
original charged value in one RC time constant. In five RC time constants, the
capacitor will be fully discharged. Analysis of the discharge curve reveals two
important facts:
= The larger the capacitance, the larger the RC time constant and the
slower the discharge.
= The smaller the resistance, the smaller the RC time constant and the
faster the discharge.

18
 2
Uwrecutateo Power Supply Systems

> PLATES
HAS A PLUS SIGN
IF POLARIZED
‘
LEAD
ye
LEAD ~ amyoP
/ DIELECTRIC b. Schematic
(INSULATOR)
a. Physical Construction
RC DISCHARGE

S)

V Cc

0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

TIME — IN RC TIME CONSTANTS

c. Discharging C d. Discharging Curve

Figure 2-7. Capacitors

Capacitive Filter
The simplest filter is a single capacitor in parallel with the output from a
rectifier. In Figure 2-8a, C,, is the filter capacitor and R, represents the power
supply load. I, equals V, divided by R, (Ohm’s law). Look at the waveform of V,
plotted against time. V, increases rapidly to the peak voltage output from the
rectifier as the first alternation half-cycle charges C,,. If there were no load
(R, =infinity), V, would remain at the peak voltage and C,, would not have to be
charged again; however, with a load of R, and a current of I, C,, starts to dis-
charge as the rectified pulse decreases to zero. The discharge is according to
the curve of Figure 2-7d, and the RC time constant is C,, times R,. C,, discharges
to point A shown on the V, waveform. At point A, the next alternation pulse
voltage increases above V, and recharges C,, to the peak voltage again.
A filter capacitor must be large enough to store a sufficient amount of
energy to provide a steady supply of current for the load. If the capacitor is not
large enough, or is not being charged fast enough, the voltage will drop as the
load demands more current.

19
 2
Buitoinae Power SUPPLIES

NO LOAD
RIPPLE DC VOLTAGE

‘ : sed I, sive Se Gata

r(rms) RIPPLE Cry TIME ——*> \-120 Hz PULSES

a. Capacitive Filter

Ge
Lz
= 2

B2
= 2(rms) fo}

ive
b. Capacitive-Inductive Filter

Figure 2-8. Filtering

The RMS voltage of the variation in V, above and below the output dc value
is shown as the ripple voltage, v,, in Figure 2-8a. For a full-wave, 60Hz ac input,
peat Ce
Venu ee irl Ga
where I, is in milliamperes, C,, is in microfarads, and an RC discharge is as-
sumed.
The equation can be rearranged to find C,, for a power supply that must
supply I, milliamperes of current and have a ripple voltage of v, r(rms)*
Ce = 2.4 1,/Veemayr(rms) ©
Ripple Voltage
Ripple voltage is usually stated as a percent of the dc output voltage, V,:
%V ems) = Veirms)/Wo X 100
For example, let’s assume a power supply must provide 10V dc at 200 milliam-
peres with a 1% maximum ripple voltage. Using the above equation, multiply
1 times 10 and divide by 100 to find that the ripple voltage must not exceed 0.1
volt. Then use the C,, equation to find that C,, must be 4800 microfarads to
meet the ripple requirement.
Additional filter components canbe added, as shown in Figure 2-8b, to
reduce the ripple voltage further. When L,, is in hentries, C,, is in microfarads,
and the source is a 60Hz, full-wave rectifier, the V,s4m.) of Figure 2-8b is:

Vi2ems) = Vrioms) X 1.77/

Lg,Cp,
‘Basic Electronic Technology, Radio Shack No. 62-1394 © 1985 Texas Instruments, Dallas, TX.
20
 2
Uwregutateo Power Supply Systems

VOLTAGE DOUBLER
A transformer can increase the voltage level of ac, but a transformer is rela-
tively expensive and increases the weight and heat generation of a power
supply. In some cases, a special type of rectifier circuit called the voltage
doubler is used to provide a higher output voltage without using a larger and
heavier step-up transformer.

Operation
Figure 2-9a illustrates the circuit and Figure 2-9b shows the output waveform.
The first A alternation forward biases D1 and charges C1 to V,,. The first B al-
ternation forward biases D2 and charges C2 to V,,. Because Cl and C2 are
connected in series with their polarities aiding, the output voltage, V,, is the
addition of the two capacitors voltages, which is 2 x V,,. Additional circuit
segments can be used to form voltage triplers and quadruplers. Circuits such
as this are useful for photo-flash power supply applications that require a
high-voltage, high-current pulse for a short time period, and then allow a
relatively long time before another pulse is required.

D1
Np

Vp

DC VOLTAGE =
TWO TIMES THE
SECONDARY
PEAK VOLTAGE
D2
TIME —>
a. Circuit b. Waveform

Figure 2-9. Voltage Doubler

SUMMARY
An unregulated power supply provides the rated output voltage when the
rated line voltage is input and the rated current is delivered to the load. If the
line voltage increases or if the load current decreases, the output voltage
increases. If the line voltage decreases or if the load current increases, the
output voltage decreases. Thus, the output voltage is unregulated because it
varies with line and load changes. :
The basic functions required for unregulated power supply systems of
transformation, rectification and filtering were discussed in this chapter. The
components that perform these functions were explained and their important
parameters were identified. In the next chapter, the circuits required for regu-
lation will be added.

ml
 CHAPTER 3

Basic Regulated
Power Supply Systems
INTRODUCTION
Modern digital ICs provide many of the conveniences enjoyed today. Most of
these ICs require a precise power supply that controls the voltage level within
narrow limits. The supply must respond very quickly to peaks and dips in
current demand, because the ICs are adversely affected if certain voltage
variations occur. This chapter explains the basic methods for controlling the
output of the power supply so that changes in load current and input line
voltage have little or no effect on the output voltage. A power supply with its
output controlled in this fashion is called a regulated power supply.
To design a regulated power supply, an unregulated supply like those
described in the last chapter is used with a regulator circuit added to its output.
This chapter will show how a regulator can monitor the power supply output
and automatically make adjustments so the output voltage stays within de-
fined limits. The basic functional parts of a regulator are discussed along with
a variety of integrated circuits that perform these functions. These ICs simplify
the design and manufacture of a regulated power supply.

WHY IS A VOLTAGE REGULATOR NEEDED?

Figure 3-la is a schematic circuit diagram of the unregulated power supply
shown in the functional diagram of Figure 2-1. Figure 3-1b shows a simplified
schematic equivalent to the circuit shown in Figure 3-1a. It has a certain open-
circuit (no load) dc voltage as its source, V,,, and a series resistor, R,, called the
output impedance. Any load current, I,, flows through R,. Two main factors work
to change the output voltage, V. One is a change in load current; the other is a
change in input line voltage, V,,, which changes Vp.. Sometimes these two
factors occur independently, and sometimes they interact with each other.

Variations in Load Current

The dc output voltage, V,, varies as the current demands of the load fluctuate.
Figure 3-2 plots the variations. If there is no load current (I,=0), then Vo equals
Vp the peak ac level from the power transformer. As the load demands more
current, the voltage drop across R, causes the output voltage to fall. When the
load is at the rated output current, I,,, Vo is at Vox, a point near the
transformer’s rated RMS voltage. This voltage variation is not a problem if the
load circuit demands somewhat constant current, or if the load circuit opera-
tion can tolerate the variations in V,. For example, the power supply voltage for
an audio power amplifier can vary over a considerable range without affecting
the amplifier operation, as long as it doesn’t dip below the level where signal
clipping or other distortion occurs. |
ES eaeeeeeenen nena See RMT FTE MNS Dap A iia) wanes ldoe=2 as Sea
oe
 3
Basic Regutatep Power Supply Systems

a. Original b. Simplified Circuit

Figure 3-1. Unregulated Power Supply Circuit

INCREASE
Me IN Ving STEADY STATE
aa DESIGN POINT:
~ RATED Vo, AT RATED Ip

VOLTS
Vo-

DECREASE OR
INI
INCREASE
IN |,

a _—
| I
nS RATED LOAD
CURRENT
NO LOAD (|, = 0) (FULL LOAD)

Figure 3-2. Load Line of Unregulated Power Supply

Variations in Line Input Voltage

As shown in Figure 3-2, Vo also varies because the line input voltage, Vin, varies.
If Vy changes, as it often does in many areas, the power transformer output
and the filtered V, output will change. ee

VOLTAGE REGULATOR PRINCIPLES ,

To maintain a constant Vo, a regulator circuit is inserted between R, and R, as
shown in Figure 3-3. There is a voltage drop across the regulator, Vgzci there-
fore, the input voltage, Vp,, must be larger than Vp- shown in Figure 3-1b. In
Figure 3-3, Vo = Voc — (Rz + Ves):

23
 3
Buitoing Power Supplies

CONTROL
ELEMENT

OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
SAMPLE

~ REFERENCE
VOLTAGE REFERENCE
VOLTAGE
GENERATOR

Figure 3-3. Simplified Regulator Circuit

Regulator Action
To perform the required regulation, the regulator circuit varies Vp, to keep Vo
constant as I, and Vp, change. If I, increases, V, increases which tends to re-
duce V,; however, the regulator reduces Vp, to offset the increase in V; so Vo
remains constant. Conversely, if I,. decreases, which tends to increase Vo, the
regulator increases Vpz, to keep V, constant. Similarly, the regulator increases
or decreases Vpz, if Vpc increases or decreases, respectively.

Sampling Circuit
The sampling circuit monitors the output voltage and feeds an output voltage
sample to the error amplifier.

Reference Voltage Generator

The reference voltage generator maintains a constant reference voltage for the
error amplifier regardless of input voltage variations.

Error Amplifier
The error amplifier compares the output voltage sample to the reference
voltage and generates an error voltage if there is any difference between them.
The error amplifier output is fed to the control element to control the value of
Vice

Control Element
The control element is essentially a variable resistance which is in series with
Vow R, and R,. When V,, or I, changes, the input from the error amplifier ad-
justs this variable resistance to change Vp, to hold V, constant as explained
above. .
24
 3
Basic ReGutateo Power Supply Systems

Now that the “big picture is understood,” let’s learn the details of the
regulator circuit operation. First, the basic transistor action which is used in
the circuits will be discussed.

TRANSISTOR ACTION
Transistor Construction
To clarify what is meant by transistor action, look at Figure 3-4. It is divided into
three parts. Figure 3-4a shows the construction of an integrated circuit NPN
transistor. The transistor is made up of islands of N, P and N semiconductor
material diffused into a semiconductor wafer substrate. The most commonly
used material is silicon. On the substrate, the devices next to each other are
isolated from each other so they can act independently. Small gold wires are
bonded to defined evaporated metal contacts to the N, P and N regions to
make external electrical connections to the base (B), emitter (E) and collector
(C)—the three terminals of a transistor.

+10V

Seca ea B E C METAL
MATERIOE 3 CONTACTS

a. Construction of NPN
IC Transistor
Ro = 200 OHMS LOAD LINE

Iz = 0.5mA

8
¢
of

<< BREAKDOWN
¢
I,—
MILLIAMPERES

Pwd Vo als} ohio) AP ease ik peere)

0.5 Voge
-VOLTS
c. Characteristics

Figure 3-4. Transistor Construction and Operation

25
3
Buitoine Power Supplies

Transistor Circuit and Characteristic Curves

Figure 3-4b shows a transistor in a circuit and Figure 3-4c describes transistor
action with a plot of collector current, I, against the collector-to-emitter volt-
age, V.,. Base current, I;, flows from base to emitter when the base is more
positive than the emitter by a base-to-emitter voltage, Vp-, greater than 0.7V.
With a given base current, a characteristic curve of collector current can be
plotted as V,, is varied. Different characteristic Curves are shown in Figure 3-4c
for different base currents. For example, if 1, equals 0.1 milliampere, then I; is
approximately 10 milliamperes for any Vc; from 2 volts to 20 volts.
Notice that there is a current gain in the transistor. I. is 10 milliamperes for
an I, of 0.1 milliamperes; therefore, the base current controls a collector cur-
rent that is 100 times greater. The current gain is not affected much by V,; until
V., is less than 2 volts or greater than the collector-to-emitter breakdown
voltage.

Load Line
If R, in Figure 3-4b is 200 ohms and if the supply voltage is 10V, then for any
base current, I, the V., of the transistor will fall on the diagonal dashed line
shown on the characteristic curves of Figure 3-4c. This line is called a load line.
If1,=0, then I.=0 and the operating point would be at point B on the load line
where V,; is 10 volts. If 1,=0.5 milliampere, then I.=46 milliamperes, which is
at point A on the load line. If 1,=0.3 milliampere, then V,,.=4 volts, which is at
point C on the load line. Thus, as I, varies, I, changes and V,, changes. Tran-
sistor action such as this is the basis of the regulator circuit operation in Figure
3-5.

SERIES-PASS FEEDBACK REGULATOR

To gain more insight into the operation of a regulator, let’s examine in detail
the series-pass feedback regulator of Figure 3-5. The control element is NPN
transistor Q, which is connected in series between the input voltage, V,,, and
the output voltage, V,, thus, the name series-pass. The load current, I,, is the
same as I, of Q,, therefore, all of the load current must pass through Q,. As we
learned from the discussion of transistor action, I, cannot flow unless there is
an I; into Q,, thus, I, controls I, and I,. How this affects the regulator operation
will be discussed in a moment.
Figure 3-5 is called a feedback regulator circuit because it is a closed loop
that feeds back a portion of the output voltage and compares it to a reference
voltage. The difference between the two voltages determines the action that
must be taken to keep the output constant.

Reference Voltage
The reference voltage, Vgz,, in Figure 3-5is the voltage across diode D,, whichis
a special diode called a zener diode. It is operated in the reverse-biased
direction, which was described in Chapter 2 as the breakdown region. Ordi-

aR OD ARPS TERE A NS EIR ORL ss ee

26
 3
Basic ReGutatep Power Supply Systems

CONTROL ELEMENT

SmD NE Sate oea SAMPLING

8 CIRCUIT
ERROR
AMPLIFIER

Vae (ERROR
VOLTAGE)

|
|
OUTPUT
REFERENCE | VOLTAGE
REF VOLTAGE SAMPLE
|
eS Se eee

Figure 3-5. Simple Feedback Regulator

nary diodes would be damaged if operated in this region, but zener diodes are
designed to be operated in this region.
In Figure 3-5, the input voltage to the regulator is applied to R, in series with
D,. Once the breakdown voltage of the zener diode is exceeded, the voltage
across D, remains fairly constant for wide variations of current through it. The
value of R, is chosen so the required minimum current passes through D, when
Vin is at its lowest value.

Sampling Circuit
The sampling circuit in Figure 3-5 consists of two resistors, R; and R,, in series
across the output voltage terminals. The output voltage sample is the voltage
across R,. This voltage depends on the ratio of the resistor values. The values of
R, and R, are chosen so the voltage across R, is 0.7 volt above the reference
voltage across D,. As stated previously, 0.7 volt is the V,, voltage of a silicon
transistor.

Error Amplifier
Q, is the error amplifier and the V,,; of Q, is the error voltage. The constant ref-
erence voltage is fed to the emitter of Q, and the output voltage sample is fed to
the base of Q,. Thus, any change in Vj varies the V,; of Q,, which changes the
base current, I,, of Q,. Changes in I, cause the collector current, I,, of Q, to
change.
Q, provides current gain due to transistor action. The collector current will
change from 50 to 200 times the change in base current depending on the type
27
3
Buitoing Power SUPPLIES

of transistor used for Q,. R, completes the collector circuit for Q, to Vix as its
supply voltage. The connection from the collector of Q, to the base of Q,
provides the error-amplifier control to the control element, Q.

Control Element
As stated previously, Q, is a silicon NPN transistor. Vix is designed to be larger
than V, so that Q, will always have enough V,, for the load current range of the
power supply, and still not be too large to exceed the power dissipation and
temperature limits of Q,. The power dissipation in Q, at any operating point is
the V,,; across Q, times the current through Q..
The emitter of Q, is connected to the regulator output voltage terminal.
The base of Q,, which is connected to Q,’s collector, is at 0.7 volt above Q,’s
emitter. The base-emitter circuit of Q, is similar to the circuit of Figure 3-4b.
Base current is supplied to Q, through R, from the supply voltage, V,y. I; must
be large enough to provide the maximum rated power supply load current
(I.=I,). If Q, has a minimum gain of 50, then the minimum base current that
must be supplied through R, is the rated load current divided by 50.
Q, controls Q, when the collector current of Q, shunts away (reduces) base
current from Q,.

Regulator Action
Now put it all together and look at the overall regulator action. The circuit is in
a stable operating condition, and then a load current decrease occurs.
A decrease in load current tends to increase V,. An increase in V, increases
the base current of Q,, which increases the collector current of Q,. The in-
creased I. of Q, shunts away base current from Q,. The reduced base current of
Q, reduces its collector current which increases its collector-to-emitter volt-
age. The increased voltage drop across Q, reduces Vo.
An increase in load current causes opposite actions. Similar regulator
control loop action occurs to keep V, constant if V,, increases or decreases. The
reader should go around the loop and verify the action.

IC REGULATORS
Various combinations of the sampling element, error amplifier, and control
element are available in integrated circuit form. These devices make building
a regulated power supply a much simpler task than it was just a few years ago.
Three common voltage regulator ICs are presented in this chapter.

7800-Series Fixed-Output Voltage Regulators

The LM7800-series three-terminal regulator, as shown in Figure 3-6, is a se-
ries-pass regulator which has a V,, terminal, a Voy; terminal, and a ground
terminal. Rated output voltages from ’5 to 24 volts are available in the 7800
series. The last two digits of the part number indicate the output voltage of the
regulator. For example, the 7805 is a 5-volt regulator, the 7812 is a 12-volt

et TR TNE een | pe ree EA ey ih fee oS

28
 3
Basic Regutateo Power Supply Systems

SAMPLING
ELEMENT

DIODESIN
GROUND LEG

Figure 3-6. 7800-Series Regulator

regulator, and the 7815 is a 15-volt regulator. The regulated output voltage is
fixed for each regulator.
The regulator contains all of the functions shown in Figure 3-3. In addi-
tion, it contains protection circuits to limit the peak output current to a safe
value, and to maintain the internal power dissipation to a safe limit. A thermal
shutdown circuit operates if the internal power dissipation exceeds a preset
value. With proper heat sinks, the 7800-series can supply 1.5 amperes of load
current. Notice that in order for the output voltage to be at the rated value, the
sampling element must have a good ground point close to the load.
As shown in Figure 3-6, the output of the regulator can be increased by
raising the regulator ground to a voltage above ground. The dotted lines show
two 1N4001 diodes connected in series with the regulator’s ground pin. Due to
the forward-bias voltage drop of the silicon diodes, the ground pin of the
regulator will be 1.3 to 1.4 volts above the ground level, causing the output to
be 1.3 to 1.4 volts above the rated fixed-voltage output. Regulation suffers
slightly because only a portion of V, is being sampled. Higher offsets can be
obtained by using more diodes, or by using a reverse-biased, high-current
zener diode. Such techniques are useful to increase the fixed output voltage by
a volt or two.

LM317 Adjustable Voltage Regulator Ze

The LM317 three-terminal adjustable voltage regulator is similar to the 7800
regulator, except that it doesn’t have an internal sampling element, and the
ground terminal is replaced by an adjustment (ADJ) terminal. This terminal is
connected to an external voltage divider which serves three purposes. The first
is to provide a sampling-element voltage to the built-in error amplifier. The
second is to provide enough current from ground through R1 to operate the
29
 3
Buitoing Power Supplies

circuit’s built-in voltage reference. The third is that it makes it easy to design an
adjustable power supply. The built-in control element, an NPN transistor, is
large enough to allow the LM317T to supply 1.5 amps if adequate heat-sink
surface is used. The LM317T has built-in protection for maximum current and
for exceeding internal power dissipation over its rated temperature range.
The operation of the LM317 is somewhat different from the 7800 series
because it is what’s known as a “floating regulator.” It maintains its reference
voltage relative to the output voltage, V,; therefore, whenever it operates, it
adjusts its operating point so that the voltage across R, in the R,, R, voltage
divider is always equal to its reference voltage, Var. AS a result, as shown in
Figure 3-7, Vo is equal to Vp, (1.25Vin the case of the LM317) times one plus the
ratio of R, to R,. IfR, is 9 times R,, then for an LM317, Vo is 10 times 1.25V, or 12.5
volts.
One can easily see that if R, is an adjustable resistor, Vp can be adjusted over
a wide voltage range, provided V,, is within the proper range. The minimum
Vn must be greater than V, + Vppp. The maximum V,, cannot be greater than Vo
+ 40 volts; for example, if V)>=12 volts, V,, cannot be greater than 52 volts. Of
course, the greater V,;,;, the greater the internal thermal dissipation.

Remote Sense
Another advantage of the external sampling element is that remote sensing is
made easy. In many system designs, long power distribution leads cannot be
avoided. A long power supply lead that has a high current will have a signifi-
cant voltage drop which is outside the regulation loop. To solve the problem,
remote sensing is used. A separate wire is connected to the actual load point
and feeds back the load voltage directly to the sampling circuit. Because there
is very small current in the wire, the voltage drop is negligible, and the regula-
tion at the load point is much improved.
| VIFF ar, |

V V 2
a CONTROL OuT
ERROR
ELEMENT
AMP

CURRENT SS
LIMIT

THERMAL
LIMIT
Adj
R
Vo= Vrer(1+ ze Vin > Vo + Vacr
1 Veer = 1.25V

Figure 3-7. 317T Regulator E

30
 3
Basic Regutateo Power Supply Systems

723 Regulator IC
The 723 regulator is shown in Figure 3-8. It contains a reference voltage source,
an error amplifier, a low-current control element, and two extra compo-
nents—a zener diode and a transistor. The extra transistor is used as a current
limiter. As illustrated, using the 723 requires more external components to
build a power supply than the 7800 and 317 regulators; however, because the
basic functions are available at the external pins, the 723 is a very versatile
regulator. Low-current (150 mA) stand-alone supplies use the 723, but its most
common use is to drive a much larger current-handling control element.

Adding External Transistor For Higher Output Current

Figure 3-8 shows how an external transistor that can handle much larger
current is connected to the 723 to provide a higher-current control element.
The collector of the external transistor is connected to V, of the 723. The base
is connected to Voy;, and the emitter becomes the new V,,; terminal for the
larger-current regulator. The 723 becomes a driver for the external control
element. A proper heat sink must be used to keep the external transistor in the
safe operating area.

1
i

CURRENT
EXTERNAL H LIMIT
TRANSISTOR y eo
FOR HIGHER
CURRENT
Ve

CONTROL
EXTRA ZENER DIODE
ELEMENT ~

CURRENT
LIMITER

2
CL cs
(CUR. |(CUR.
JLimit) JSENSE)J

*Remove this connection when

external transistor is used. :
-<
|}F-ox_

Figure 3-8. 723 Regulator

3E
 3
Buitoing Power Supplies

REGULATOR PROTECTION
A power supply regulator handles a considerable amount of energy while
doing its job. If the electrical and thermal forces get out of control, the circuit
can destroy itself. Manufacturers of IC regulators, and other IC semiconductor
devices that may be added externally, specify maximum voltage, current, and
temperature limits that must not be exceeded. When a circuit design stays
within these limits, all components are in their safe operating area. Operation
beyond these limits may destroy the device. To assure that regulators will not
be destroyed if limits are exceeded, protection circuits are added to the regula-
tors.

Short-Circuit Protection
A common occurrence is that a regulator’s output terminal is shorted to
ground. When this happens, the regulator tries to supply a large current
beyond its rated value. As previously discussed, short-circuit protection Cir-
cuits are built into 7800-series and LM317T regulators. For the 723, as shown in
Figure 3-8, the current limiter transistor is connected to measure the voltage
drop across a low resistance in series with the output terminal. As the load
current increases, the voltage drop across this resistance increases. If this
voltage rises above the V,, of the transistor, it indicates excessive current de-
mand by the load. The current limiter transistor conducts and shunts base
current from the control element to limit its I., which is the load current. This
keeps the control element in its safe operating area.

Thermal Runaway
Excessively high temperatures cause real problems in the operation of IC
regulators or any other solid-state circuit. If the maximum junction tempera-
ture specified on a device’s data sheet is exceeded, the device is usually de-
stroyed. Junction temperature rises because of power dissipation. The ex-
pected power dissipation generated by a series-pass regulator is calculated by
multiplying the voltage drop across the control element (Vix — Vou) by the
current flowing through it. This power is converted to heat which raises the
junction temperature. If this heat is not removed more quickly than it builds
up, a condition called thermal runaway can occur. The heat causes the device
to conduct more current, resulting in more heat, until the device literally
destroys itself. As long as the limits for the particular device are not exceeded,
the device will remain in its safe thermal operating area.

Thermal Conduction
To protect semiconductor junctions from excessive temperatures, a path must
be provided to conduct the heat away from the silicon substrate where it is
generated. The usual path that the heat must travel is from the silicon to the IC
package or case to the surrounding air. If the device is operated well below its
maximum ratings, this usually is an adequate conduction path; however, as
the power increases, the heat must be removed more rapidly.
2a een MR NE: «LE HELMS 2 Gu Se Ty,
32
 3
Basic Regutatep Power Supply SYSTEMS

Heat Sink
A heat sinkis a piece of metal attached to a semiconductor device case or an IC
package for the purpose of conducting heat away from the device. The larger
the surface area ofthe heat sink, the faster heat is removed by conduction and
radiation into the surrounding air. Figwre 3-9 shows how the metal, which is a
much more efficient thermal conductor, keeps the IC from becoming too hot.
Heat flows from the silicon chip, to the IC package, then to the air through the
leads, printed circuit board, and heat sink.

ILCON PC
ace BOARD
IC PACKAGE

DEVICE CASE SURFACE

IRREGULARITIES
at THERMAL COMPOUND ~S-7
~—3__—_

HEAT SINK

Figure 3-9. Heat Flow From IC to Heat Sink

To increase the efficiency of the heat transfer from the package to the heat
sink, a thermally conductive compound is often used between them. If it is
necessary to electrically insulate the device from the heat sink, a mica insulator
is used. Radio Shack’s power semiconductor mounting kit, 276-1371, includes
such an insulator.
Sometimes the conduction and radiation cooling of the heat sink is not
enough to keep the power device below its maximum junction temperature. In
this situation, a fan is used to move air across the heat sink to increase
convection cooling. In any design, temperature measurements should be
made to ensure that maximum temperatures are not being exceeded.

SUMMARY
What has been learned? — how an available ac line voltage can be transformed
to a level close to the dc voltage needed, how rectification and filtration can
give a steady dc voltage, and how a regulator provides a precise voltage even
under varying input voltage variations and output current demands. In Chap-
ter 4, these principles will be put to work in useful projects.
33
 CHAPTER 4

Linear Power Supply

Projects
This chapter contains three power supply projects using the principles devel-
oped in the previous three chapters. These projects use commonly available
parts from Radio Shack.

REGULATED 5-VOLT POWER SUPPLY

The first project is a regulated +5V power supply that can be used to power
digital circuits. This is an ideal power supply for experimentation using IC
breadboards such as Radio Shack’s No. 276-169.

Requirements
Digital integrated circuits are available for nearly any purpose in a wide range
of complexities. As varied as they are, the vast majority require a supply voltage
of 5 volts regulated to within 10%; however, some of the more complex ICs,
such as microprocessors, require 5% regulation.

Regulation
The percentage of load regulation is expressed as follows:
%Load Reg = (Vw, — V,)/V;, X 100
It is the change in voltage, expressed as a percentage, that occurs when the
load changes from no-load (NL) to a load (L) divided by the load voltage. It is
a measure of how far the output voltage varies in response to rapid changes in
current demand by the load. Let’s verify the output voltage of a 5V supply with
a regulation of 5% using the load regulation equation. In the following calcula-
tion, V, is the Vy, — V, variation in the above equation.
+5% = V,/5 x 100
+0.05 = V./5
+V, = 5(+0.05) = +0.25
—V, = 5(—0.05) = —0.25
Therefore, with +5% regulation, the 5V output voltage will vary from 5.25 to
4.75 volts regardless of the rapid peaks and dips in current demand. This
regulation also applies to input voltage changes.

Load Current >

The current demands of digital ICs vary from a few milliamps for logic devices
to a few hundred milliamps for complex ICs. Power switching devices often
control load currents of 100 mA or more which drive motors, contactors, lamps
or relays. This current is in addition to the current for the logic’s internal
eee A) eee ean OED CL ah SP Mee.
34
 r 4
LineaR Power Supply PROJECTS

circuitry. As a result, a +5V supply with a maximum rated current of 1A (1000

mA) and a possible current of 1.5A (1500mA) should be sufficient to handle
small projects and experiments that consist of around 10 ICs and some power
devices.

Ripple
The ripple specification is derived using the input capacitor filter equation
(from Chapter 2) and the fact that the regulator compensates for ripple voltage
variations at its input. This regulator characteristic is called ripple rejection.
Digital logic circuits usually have a minimum of 200 millivolts noise mar-
gin around critical logic levels in their system design. Any power supply ripple
reduces the amount of “headroom” (tolerance) on this design margin. Thus, if
ripple voltage were to cause logic levels to vary by 20 millivolts, it would reduce
the noise margin by 10%.
An input capacitor filter, CF,, with a capacitance of 4700uF is chosen for
this project. Ata 1500mA load, the ripple voltage is:
Viims) = 2.4 X 1500/4700
V-ams) = 0.76 or 760 millivolts
The 7805 regulator will be used in the design. It has a ripple rejection charac-
teristic of 60 decibels. The decibel, which is abbreviated dB, is the unit used to
express the ripple voltage that appears at the output of the regulator when a
certain voltage appears at the input. The relationship (a reduction) is ex-
pressed as follows:
~60dB = 20log, Vo/Vix
10> <= VolVin

It means that the output ripple voltage,Vo, will be reduced by 1000 times
over what appears at the input, Vy. Since the input ripple voltage is 760 milli-
volts, it should be 0.76 millivolts at the regulator output. This is small enough
to cause no problem with noise margin.
The schematic diagram for the full supply is shown in Figure 4-1.

Protections
Here are a number of protections built into the design.
1. The power switch, S1, is a double-pole double-throw (DPDT) switch with the
line cord connected to one of the outside pairs of terminals. This isolates the
line voltage inside the switch body when the switch is off.
2.An input fuse is in series with one of the primary leads of the transformer to
protect against transformer shorts.
3.An LED indicator is wired across the output terminals as a pilot light and an
aid in determining when the filter capacitors have discharged.
4.A fuse in series with the output helps prevent an experiment from “going up
in smoke.” It has been included to demonstrate its use in a design. It really

$3
4
Buitoing Power Supplies

Bi LINE
CORD

Figure 4-1. Regulated +5V Power Supply Schematic

isn’t necessary because the 7805 regulator has current limiting. If the regula-
tor used has no short-circuit protection, the fuse is absolutely necessary for
experimental supplies like this. .
5.Since this supply may be used with a variety of loads, a diode is connected
from the input to the output so that it is reverse biased under normal
operation. This provides protection if a large amount of capacitance is
connected to the output. When the input voltage is turned off, the large
capacitance on the output may discharge more slowly than the capacitance
on the input. This would reverse bias the regulator and could damage it. The
diode provides a “safe path” for the discharging current.

Regulator Choice
The requirements for this regulated +5V power supply project closely match
the ratings of the fixed-voltage 7805 IC regulator—5 volts output voltage and
1.5 amperes maximum load current. The built-in thermal cutoff circuit and
current limiting features are especially useful to provide additional protection
when powering your experiments.
Since the 7805 IC will be delivering a power supply rated current of 1
ampere and a possible maximum current of 1.5 amperes, and since its mini-
mum standoff voltage is 3 volts, it will dissipate a minimum of 4.5 watts at
maximum load. It must be and is mounted in a heat sink and cooling holes are
drilled in the enclosure to prevent heat build up.

Transformer and Rectifier Choice

The 7805 IC regulator requires a minimum voltage differential between the
input and output of 3 volts. Thus, to obtain a 5-volt output, the input to the
36
 4
LineaR Power Supply PROJECTS

regulator must be at least 8 volts. The transformer’s center-tapped secondary

is rated at 12.6 volts at 3 amps. Using the two-diode full-wave rectification
scheme produces 8.9 volts peak (6.3 X 1.414) at 3 amps. The rectifier diodes,
which require a PIV of 17.8 volts, and the protection diode across the regulator
are rated at 3A, 50V PIV. By choosing an 18V centertapped transformer (RS#
273-1515), the supply would be able to operate at 1.5A continuously because
the peak voltage is raised. However, the heat sinking of the 7805 regulator has
to be more extensive to protect the regulator from exceeding the power dissi-
pation and case temperature limits.

Filters
The filtering and resultant ripple voltage is as previously described for the 7805
regulator. A small capacitor (0.1uF) is placed across the output of the regulator
to bypass high-frequency noise that may be generated by the load.

Construction Details
The parts listed in Table 4-1 are used for this project.

Table 4-1. Regulated +5V Power Supply Parts List

Reference
Catalog No. Description Quantity Designator

273-1511 12.6V transformer 1 T1

276-1141 Diode, 1N5400 3 CR1—CR3
276-1770 IC, 7805 voltage regulator 1 U1
276-069 LED indicator 1 CR4
272-1022 Capacitor, 4700uF, 35V electrolytic 1 C1
272-109 Capacitor, 0.1u.F, 50V ceramic 1 C2
271-1313 Resistor, 2200, /4”W 1 R1
276-1363 Heat sink 1
276-1373 Heat sink mounting hardware 1
276-1372 Thermal compound 1
275-614 DPDT switch 1 S1
276-158 Circuit board (294” x 3%") 1
270-232 Box (2%” x 4%" x 7%") 1
270-364 Fuse holder 2
270-1274 1.5A fuse 3 Fipe2
278-1255 Line cord 1
278-1636 Strain relief 1
274-661 Binding post set 1 Heil, Were
64-2342 Rubber feet (set) 1
276-195 Standoffs 4
278-1627 Heat shrinkable tubing a
64-3012 Screws 6-32, 3/4” long “a
64-3019 Nuts 6-32
64-3011 Screws 4-40, 1/4” long
64-3018 Nuts 4-40
NN ee

37
 4
Buitoing Power Supplies

Construct the circuit on the circuit board following the connection dia-
gram in Figure 4-2 and the photograph in Figure 4-4. Figure 4-2 shows the
underside of the circuit board. Insert the component leads through the board
in the positions shown, and bend the leads as shown against the bottom of the
board to hold the components in place. Besides the leads, extra lengths of bare
or insulated wire are used to make the connections.
Use thermal compound between the IC and the heat sink when mounting
the regulator IC. Use a 6-32 screw and nut to hold the IC in place. Insert the
regulator pins through the holes in the board, wrap the component leads and
wire connections around the pins, and then quickly solder the connections
without heating the IC excessively. Remember, shiny solder connections are
proper connections, not grainy gray. The solder on the IC leads should wet the
contacts on the board to hold the IC in place, but make sure the leads do not
short together.

ke

7805 ON
C1 HEAT SINK

23/4"

“D Sa
cA A
hm
ae)
.

TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER TO NEGATIVE

BerReore (YELLOW CT (BLACK) LEAD OUTPUT
eae k= EADS CONNECTS HERE TERMINAL TP2

Figure 4-2. Regulated +5V P.S. Circuit Board Parts Placem

ent
(Underside shown)
SUR RNR NUN anne Pen ESSN ts ELS seal
38
 : 4
LineaR Power Suppty PROJECTS

Enclosure-Mounted Components
Remove the bottom cover from the box. Refer to Figure 4- 14a for a pictorial view.
Drill mounting and cooling holes in the box in the positions shown in Figure
4-3. The 1/8” holes are for mounting the circuit board and the transformer. The
front panel holes are for fuses, binding posts, an indicator, and a power switch.
The 3/8” end hole is for the line cord.
While the circuit board is unmounted, insert the two secondary (red or
yellow) transformer leads through the board, and solder each to a formed
diode lead on the underside of the board. Do the same with the centertap
(black) lead, but solder it to the negative lead of capacitor Cl. Insert a red wire
through the board at the junction of CR3, C2, and the output pin of the 7805
and solder it in place. This is the positive output voltage lead to F2. Insert a
black wire through the board at the negative lead of C1 and solder it in place.
This is the negative output voltage lead to terminal TP2. Insert another black
wire through the board and connect it to R1. This wire will be connected to the
LED. Mount the standoffs to the circuit board with the short 4-40 screws.

Assembly Steps
1. Mount the transformer upside down directly to the box top in the position shown in
Figure 4-3. Use 6-32 screws and nuts.
2. Install the fuse holders, binding posts, LED, and power switch in the front panel as
shown in Figures 4-3 and 4-4. Mounting hardware is on the components.
3. Mount the circuit board on standoffs inside the box in the position shown in Figure
4-3. Use the short 4-40 screws.
4. Insert the ac line cord through the strain relief and anchor the strain relief in the
end 3/8” hole. Allow 2” of slack inside the box.
5. Solder the primary leads of the transformer to the center pair of terminals on the
power switch. The switch handle up indicates the power supply is on and that the
bottom terminals are internally connected to the center terminals.
6. Solder one wire of the ac line cord to the side contact on the fuse holder for F1.
Run a wire from the end contact of the fuse holder to one terminal of the bottom
pair of terminals on the power switch. Solder the other wire of the ac line cord to
the other bottom switch terminal. Insert a 1.5A fuse in the holder.
7. Solder the negative black wire from the circuit board to the lug from the black
binding post TP2, then secure the lug to the post with the nut provided. This is the
negative terminal of the output voltage.
8. Solder the positive red wire from the circuit board to the end terminal of the fuse
holder for F2. Insert a 1.5A fuse in the holder.
9. Solder a red wire from the side terminal of the fuse holder, F2, to the red binding-
post (TP1) lug. Secure the lug to the post with the nut provided. This is the positive
terminal of the output voltage.
10. Solder the black wire from R1 to the short lead of the LED. Z
11. Slip a small piece of heat-shrinkable tubing over a red wire and solder it from the
long lead of the LED to the lug on TP1. Pull the tubing up over the LED connection.
12. Recheck all connections against the schematic in Figure 4-1. Correct any errors.
13. Attach the cover with the self-tapping screws provided. Mark the position for the
rubber feet, strip off the self-adhesive covering, and stick the feet in place.
14. Connect a voltmeter to the output, plug in the ac cord, and flip the power switch on
to test the output voltage before using the supply. The open-circuit output voltage
should be 5 volts and it should not change more than 5% when a resistive load
drawing rated load of 1 amp (5 ohms) is placed across it.
SySay Ec TeIRS RES Sal ie a cn Fee as Se. ea
39
 4
Buitoing Power SuPPLiés

DRILL 12 44” D PATTERN OF HOLES

Ye" D HOLES FOR COOLING. A = 1%”.
6 PLACES
CIRCUIT RUBBER
BOARD FEET

DRILL 12 %4” D
PATTERN OF HOLES
IN BOTTOM COVER BOTTOM
COVER

612"

a. Drilling Pattern for Top TRANSFORMER

ees
lis Ya" D YwiD %e'D %erD 2D
Leoe
is)

= hex
St ©.
cRé Sp rie
1P2 Orare
PI =
LL

Lete Le 1 4" zs 4" He 7A"

eben e) os
b. Drilling Pattern for Front Panel

lamaittins Gilead 7%" (FOR REFERENCE) ci aiisRais Gites

DRILL 4%” D HOLES 12 PLACES

FOR COOLING. A = 1%”.

Some Reena esa

OG9O9OOOOO

c. Drilling Pattern for Rear Panel

Figure 4-3. Chassis Layout for +5V Power Supply

40
 f
4
Linear Power Supply PRoJEcTs

Figure 4-4. Fully Assembled + 5V Power Supply

REGULATED +12V POWER SUPPLY

This project is a dual power supply with a +12V output and a —12V output
around a common ground.

Requirements
Output Voltage
Many analog ICs and some digital data communication ICs operate on differ-
ential power supplies. Such power supplies usually have a central ground with
equal positive and negative voltage outputs. There are specialized ICs that
require different positive and negative voltages; if this is a requirement, the
design principles for setting the voltages are the same.

Load Current
Many analog applications are for small-signal amplification. As a result, the
load currents are quite small; therefore, a rated load current of 1.5 amperes for
each differential voltage should be quite adequate for many systems. Even if
the application is a power amplifier that delivers 10 to 12 watts, the design
should be adequate.

Ripple
Small-signal analog circuits require even lower ripple voltages than logic
circuits; therefore, the regulator chosen for this design must have an even
higher ripple rejection characteristic than the +5V supply. If the supply needs

41
 4
Buitoine Power Suppties

further ripple reduction, more filter sections can be added to the input filter-
ing, or, as will be mentioned for the LM317 regulator, additional components
can be added to the regulator circuit.

Regulation
It is not likely that the current changes due to signals are going to be as severe
in analog circuits as in digital circuits; however, much smaller voltage changes
become significant signals in the analog circuits. For this reason, the regula-
tion of the differential supply voltages is set at 0.5%, with a maximum of 1%
over wide temperature swings.

Protection
Similar protection features to those included in the +5V supply are included in
this design—a primary fuse, a DPDT power switch, and an LED pilot light.

Component Choices
Because negative regulator ICs are not as widely available as positive regulator
ICs, this project uses two LM317T adjustable regulators and separate 25.2-volt
center-tapped transformers for each side.
The schematic diagram in Figure 4-5 shows two independent power sup-
ply circuits connected in series at their output, with the ac input in parallel.
This is possible because of the isolation provided by the power transformers.
The positive lead of the second supply is connected to the negative lead of the
first, forming the central ground. The specifications of the supply are:
Output voltage: + 12V, 0.5% typical, common central ground.
Output current: a maximum of 1.5 amps for each voltage.
Ripple: 65 to 80 dB typical rejection.
The peak voltage output across the capacitor input filter is 17.8 volts (12.6
xX 1.414). Two 1N5400 diodes are used for full-wave rectification, with the
centertaps of the transformers used as the negative terminals. The diodes are
rated at 3 amps, 50 PIV, well within the 35.6V PIV required.
The LM317T regulator offers the added advantage that the output voltage
can be changed simply by changing the ratio of the resistance between the
adjustment pin and ground and the resistance between the adjustment pin
and the output. For 12 volts output, using 390-ohm resistors for R1 and R3, the
programming resistors R2 and R4 are calculated by using the equation:
Vo = 1.25[1+(R2/R1)]
Vo/1.25 ce 1 hae R,/R,

Substituting 12V for V, gives:

12/1.25 -1=R,/R,
9.6-1=R,/R,
8.6R, = R,
IfR, = R, = 390Q, then R, = R, = 33009.
42
 4
LincEAR Power Supply PROJECTS

Figure 4-5. Regulated +12V Power Supply Schematic

The LM317 has a typical ripple rejection characteristic of 65dB. It can be

raised to 80dB by bypassing R, and R, with a 10uF capacitor (shown as C5 and
C6). Since the same capacitive input filter is used as in the +5V supply, the
input ripple will be the same—760 millivolts. With 65dB rejection, the output
ripple is over 2000 times less. At 80dB rejection, the ripple at the output is
reduced by 10,000 times.

Construction Details
The parts listed in Table 4-2 are used for this project.
Construct the circuit on the perfboard following the connection diagram
in Figure 4-6. Scribe the perfboard along a row of holes to obtain the 3” x 6”
dimensions, then snap the board along the scribe line. As in the other projects,
insert the leads of the components through the board in the position shown,
bend the leads over against the bottom of the board, and make the connection
to the underside of the board as shown in Figure 4-6. Add extra wire to com-
plete all connections, and solder component leads and wire together.
Insert through the board, at the positions shown in Figure 4-6, two red wires,
one black wire, and two wires of another color. Solder one red wire to the
negative output, TP3, and the other red wire to the positive output, TP1. Solder

43
 4
Buitoing Power Supplies

Table 4-2. Regulated + 12V Power Supply Parts List

Reference
Catalog No. Description Quantity Designator

273-1512 25.2V transformer 2 IP; UA

276-1141 Diode, 1N5400 4 CR1 — CR4
276-1778 IC, LM317 voltage regulator 2 U1, U2
276-069 LED indicator 1 CR5
272-1022 Capacitor, 4700uF, 35V electrolytic 2 C1, C2
272-109 Capacitor, 0.1F, 50V ceramic Pes C3, C4
271-018 Resistor, 390Q, 1/2W Z R1, R3
271-1328 Resistor, 3.3kQ, 1/4W 2 R2, R4
276-1363 Heat sink 2
276-1373 Heat sink mounting hardware 2
275-614 DPDT switch 1 S1
270-274 Box (3%e" x 81%" X 61%") 1
276-1394 Perfboard (41%” x 6”) 1
270-364 Fuse holder 1
270-1274 1.5A fuse 1 FA
278-1255 Line cord 1
278-1636 Strain relief 1
274-661 Binding post set 1 fet
64-2342 Rubber feet (set) 1
276-195 Standoffs 4
64-3012 Screws 6-32, 3/4” long
64-3019 Nuts 6-32
64-3011 Screws 4-40, 1/4” long

the black wire to the ground connection, TP2. The other colored wires will
connect to CR5. Solder one to the junction of CR1 and CR2, and the other to the
end of R5. Mount the standoffs at each corner of the board with short 4-40
SCIeWS.

Enclosure-Mounted Components
Drill mounting and cooling holes in the bottom and top of the enclosure as
shown in Figure 4-7. Refer to Figure 4-14b for a pictorial view. The transformer
and perfboard mount to the inside of the bottom. Install the rubber feet to the
bottom with the self-adhesive pads in the position indicated in Figure 4-7.

Assembly Steps
1. Install the binding posts and LED to the front panel portion of the bottom, and the
power switch and fuse holder to the rear panel as shown in Figures 4-7 and 4-8.
2. Insert the ac line cord through the strain relief and anchor the strain relief in the
3/8” hole in the rear panel. Allow 2” of slack inside the bottom.
3. Mount the transformers to the bottom near the rear panel as shown in Figure 4-7.
Use 6-32 screws and nuts.
4. Solder one wire of the ac line cord to the-end contact on the fuse holder or F1. Run
a wire from the fuse holder's side contact to one terminal of the bottom pair of
terminals on the power switch, S1. Solder the other ac line cord wire to the other
bottom switch terminal. Solder the primary leads of the transformers to the center
pair of terminals. Insert a 1.5A fuse in the fuse holder. When the switch handle is
up, the power supply is on.
Tanne ereeeeeeeee STE eS er ee ee es
44
 4
LinEaR Power Supply PRoJecTs

bf. 3" x 6” CIRCUIT BOARD

DRILL 1%” D
APL ACEC 2 aenpee ot a eR oe a,
av wa abel a ae) sew elie Leh in r-----7- eH a PG, ante Sieh, ba,

TO CRS 5 Cera eeceet finer Meme Se NDR ay Sd.

LED ANODE P<" ]Ggu so ee ee een ten, on Nowa |

POSITIVE Sas tae Ra ECM we a

OUTPUT (RED) | sas
a es Be NS al Ue NES st
a POSITIVE
TRANSFORMER
[7 SECONDARY
(YELLOW) LEADS

TRANSFORMER
CT(BLACK)
LEAD

GROUND
(BLACK) TP2

TO CR5 LED
CATHODE

NEGATIVE
NEGATIVE TRANSFORMER
OUTPUT (RED) SECONDARY
TP3 (YELLOW) LEADS

TRANSFORMER
CT (BLACK) LEAD

Figure 4-6. Regulated + 12V P.S. Circuit Board Parts Placement

(Underside Shown)
eeu oe ale She aie er ee kg
45
 4
BuitoinG Power Supplies

/k- We =) FRONT | 2 eae

©OO0® ©0007, Foner| DRILL 4%” D

8 PLACES

©OO0 ®©O0O0F|
———
=
AOMO 4ONT) VaCORCROMS)
DRILL 12 14" D PATTERN OF HOLES
FOR COOLING. A = 12”. CIRCUIT
REPEAT PATTERN IN TOP. Set
See 2 Bu oo So a eS ee YS aroye

574"
(FOR
REFERENCE)
————_»>

apn SS Se —— — — - E
| |
| TRANSFORMER :
\ Nee
ee Foe 4] 8 Nee eee

}<— | | ‘i REAR
16 U 2%" 17/6"
654"

77"

a. Drilling Pattern for Bottom

ee ees (FOR REFERENCE) FRESE pommel

Ya" D H%e"D %e’D Me" D

es is © OL Ore ©
CR5 TP3 Vie TP1

et! Vee,
VY" we = A ve —| Lect1V4"

| af Fp oe aeae RUBBER
b. Drilling Pattern for Front Panel FEET

ia Barhe

(FOR
3"
REFERENCE)

yt —| lene
Name!
c. Drilling Pattern for Rear Panel Newer!
cad ee yan

Figure 4-7. Chassis Layout for +12V Power Supply

46
 4
“LinEAR Power Supply PROJECTS

Figure 4-8. Fully Assembled + 12V Power Supply

5. While the perfboard is unmounted, insert the two secondary (yellow) leads of each
transformer through the board and solder each to a formed rectifier diode lead on
the underside of the board. Follow the diagram carefully. The negative transformer
leads go to CR3 and CR4,; the positive transformer leads to CR1 and CR2. Insert
the black centertap transformer leads through the board. The negative transformer
black lead is soldered to the negative output connection; the positive transformer
black lead is soldered to ground. Mount the standoffs to the board with short 4-40
screws.
6. Mount the perfboard with its standoffs to the bottom of the box with short 4-40
screws into the standoffs.
7. Solder the red negative-output lead from the circuit board to the lug from the red
negative-output binding post (TP3), then secure the lug to the post with the nut.
8. Solder the red positive-output lead from the circuit board to the lug from the red
positive-output binding post (TP1), then secure the lug to the post with the nut.
9. Solder the black ground lead from the circuit board to the lug from the black ground
binding post (TP2), then secure the lug to the post with the nut.
10. Slip a small piece of heat-shrinkable tubing over the wire from R5 and solder it to
the short lead on CR5. Do the same for the remaining wire from the board, but
solder it to the long lead on CR5. The LED indicator is now connected. Slip the
tubing over the connections to CRS. 5
11. Recheck all connections against the schematic in Figure 4-5. Correct any errors.
12. If cooling holes have not been drilled in the top, do that now.
13. Connect a voltmeter to the output, plug in the ac cord, and flip the power switch on
to test the output voltages before using the supply. Each output voltage should be
12 volts and remain within 1.0% regulation when a load from milliamperes to 1.5
ampere is placed across the supply (an 80, 20W power resistor must be used for
1.5A).
ee
47
 4 (
Buitoinag Power SupPLies

CAUTION
If the supply is going to be used continuously at 1.5A, then it is best to have a
fan blowing down on the top to keep the regulator within its limits of power
dissipation at a particular case temperature.

VARIABLE POWER SUPPLY

The last project for this chapter is a power supply with a variable output
voltage suitable for a wide range of uses. It covers approximately 3.0 — 30 volts
at up to 1.5 amps of current in three ranges. The schematic is shown in Figure
4-9.

Transformer and Regulator

The transformer is a 25.2V, 2A, center-tapped (C.T.) transformer used with a
full-wave bridge rectifier rated at 1.5A, 50V PIV, to provide 35.6 V,, (minus the
bridge diode drops), or a few volts higher if the ac line voltage is over 120 volts.
The C.T. connection is not used. It is taped and tucked out of the way so it will
not short out. The regulator is an LM317. Since the LM317 regulator is used,
the typical regulation specification is 0.5% just like the previous supply. The
sampling element includes a variable resistor (5KQ) to provide a front-panel
voltage adjustment.
When the output current is 1.5A, the input capacitive filter peak voltage
has dropped to 27 — 28 volts. If the output voltage were set to 3.0 volts, the
regulator would have to drop over 25 volts. Thus, at 1.5 amps, the regulator
would dissipate over 37.5 watts as heat, which would quickly trigger the device’s
thermal-shutdown protection circuit.
To keep the power dissipation of the regulator within acceptable values,
the operating range of the supply is divided into three ranges. Within each
range, switching is designed to limit the minimum output voltage, and the
input voltage to the regulator at maximum current. A voltage dropping resistor
is placed in series with the regulator to control the input voltage, while the
minimum voltage for each range is set by the resistor ratio in the sampling
element. For example, for the low range, R1 plus R2 is 740 ohms and R6 plus R7
is aminimum of 740 ohms. The ratio of R6 plus R7 to R1 plus R2 is 1. Using the
equation:
Vo = 1.25(1 + (R6+R7)/(R1+R2))
the minimum voltage for the range is 2.5 volts (1.25(1+1)). The minimum dif-
ferential voltage across the LM317 is specified to be 3 volts; however, many of
the regulators will operate down to 2.5 volts. By inserting a 90 resistor in series
right after the capacitive input filter, the input voltage to the regulator is
limited to 14.5 volts when the load current is 1.5 amperes. The resistor not only
serves as a series dropping resistor, but also as the resistive part of another
resistive-capacitive filter section formed with C2.

48
 4
LineaR Power Supply ProJects

25.2VAC

5602 — 180Q 2.2uF

KEK YTS R4
Loe 7 © on
VOLTAGE ADJUST
LINEAR TAPER R7 ie c| esa /
1802 Breer bier
— /

3300,/ ana
O+
R11 jh
‘so OUTPUT
10Q,10W /) Opes

12,10W 10,10W R12 (P) /

/ a L
O/ MID
100,10W ie 15ko2 $3
:
fa
Onin < © C
0 LO
0 HIGH
(H) Ba 9 TRANSPORT
R18 2 ee ROS kK
= ~ | M1
502,10W 10Q,10W (R)
(4) (3) =
* Not used.
** Added if C1 and C2 are far away from regulator. R20 ©)
*** See text — for additional ripple rejection. 15kQ
**** Eor meter protection when power supply is transported to
new location — see text.

Figure 4-9. Regulated Adjustable Power Supply Schematic

49
 4
Buitoinc Power Supplies

The approximate voltage drops across the series resistance for the low and
mid ranges is as follows:
Range Rs 1.0A 1.5A
LO 9Q 9V 13.5
MID 4Q, 4V 6V

Ripple
As in the previous supply using the LM317, the ripple rejection is either 65dB,
or, if bypass capacitor C5 is used, it increases to 80dB. Using the ripple voltage
equation, the ripple voltage input to the regulator is calculated as:
V,r1(rms) = 2.4 X 1500/2200 = 1.64 volts
With 65dB of ripple rejection, the ripple voltage at the regulator output is
reduced over 2000 times to below 0.82 millivolts. Actual measurements show
this to be from 3 to 10 millivolts. Long leads due to the switching seem to
contribute to larger ripple.
The output capacitor C3 is a 2.2uF tantalum capacitor whose main task is
to prevent noise generated by the load from affecting the regulator operation.
If a layout of a power supply design were to place the filter capacitors a fair
distance from the regulator, then the 0.1uF capacitor C4 (indicated in dotted
lines) would be added to the design.

Indicators
ALED pilot light and a meter are used to indicate voltage presence. The LED,
with a current-limiting resistor (2.2kQ), indicates the presence of dc (prior to
regulation). The meter indicates the output voltage and a range switch changes
the full scale from 15 volts to 30 volts. The TRANSPORT position of the switch,
which shorts across the meter, should be used when the supply is being
moved.

Heat Sinks
Because of the high power dissipation in this supply at the current extremes,
the regulator and TO-220 heat sink are mounted to the back of the enclosure.
The regulator is insulated from the heat sink. This provides maximum heat
sink area for thermal protection. However, if the supply is operated continu-
ously at voltage and current conditions near the maximum boundaries indi-
cated in Figure 4-10, a fan should be directed to blow over the back of the
enclosure as an added precaution to protect the regulator.

50
 4
LineaR Power Supply ProJects

RESTRICTED MAXIMUM
OPERATING REGULATOR MINI
2.0 REGIONS CURRENT OR a Foo
REGULATOR
-\ Vx FROM
7 TAAND BRI
<
EY
aie
Ww
ie
es 8
oO

0.5

0
By 25a 5 10 15 20 25 30
Vout ~ V

Figure 4-10. Operating Regions for Adjustable Power Supply

Operating Region
As shown in Figure 4-10, there are regions within the operating voltage ranges
where the maximum power dissipation of the LM317 (15W @ T,=25-90°C) is
being exceeded. The power supply should not be operated within these regions.
Other operating restrictions also are shown:
1. The peak voltage output from the transformer and rectifier at various cur-
rents and the 3V minimum differential across the LM317 limit the maximum
output voltage to 25 volts at 1.5A.
2.The maximum load current for the LM317 is 1.5A.
3.The three nominal voltage ranges are:
LO: 3.0 to 11 volts
MID: 9.5 to 20 volts
HI: 18.0 to 30 volts
The voltage adjustment varies with the ranges. A full turn of the knob is
required on the LO range, approximately half of the sweep is required on the
MID range, and less than half of the sweep is required for the HI range. As the
output voltage on each range is increased, the differential voltage across the
LM317 decreases, and (especially at high currents) may drop below 3 volts.
This causes the LM317 to drop out of regulation.

Construction Details
The parts listed in Table 4-3 are used for this project:

51
 4
Buitoing Power SupPLies

Table 4-3. Variable Power Supply Parts List

Reference
Catalog No. Description Quantity Designator

273-1512 25.2V transformer 1 a

276-1152 Bridge rectifier 1 BR1
276-1141 Diode, 1N5400 1 CR1
276-069 LED indicator 1 CR2
276-1778 LM317 1 U1
272-1048 Capacitor, 2200uF, 50V electrolytic 2 C1, C2
272-1435 Capacitor, 2.2uF, 35V electrolytic 1 C3
271-020 Resistor, 560, 1/2W 2 R1, R6
271-014 Resistor, 180, 1/2W 2 R2, R7
271-1312 Resistor, 150Q, 1/4W 1 R3
271-010 Resistor, 68Q, 1/4W 1 R4
271-1315 Resistor, 330, 1/4W 1 R5
271-1714 Potentiometer, 5kQ 1 R8
271-131 Resistor, 1Q, 10W 2 R9, R10
271-132 Resistor, 102, 10W 5 R11, R12, R17—R19
271-133 Resistor, 502, 10W 4 R13—R16
271-1337 Resistor, 15kQ, 1/4W 2 R20, R21
271-027 Resistor, 2.2kQ, 1W 1 R22
276-158 Circuit Board (2%” x 3%’) 1
276-1363 Heat sink 1
276-1373 Heat sink mounting hardware 1
275-614 DPDT switch 1 $1
275-1545 DPDT switch, center off 2 Sess)
270-274 Box (3146” X 8%" X 6%") 1
270-364 Fuse holder 1
270-1274 Fuse, 1.5A 1 Ea
274-661 Binding post set 1 eRe
64-2342 Rubber feet (set) 1
278-1255 Line cord 1
278-1636 Strain relief 1
270-1754 Panel meter 1 M1
274-433 Knob 1
276-195 Standoffs 4
278-1627 Heat Shrinkable Tubing
64-3012 Screws 6-32, 3/4” long
64-3019 Nuts 6-32
64-3011 Screws 4-40, 1/4” long
Hookup wire #20 AWG

Circuit Board
As with the previous projects, insert the components through the circuit board
in the positions shown in Figure 4-11, bend the leads, and interconnect the
circuit. Use extra wire (#20 AWG) as necessary. Insert three 2” wires through
the board at points E, F, and G, respectively, as shown, and solder in place.
Remember Figure 4-11 is the underside of the board. Slip short lengths of
shrinkable tubing over the wires. These wires connect to the LM317 , Which is
mounted on the rear panel of the enclosure.
Figure 4-5. Regulated + 12V Power Supply Schematic

52
 : 4
Linear Power Suppty Provects

@)
To Jet of
©
To MID Range
©)
To HI Range
R9 and R13 (Bottom) Terminals (Top) Terminals
of S2 (Left Side) of S2 (Left Side)

@)
To LO Range
(Center) Terminal
of S2 (Left Side)

To Negative 3
Terminal, TP2 To Input Pin, |

To Positive
Terminal, TP1
To Output Pin, O

To Center and
Right Terminals To Adjust Pin, A
of Voltage Adjust
Pot as Viewed
from Rear To Left Termnal
of R8 as Viewed
from Rear
To Negative
Terminal of M1

To Center
Terminal of S2

To LED

Transformer eee
Secondary Leads O

©. of ©
Erm ©

——__ rrom@©)

Figure 4-11. Adjustable P.S. Circuit Board Parts Placement

(Underside Shown) >

Insert 7” lengths of wire for A, B, C, D, I, J, L, M, N, O, and Q, and solder in

place. Make these wires different colors so they can be identified easily. A will
be in the main output supply line to the LM317 and connects to C2. B is the V,,
voltage line to the series dropping resistors that control the voltage ranges. Q is
the connection from the junction of R16 and R17 to the range switch, S2, center
terminal. C, D, and M connect to one side of the range switch, $2; I and J

53
 4
Buitoina Power Supplies

connect to CR2; L and N connect to the adjustment control, R8; and O con-
nects to M1 for full scale of 15 volts.
Insert a 6” red and black wire through the board at TP1 and TP2, and solder
in place. TP1 will connect to the positive output voltage terminal and TP2 to
the negative output voltage terminal. :
Drill holes in the enclosure as shown in Figure 4-12. Refer to Figure 4-14b
for a pictorial view of the enclosure. Install the rubber feet to the bottom with
the self-adhesive pads.

Assembly Steps .
1. Proceed carefully one step at a time. The interconnections are a bit complicated.
Refer to Figures 4-9, 4-11, 4-12, and 4-13 at each step.
2. Install the power switch, fuse holder, and ac line cord in strain relief in the rear
panel. Leave about 2” line cord slack inside the box.
3. Solder one wire of the line cord to the end contact on the fuse holder for F1. Runa
wire from the fuse holder’s side contact to one bottom terminal of the power switch,
S1. Solder the other line cord wire to the other bottom switch terminal. Insert a
1.5A fuse in the fuse holder.
4. Mount the transformer to the bottom of the enclosure. Solder the primary leads to
the center pair of terminals of S1. When the switch handle is up, the power supply
is on.
5. The power resistors are stacked and held in contact with the enclosure bottom by
two wire ties, as shown in Figures 4-12 and 4-13. Pass the ties through the holes
in the bottom of the enclosure to hold the resistors in place. Interconnect and
solder the leads of R9 through R18 shown in Figure 4-9. Attach two wires to form
the connection H and the connection P from the resistors to the range switch, S2.
6. Install the front-panel components, S2, S3, CR2, TP1, TP2, R8 and M1.
7. Mount the regulator IC on the heat sink with the insulator provided in 276-1373
between the IC and the heat sink. With the same screw and nut, attach the heat
sink to the rear of the enclosure. Use thermal compound on all surfaces.
8. Before mounting the circuit board, insert the transformer secondary leads through
the circuit board as indicated in Figure 4-11, and solder in place. C.T. is not used.
9. Mount the circuit board to the standoffs, and mount the assembly to the bottom in
the position shown in Figures 4-12 and 4-13. Use 4-40 screws.
10. Solder wires E, F, and G to the LM317 as shown in Figure 4-11. Trim wires to
length and slip shrinkable tubes over connections.
11. Looking at the voltage adjustment resistor, R8, from the rear, solder N to the left
hand terminal. Solder L to the center terminal and right hand terminal, shorting the
terminals together.
12. Slip a small length of heat shrinkable tubing over the LED wires, | and J, and
solder them to the LED indicator leads. J connects to the short lead (cathode); |
connects to the long lead (anode). Slip tubing over connections.
13. Solder the positive red wire to the lug of TP1, and the negative black wire to the
lug of TP2. These are the output voltage binding posts.
14. Solder wire O to the negative terminal of the meter, M1. Solder a wire, R, from the
negative terminal of M1 to the bottom right-side terminal (looking from rear) of S3.
15. Run a wire S from the positive terminal of M1 to the center right-side terminal of
S3. Also, between this same terminal and the top terminal of S3, connect R21. R21
makes M1 into a 30V full-scale meter. Complete the M1 connections by running
wire T from the top terminal of S3 to the lug of TP1. Solder all connections.
16. Solder wire A to the junction of power resistors R9 and R13. At this junction is wire
H from step 4. Solder H to the top right-side (looking from rear) terminal of S2.
SA ENA LOI IE sats aie PIL pees ty
54
 4
Linear Power Supply PRoJecTs

PATTERN A, B, AND C OF COOLING

HOLES ARE REPEATED IN TOP.
6”
194") A A | %"
BAA FRONT e>|<+|
PATTERN A: PATTERN B:
414” | 10 HOLES 14"D 10 HOLES 14” D 1"
\ FOR COOLING. A = 1%”. FOR COOLING. A = 1%”. |
© © © ©
A STACKED POWER {A
© © RESISTORS STRAPPED © @
A TO BOTTOM tA
© © y Wee Se p------r © ©

<0 ee
<M
_—_—_——_ 4%"
YS 7%’

NOTE: NOT TO SCALE DRILL %" D PATTERN C:

Front and rear are long dimensions of box. 10 PLACES 12 HOLES 14D
a. Drilling Pattern for Bottom = | FORCOOLING.A = 12”.
72"
37h"
- haem | |

Val D
~- QO wd %e'D %e'D
S2 © o) ©
CR2 TP1

R8 | |

“a! — <—— | Ae | vA"

Ne ee =

2%" 2" |e f
|< 41" 1
b. Drilling Pattern for Front Panel

Figure 4-12. Chassis Layout for Adjustable Power Supply

55
 4
Buitoine Power Supplies

gales.
Ce 5%

ey er eet |

c. Drilling Pattern for Rear Panel

Figure 4-12. Chassis Layout for Adjustable Power Supply (Continued)

Figure 4-13. Fully Assembled Adjustable Power Supply

17. Solder wire Q to the center right-side terminal of S2, and wire P to the bottom right-
side terminal. When the handle of S2 is up, S2 is on MID range; when it is down, it
is on the HI range; and when it is in the center, it is on the LO range.
18. Solder wire C to the bottom left-side (looking from rear) terminal of S2, wire M to
the center terminal, and wire D to the top terminal.
19. Recheck all connections against the schematic in Figure 4-9. Correct any errors.
20. If cooling holes have not been drilled in the top, do it now. Attach the top as a
cover. ;
21. Connect a voltmeter to the output and test the supply using various values of
power resistors. Table 4-4 lists various voltage and power resistor combinations to
test the supply at various load currents. Refer again to Figure 4-10to make sure
the power supply is operating only in the permissible region. The regulation should
be typically 0.5% over the operating region.
Oe eat ie Ae ER FS Se TR Son See De
56
 / 4
LinearR Power Supply Provects

a. +5V Power Supply b. +12V and Adjustable Power Supply

Figure 4-14. Enclosures

Table 4-4. Resistance Values to Test the Variable Power Supply

Se SE
SE a Le ie anc a Mie
Range Vo I, R, P,*
Vv A OHMS WwW
NE
HI oo 1-25 20 5
20 15 13:3 12
MID 20 125 13.3 3
15 ES 10 10.5
12 1 12 14
LO 10 ee) 6.7 6.8
6 1 6 15
3 0.5 6 12:3

* Because of line voltage variations, the P, values may be different. If P, becomes too
high, the thermal protection circuit may shut down the regulator.

SUMMARY
This chapter has given the design and construction details of three different
power supplies that are adequate for a variety of uses. The circuits may be
changed or modified as needed by the person building them. —
The discussion so far has focused on linear power supplies. In the next two
chapters, the basic principles of switching power supplies will be investigated.

57
 CHAPTER 5

Switching Power Supply

Systems
This chapter describes the operation of a switching power supply system
which uses switching regulators. A switching regulator has much higher effi-
ciency than the linear systems described in the first four chapters.
Linear series-pass regulators convert an input voltage that is higher than
needed to a desired lower voltage. The extra energy (the voltage drop across
the control element times the current flowing through it) is dissipated as heat.
As aresult, typical series-pass regulators have a conversion efficiency (Poyr/ Pin)
of 50% or less.
Switching regulators, on the other hand, can have a conversion efficiency
of 85% or more. Such efficiency results in lower power dissipation and much
smaller size components for a given power output. Other advantages are:
1. operation over a wide range of current and voltage, 2. switching-mode
operation for the control element, 3. input voltage can be lower than the
output voltage, and 4. the output voltage can be of opposite polarity than the
input voltage.

SWITCHING POWER SUPPLY OPERATING PRINCIPLES

Figure 5-1is a block diagram ofa switching regulator power supply. As one can
see, there are many similarities between switching systems and the linear
systems discussed in Chapter 3. The differences lie in the action of an inductor
used for temporary energy storage, and how the control element is controlled
to provide regulation.
DC

CONTROL OUTPUT
ee a ee a ee oe ee me
TEMPORARY
|UNREGULATED PS | ELEMENT STORAGE
1
FILTER
(TRANSFORMATION! (SWITCH) (INDUCTOR (OS ee
CAPACITOR)
| RECTIFICATION )
1 FILTERING)
“TURN ON
SWIC “LEAVE SWITCH
ON FORX
PULSE SECONDS” SAMPLING
OSCILLATOR WIDTH. ELEMENT
MODULATOR
(PWM)
ERROR
AMPLIFIER VOLTAGE
REFERENCE

Figure 5-1. Switching Power Supply Block Diagram

58
 f 5
Switcuine Power Suppty Systems

If an ac source is used, the transformation, rectification, and filtering

circuits that provide a dc input voltage to the regulator serve the same function
in a switching power supply as in a linear power supply. Ifa dc source is used,
an input filter may be required for ripple or noise reduction or for stability.

Control Element Action

In linear systems, regulation is accomplished by varying the resistance of the
control element. In switching systems, it is done by rapidly turning the control
element on and off, and by varying the ratio of ON time to OFF time. Unlike the
series-pass control element, there is no linear operating state; the control
element is either completely on or completely off.
The ON switching action “pumps” energy in sudden bursts into the induc-
tor temporary storage element. During the time that the switch is OFF, the
stored energy is directed by a diode into the filter capacitor to supply the load
as needed. The sampling element, reference-voltage source, and error amplifier
workin an identical manner to those in a linear supply. However, the output of
the error amplifier is used differently.

Error Amplifier, Oscillator and PWM

The new circuits for the switching regulator are the oscillator, the pulse-width
modulator (PWM), and the temporary storage element inductor. The control
element is still a transistor or power field-effect transistor, but it is operated as
a switch. It is turned on and off by the PWM as shown in Figure 5-2.

PULSE
PERIOD CHANGES IN
CONSTANT NOT SYNCHRONIZED
TO (a)

OSCILLATOR
OUTPUT —>| |< t
l
! | NOMINAL
CONTROL (B) ! | OUTPUT
| VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE |
FROM ERROR LEVEL
AMPIFIER MAXIMUM AT RATED
CURRENT CURRENT
MINIMUM
CURRENT _ CONTROL
_|-— ELEMENT ON

PWM CONTROL
OUTPUT ~ ELEMENT OFF
ON TIME . 2%
OFF TIME On és
torr DUTY CYGLE = 7
T

Figure 5-2. Switching and Control Waveforms

59
 5
Buitoing Power SUPPLIES

The oscillator provides output pulses at a constant frequency, and the

PWM output pulses have varying ON times compared to the total period, T, of
the oscillator pulses. The oscillator pulse to the PWM input tells the PWM
output pulse to turn the control element ON. The error amplifier voltage level
tells the PWM how long the output pulse should keep the control element ON.
Thus, the error amplifier output controls the width of the PWM pulse, which
controls the ON time of the control element. The duty cycle of the control
element is toy/T.

Inductor Action — Storing Energy

The switching regulator cannot be understood unless the action of the tempo-
rary storage inductor is understood. Figure 5-3a shows an inductor in series
with resistor, R, which represents the load, and switch, S1, across a battery with
voltage V,,. The initial conditions are: S1 is open, current is zero (I=0), and
voltage across the load is zero (V,=0). The inductor, L, is assumed to have no
resistance.
The curve shown alongside the circuit plots the value of V, against time.
Since V,=IR and R is a constant, the curve also represents the value of I in the
circuit at any instant in time. After S1 is closed a relatively long time, notice that
Vz = Vin and I = V,y/R.
At the instant that S1 is closed, the current in the circuit tries to increase to
the V,,/R value, but the inductor action resists current change. It does this by
developing a counter voltage, V,, across itself that is in a direction to resist the
current change. The counter voltage is expressed by engineers as the counter
electromotive force (CEMF). (This is the same “voltage by induction” that was
discussed in Chapter 1 for generators and transformers.) As the current changes,
the magnetic flux extending out from the inductor as a result of the current
change, cuts the turns of the inductor coil and induces the counter voltage, V,,
in the inductor. The V, (or CEMF) developed across the inductor can be ex-
pressed by the equation:

v,= LAL
At

where: L = the inductance in henries

Al = change in current in amperes
At = time period in seconds of current change
At the instant that S1 is closed, the current is trying to change from zero to
maximum, therefore, V, is maximum. Since all the input voltage appears across
the inductor, V,=0. As time passes, the current increases in a logarithmic curve
as shown for V,, and finally reaches its maximum value, V,,/R. When the cur-
rent reaches maximum, it no longer changes, and the magnetic flux stops

60
 / 5
Switcuine Power Suppty Systems

changing; therefore, V, =0. Since all of the input voltage, Vy, appears across R,
V, is maximum. Thus, the action of the inductor is to resist a current change
and store energy in the magnetic flux field built up around it by the current
through it. A similar opposition to current change that occurs when S1 is
opened is described in the following paragraphs.

Inductor Action — Releasing Energy

Figure 5-3bis the same circuit as Figure 5-3a except diode, D1, has been added.
The diode’s purpose will be explained shortly. The current in the circuit is
maximum, V,,/R, and V,=V,y. Energy has been stored in the magnetic flux
surrounding the inductor. Now, S1 is opened.
The curve alongside the circuit plots V, against time. At the instant S1 opens,
the current, I, wants to change to zero because S1 is open. Since I wants to
change to zero, the magnetic flux field built up in L collapses. As the magnetic
flux cuts the turns of wire in the inductor, the counter voltage, V,, is again in-
duced, but this time the polarity of V, is opposite to what it was in Figure 5-3a.
S1 CLOSED
ALONG TIME =

0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

$1 CLOSES — TIME — SECONDS

a. Action of Inductor When S1 Closes

S1 OPENS

_S1VOPENA
~ LONG TIME
S% p09,

(LOAD) 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

TIME — SECONDS
b. Action of Inductor When S1 Opens

Figure 5-3. Switched Inductor Action

61
 5
Buitoing Power Supplies

The polarity is such that it wants to keep the current in the same direction as it
was before S1 opened. D1 provides a complete path for I through R and Las the
magnetic field collapses. (If D1 were not present, a very high voltage would be
developed across the opened S1 contacts, causing the contacts to arc over to
release the stored energy in L.)
Thus, the energy stored in the magnetic field of L is returned to the circuit
by inducing a voltage in L to resist the change in I, and to keep I through R in
the same direction it was before the current change occurred. V,, and thus I,
reduces along a logarithmic curve as the field collapses until I and V, are zero.
V_ is calculated from the same equation as for Figure 5-3a. The inductor action
described in Figures 5-3a and 5-3b is used in several different types of switch-
ing regulators.

STEP-DOWN REGULATOR
Figure 5-4ashows a control element, inductor and output filter for a step-down
switching regulator. It is used when the required regulated voltage is lower
than the input voltage. When the control element is switched on, the inductor
stores energy, helps supply load current, and supplies current to the capacitor.
When the control element is switched off, the energy stored in L helps supply
the load current, but also again restores the charge on C, that is supplied to the
load during the time that the control element is off and L has discharged its
energy. In this circuit V,=V,,—V, when the control element turns on, and V,=V,
when the control element turns off.
Alongside the circuits in Figure 5-4, waveforms of inductor and/or ca-
pacitor currents in the circuits are plotted against the time that the control
element is on and off. Figures 5-4a and 5-4b show curves of the current, I,, into
the output filter capacitor. There are times when L is supplying current to
charge the capacitor (+1,) and supplying the load current as well; and there are
times when the load current is supplied only by the capacitor (—I,). The
switching regulator, when working properly, is just at balance in a switching
cycle—it is supplying the capacitor as much charge, +Q, as the load dis-
charges, —Q, from the capacitor.

STEP-UP REGULATOR
Figure 5-4b shows the same circuit parts for a step-up switching regulator. It is
used when the required regulated voltage is higher than the input voltage. It
operates slightly differently than Figure 5-4a. Energy is stored in L when the
control elementis on. The energy is supplied by V,, and V, =V,y during this time.
The load, isolated by D1, is supplied by the charge stored in C,;. When the
control element turns off, the stored energy in L is added to the input voltage,
and I, helps supply the load current and restores the energy discharged from
C;. C,; supplies current to the load after L discharges. When the control element
turns off, V.=Vo-Vin-

62
 p 5
Switcuina Power Supply Systems

CONTROL
hy ELEMENT ON

CONTROL |
+ ELEMENT
O O

CONTROL
ELEMENT
OFF

©, © v, POLARITY WHEN
CONTROL ELEMENT |S OFF t t —s

CONTROL
ELEMENT

©, © V, POLARITY WHEN
CONTROL ELEMENT IS OFF

b. Step-Up Regulator

v + lLoap

CONTROL
+ ELEMENT

©, © v, POLARITY WHEN
CONTROL ELEMENT IS OFF
c. Inverting Regulator

Figure 5-4. Types of Switching Regulators

63
 5
Buitoina Power Supplies

INVERTER REGULATOR
Figure 5-4c shows the same circuits parts for an inverter regulator, sometimes
called a flyback regulator. The inverter regulator is used when a regulated
output voltage ofthe opposite polarity of V,y is required. Its operation is similar
to the step-up regulator. When the control element is on, energy is stored in L,
and D1 isolates L from the load. The load current is supplied by the charge on
C,. When the control element turns off, the stored energy in L charges C;, to a
polarity such that V, is negative. I, supplies load current and restores the charge
on C, during the time it is discharging its energy. As with the step-up regulator,
C, supplies the load current after L discharges. When the control elementis on,
V,=Viy; when the control turns off, V,=V>. Depending on how the inverter is
designed, it can be used for voltages higher or lower than the input.

COMPLETE SWITCHING REGULATOR

Figure 5-5 shows a functional block diagram of a complete step-down switch-
ing power supply. Each of the individual functions will be discussed in more
detail.

Input Voltage
The input voltage for a switching power supply can vary over a surprisingly
wide range while still maintaining good conversion efficiency. An ac source is
indicated for V,,. All the same design considerations apply for the transforma-
tion, rectification and filtering as for the unregulated supply of Chapter 2. The
ripple voltage filtering, which takes care of any 60Hz or 120Hz noise, can be
somewhat less because of the output filtering of the switching regulator.
| l |
INPUT CONTROL TEMPORARY | OUTPUT LOAD
VOLTAGE ELEMENT | STORAGE FILTER |
| |
|
|

|
| |Loan | |LOAD
Pda Qt —— ——
|
|
UNREGULATED
PS Vv | R
TRANSFORMATION |
RECTIFICATION
|
|
FILTERING --. |

SAMPLING |
ELEMENT |

Figure 5-5. Complete Switching Regulator (Step-Down)

64
 5
SwitcHinG Power Supety Systems

Control Element Switch

The control element switch is a switching power semiconductor. It must have
low Voy across it, and must have fast switching times. It may be a single NPN
transistor or power FET, or it may be a combination NPN and PNP for higher
gain operation. Regardless of what type of transistor is used, it is turned
completely on (lowest resistance) during the ON time, then abruptly turned
completely off (highest resistance) during the OFF time. It is used as if it were
a relay, but operates at a very fast rate—from 20kHz to 100kHz. A 100 kHz wave
has a period of 10 microseconds (0.00001 second).

The Catch Diode — Directing the Energy

When the magnetic field of the inductor begins to collapse and release its
stored energy, the energy must be contained and channeled in a useful direc-
tion. A diode, called the catch diode, does this in each of the circuits of Figure
5-4. It directs the stored energy into the output filter capacitor. The one-way
conduction of the diode is used to provide the proper circuit connection when
the induced voltage across the inductor is the proper polarity. Due to the high
switching frequencies in these supplies, the diode must have a very low for-
ward voltage and a very fast switching time and recovery time. A Schottky
diode is an ideal diode for the application.

The Inductor
The action of the inductor has been discussed thoroughly. The main concern
is that the chosen inductor has the proper inductance, that it not saturate
during its operation, and that the core has the volume to handle the power
required. If it saturates, it loses its inductance and its ability to efficiently
transfer energy to the output.
The inductance is determined by the core material and the number of
turns of wire on the core. Ferrite and powdered iron cores are usually used for
switching power supply inductors. When iron laminated cores are used, they
have core loss at higher frequencies which causes the supply efficiencyto be
low. -
The inductance of a coil can be determined from the following equation:

jp N?Auu,
1
where: L = inductance in henries
N = number of turns SS
A = cross sectional area of coil (m7)
u = permeability of core material
u, = absolute permeability of air (1.26x 10% H/m)
1 = length (m)

Inductance increases with more turns, larger area, higher permeability, and
shorter length.

65
 5
Buitoinae Power Supplies

Filters
The output filter capacitor serves essentially the same function in the switch-
ing regulator as it does in the series-pass regulator; thatis, it stores energy to be
used by the load. Because the output ripple frequency is much higher, the
output filter capacitor usually is a much smaller value than for the series-pass
regulator.
The input filter must reduce the 60Hz or 120Hz ripple to acceptable values
and/or it must keep the switching-frequency ripple from the input to keep the
system stable and noise free. Switching power supplies can be a significant
source of electromagnetic interference (EMI). Shielding and filtering are used
to keep any generated EMI from escaping.

Oscillator and PWM Circuit

Refer again to Figure 5-2 where the operation and waveforms of the oscillator
and PWM were discussed. A convenient IC for both functions is the 556 dual
timer. Figure 5-6 shows the 556 interconnected as an oscillator and a PWM.
The first timer is used as a free-running oscillator, or multivibrator. The
oscillation frequency is calculated by the following equation:
= 1.44
(Ry + 2R,)C;
The ON output pulse (C) from the PWM (the second timer) to the control
element is triggered on by the constant frequency pulses (A) from the oscilla-
tor. When triggered, the PWM output goes high, turning on the control ele-
ment. The output remains high for a time determined by the control voltage

OUTPUT
rT TO CONTROL
1th ELEMENT

CONTROL a4
cc Voc VOLTAGE INPUT —
FROM ERROR
AMPLIFIER

Figure 5-6. Oscillator, PWM and Error Amplifier

66
 5
Switcuine Power Suppty Systems

(B) from the error amplifier. When the ON time has expired, the PWM
resets
the output, forcing it low and turning off the control element. The PWM output
remains low until it is triggered again by the oscillator. The time range of the
ON pulse is controlled by R; and C,, the oscillator frequency by R, and R, and
its C;, and the trigger pulse width by R,.

Error Amplifier and Voltage Reference

A convenient IC to use for the error amplifier and voltage reference is the 723
regulator described in Figure 3-8, and shown again in Figure 5-6. The sampling
element, made up of R2 and R3, delivers a feedback voltage to one input ofthe
error amplifier. The error amplifier compares the feedback voltage to the
reference voltage, and produces a corresponding drive current for the 723’s
output transistor. The output resistors R4 and R5 develop the final control
voltage connected to the PWM input. When using the 556 as a PWM, R,=0
because the voltage range of 3.3—10.3V is a convenient range for the 556. If V,
of the regulator is greater than the 7.15V reference voltage, the reference
voltage can be connected directly to the inverting input of the error amplifier;
however, this restricts the voltage swing of the control voltage. It is best to
divide down the reference voltage with R, and R, to a lower voltage, and set the
voltage on the inverting input from the sampling element to the same value.

DESIGN CHOICES
In any switching regulator design, certain design specifications are set for the
design. Using these, the component values and design parameters are calcu-
lated and selected for the type of regulator used for the design.

Design Specifications .
Output Voltage
What nominal output voltage(s) is required by the load? This sets Vo.

Load Current
How much current is required by the load? Sometimes this specification is for
small load variations that may occur around a steady-state load current. If the
current will not vary from a minimum load to full-load, some of the compo-
nents may be smaller, or the efficiency higher, etc. The regulator must still be
capable of supplying the full-load current.

Regulation ies
What percent regulation is required by the circuits or equipment to be pow-
ered? Some circuits need only 10%, while others need 1%.

Ripple Voltage
How much noise or ripple variation can the circuits or equipment tolerate?
This specification determines the quality of filtering required on the regulator
output.
67
 5
Buitoing Power SupPLiés

Design Parameters
With knowledge ofthe specifications, the available input source, the available
components, and the design flexibility, the regulator type can be selected and
the design parameters determined. The following parameters usually are
required:
a. DutycycleandONtime d. Switching frequency
b. Peak current e. Output filter capacitance
c. Coil inductance f. Switching transistor and diode ratings.

Duty Cycle and ON Time

If a step-down regulator is used, in order to support an output of V, from a
higher input voltage, V,,, the area under the two voltage-time curves must be
equal as shown in Figure 5-4a. V,y toy must equal V, xT. Thus, the duty cycle,
DC, and toy equations are:
ton Vo Veh omils
Duty
Babe a aan
Cycle =
Nae
= ftoy =
oS Sey oar A
ton =

The duty cycle and output voltage for three type regulators are as follows.
The equation for V, of the step-down regulator shows that V, can be controlled
by controlling the duty cycle.’
Step-Down Step-Up Inverter

Duty Cycle Vo Vo = Vin poise

Vt V6 {Vo} * View

V DC
Output
p V Vee
) Vin
IN DG VoCarne
=— {Vo} = Vig
NT———_—
_ DG

{V,} is the value of —V,

without the sign

Peak Current
The peak current in the switching regulator occurs when the inductor current
is just enough to discharge the inductor completely and replace all the charge
on the output filter capacitance at maximum load current. It is determined by
the maximum load current and the fact that the inductor must be allowed to
completely discharge (1,=0). The peak current varies with the different regula- ~
tors as follows:
Step-Down Step-Up Inverter

Vo {Vo} |
To = 2 loan Le = 2 Toap AY lx = 2 Lioap [}=

IN
' Linear Technology Corporation, Application Note 19, C. Nelson, LT1070 Design Manual.

68
 5
SwitcHine Power Supply Systems

Coil Inductance
The voltage across the inductance, L, during the peak current change in time
toy determines L. The general equations for the voltage and inductance is:
L lx o = V ton
V=
ton i

For the three types of regulators, Lis (disregarding transistor and diode drops):
Step-Down Step-Up Inverter

ie = Vin ae Vo ae i = Vin ton ie = a ton

Tok pk

Knowing the peak current, tox, and the voltage(s), the inductance can be cal-
culated. The inductance value for continuous current in the inductor is chosen
based on the minimumcurrent that the switching regulator must handle—the
lower the current, the larger the inductance. Calculate the I,, current using the
minimum current, and use this value to calculate the inductance.

Switching Frequency
The period, T, must be long enough to allow t,,+t,. Using the voltage equation
above, the value of t, that allows L to discharge completely must be:
Step-Down Step-Up Inverter

ne Oe ie: ie ne Liy
Vo Vo mie IN {Vo}

ti [Vin E. Volton i Vin ton eS Vin ton

dig en 7. Se hae Pe eas diana <7 arae
we Ve ts Ven {Vo}

Since T=toy+t,, 1/T determines the maximum frequency.

For the project designs of Chapter 6, t,,, is between 10 and 20 microsec-
onds, and the duty cycle is set at the midrange of the load current to be
regulated, and thus, the frequency is set. t,,, will vary as the regulator controls
the pulse width, getting narrower as the load decreases. Since the frequency
remains constant, t,,, increases and exceeds t,, and the inductor, being com-
pletely discharged, goes into discontinuous operation. Therefore, if the PWM
and error amplifier pulse width versus control voltage curve will allow it, t,.
and the frequency are best set when handling the lowest current.

Output Filter Capacitance ;

Increasing the charge on a capacitor increases the voltage across it; therefore,
the I. (and charge) curves of Figures 5-4 would cause a ripple voltage as shown
in Figure 5-4c. Since Q=CV, then C=Q/V.
2 Motorola Semiconductor Technical Data MC34163/D “Power Switching Regulators,” Motorola
Inc., 1990.
pAb sain ey ance eat IS ea) Gas Sak al ee
69
5
Buitoina Power SupPLies

As shown in Figure 5-4, the charge added or subtracted from C, is the area
under the I current-time curves. The largest charge deviation is used to calcu-
late the value of C, to limit the voltage change to the specified ripple voltage.
With V_ representing the ripple voltage, C,, is:

C;= AQ
V,
Using geometry to calculate the current-time area (IXt) and considering that
the +Q isthe same for t,, and t, or to;,, the equations for C, of the different types
of regulators are as follows:
Step-Down Step-Up Inverter
|
ek (Ip. Sn I)?
Seyee ot Vin
eee ge (ie = Se
(Ix
PS a I,)? Vo
eee Se oft (Lx ce, I,)? {Vo}
pee + Vin
= ZV rae No SRSA aN PER RES TN TE ES TA
By substituting the voltage specification for V,, the value of C,; can be calcu-
lated.

Ratings for D1 and QI

As stated previously, the diode is usually a Schottky diode because of its
excellent switching times and low forward voltage. The diode’s PIV need not be
greater than the larger of the input or output voltage. It must handle the peak
current of the regulator.
The transistor must have low forward voltage and must have a breakdown
voltage greater than any output-to-input difference, including polarity. It also
must handle the peak current of the regulator, and have switching times much
less than any t,,, times.

SUMMARY
The ability to build a switching power supply opens the door to a wide range of
battery-powered projects that would not be practical with linear regulators.
This chapter presented the basic operating principles that govern switching
power supplies, the basic types—step-down, step-up, and inverter—and their
circuits, the calculation of design parameters and the selection of compo-
nents. Chapter 6 shows how to build some useful switching power supply
projects.

* Texas Instruments Application Report SLVAO001, J. Spencer, E.J. Tobaben, “Designing Switching
Voltage Regulators with TL497A.”

70
 /

CHAPTER 6

Switching Power
Supply Projects
This chapter contains two switching power supply projects to demonstrate the
basic concepts and fundamentals for designing a switching power supply, not
to design the most elaborate and exotic supply. All the parts used are com-
monly available from Radio Shack.
The integrated circuits used clearly show the selection of major functions,
such as oscillator frequency, PWM pulse widths for the trigger and turn-on
time pulses, and error-amplifier reference voltage. Major semiconductor
manufacturers are now concentrating on integrating all the control functions
of the switching power supply for lower-wattage power supplies into one IC.

DESIGN PARTS, LIMITATIONS AND CAUTIONS

Table 6-1 lists specifications for the ICs, semiconductors and inductors used
for the projects. These specifications place boundary conditions on the project
designs.
Table 6-1. Project Parts and Their Design Limitations

Part Catalog No. Function Case Design Limitations

723 276-1740 Error Amplifier NO14 Voc greater than 9.5V

Reference Voltage 15mA max current
Output Control Voltage Voltage swing—3.3V-10.3V

556 Dual 276-1728 Oscillator for Sw f NO14 Some instability below

Timer Pulse-Width Modulator pulse width of 10us
(PWM)
IRF511 276-2072 Switching Transistor TO-220 Max |p;=3A, Vps=60V
N-Ch MOSFET Ves=20V(+ or —), Pp=20W
@ 25°C, derate 0.16W/°C

Diode 276-1165 “Catch” diode-Schottky Al PIV=40V Max I-=1A

(Three diodes are used in
parallel to provide |-=3A
to match IRF511)

MJE34 276-2027 PNP Power Transistor TO-220 Max 1,=10A, V~~e=40V

(TIP42) hee=20-100 @ 3A
P,=90W w/heat sink
eee eee a errranrnnnEaEnIn nn EEnE=EE>> cousin NNNEEEEEENIGT SISTED
Meee

2N3053 =276-2030 NPN Switching Transistor TO-39 Max |,=0.7A, Voge =40V
hee=50-250 @ 0.15A, Pp>=1W
ere eee

L . 273-102 Rated at 2A,

100uH RF choke
Core volume limited
Ne
a a ee ee ee
[E 273-104 Snap-together choke Air gap can cause inductance
with 23 turns #22 magnet variations
wire—200uH
oe a a
ne EEE
re
 6
Buitoing Power SuPPLies

ICs
For the projects, V,y =+12V to meet the V,, requirement ofthe 723. Feedback
resistors are used to limit the gain of the 723, even so, some manufacturer’s
parts seem to cause the closed loop operating point to be right at the edge of
the range of the voltage swing. Some 556 dual timers multiple trigger and cause
misoperation. A calibration procedure has been setup in Chapter 7 to assure
proper closed-loop operation. This procedure should be followed before ap-
plying power to the switching power-supplies.

Transistor and Diode

Note that the power FET, IRF511, used for switching has a maximum Ip,=3A,
while the maximum collector current of the MJE34 is I.=10A. However, the
design limitation is the peak inductor current that can be switched through the
Schottky diodes. Even though it is not the best design technique, three Schottky
diodes are operated in parallel to provide the same 3A maximum switching
current as the IRF511. This is not normal design practice because, at the
maximum peak current of 3 amps, the diode with the lowest V; tends to “hog”
more current than the other two, which exceeds its individual current rating. If
a diode fails, it usually shorts because of excess current, which protects the
other diodes in parallel. A 1N5822 Schottky diode is an alternate choice if the
Radio Shack part is not available.

Inductor
Readily available inductors from Radio Shack, though not the most efficient
inductors, provide practical design examples. The 100u4H RF choke has a
continuous current rating of 2A; however, switching 3A at the step-down duty
cycle provides satisfactory operation. The snap-together choke core was glued
together with steel-filled, conductive epoxy cement before the coil was wound
onit. Nova Magnetics wound a special 170uH inductor for a step-down design.
Its core and coil specifications are given in the Appendix, as well as a list of
other magnetic materials manufacturers and distributors.

Maximum Load Current

The maximum load current that can be drawn from the project designed
power supplies can be limited by:
1. The peak current in the inductor, which is limited by the maximum current
that can be switched by the transistor and diodes.
2. The maximum current limit of the power supply providing the input voltage
(Vin).
Step-up designs demand high currents from the input supply due to the
output high-voltage power transfer. The input current to a power supply is
calculated using the following power-transfer equation:

= Vo X Thoap
IN
Vin X Eff

72
 6
Switcuing Power Supply PROJECTS

Caution
Switching power supplies require a minimum load. If operated with no load,
the regulator controller will decrease the PWM turn-on time to very narrow
pulses, causing very high voltages from the inductor which will destroy the
switching transistor, diodes, and possibly the other ICs. In addition, the dis-
continuous inductor operation on turnoff causes unstable operation and
subharmonic frequency generation. A minimum load current limit for the
inductance used is specified for each project design. Acommercially available
switching power supply may have an internal active load that draws the
minimum current from the supply if there is no load on the power supply
terminals. When an external load is placed on the supply that exceeds the
minimum current, the active load cuts out, and is effectively removed from the
circuit.

PROJECT #1 — STEP-DOWN CONVERTER +12V TO +5V

Project #1 is a regulated +5V supply to power digital logic circuits in an envi-
ronment, such as an automobile, where the only available power source is
approximately 12V dc. The circuit schematic is shown in Figure 6-1.
at
w= t12V MJE34 (TIP42) Sco V
O O +

C1 C2
220uF .0047uF
0.1pF 35V
ES IS SEX
R3 C4
1002 SCHOTTKY 1000uF
DIODES C3 16V

Calibrate

R15 R14
R8
2.2kQ
RQ
3.3kQ

R11

4.7kQ R10 C9 470pf ran

5kQ 0.01,1F
0.001 pF
REFERENCE sl uy
VOLTAGE ADJUSTMENT 1MQ =

Figure 6-1. Step-Down Converter Circuit + 12V to + 5V

fic
 6
Buitoina Power Supplies

Design Specifications
Vin = +12V Input Regulation = 2% fora +5%
Vo = +5V input variation
lLoapimax) = 1.5A Switching Frequency = approx. 50kHz
lLoapminy = 300MA Ripple = 50MV at Iioan = 1A
Load Regulation = 2% for |,o,p Current Efficiency = 65% @ lioap = 1A
range Operating Ambient Temperature = 25°C

Input Voltage and Its Supply

The adjustable linear supply designed in Chapter 4, with a maximum load
current limit of 1.5A, is used to supply V,,. A regulated input supply simulates
a +12V battery, eliminates V,, variations, and makes it easier to build a suc-
cessful, stable switching power supply. For an application other than + 12V, the
reader need only design an unregulated input supply to handle the load
current variations expected.

Output Voltage
The +5V output is regulated to 2% over the load current range. The 2% regula-
tion is maintained for an input voltage variation of +5%.

Load Current
Using the input current equation and the equation for step-down peak current
from Chapter 5 (calculations are shown in Table 6-2), the load current limit for
the step-down design is 1.5A because the inductor peak current of 3A cannot
be exceeded due to the Schottky diodes. The power supply efficiency was
assumed to be 65%.
Table 6-2. Load Current Limits

Limit Limit
lox linqmax) lLoap

|
eters 3A ~ 1.5A
VinlinEff
[= SONERE: ~ 1.5A 2.34A

With transistors and diodes that have higher current ratings, the load
current could increase to 2.34A before the I,,=1.5A limit is reached.
Minimum load current is determined by the inductance used in the cir-
cuit. Since the design uses a 100H choke and f =50kHz, the peak current at
the minimum output load current can be determined from the equations in
Chapter 5 as follows:
Vin 7 Va VN a Vo Vo 35
pk = ———
L _X toy = ———
Nees KX ——
VV, = 60
— = 0.58A = 580mA

Since I, = 2Iioap, Minimum I,o,4p = 290mA.

re iain BenesBF A agMOR el NE A cE oe Reap EOE gS
74
 6
SwitcHine Power Supply PROJECTS

The switching power supply regulates below the minimum current, but
the inductor begins to operate in discontinuous mode, which generates more
noise and is more difficult to stabilize.

Oscillator
The oscillator is one section of the 556 dual timer IC operating in an astable
mode. C12 is the timing capacitor. The total series resistance of R14+R15 and
R16 charge the capacitor during the time, t, shown in Figure 5-2, when the output
is high, and R16 discharges the capacitor during the time, t,, when the output
is low.
The basic operating frequency of this supply is 50kHz, with a period, T, of
approximately 20us. The trigger pulse width, t,, is slightly larger than lus. The
trigger pulse width is initially calculated using the equation t,=0.693(R16) (C12),
and the frequency using the equation f=1.44/[R14+R15+2(R16)](C12), as
given in Chapter 5. According to the equations, f=94kHz using the final com-
ponent values, and t,=0.693us. Internal delays of the 556 IC itself cause the
equation to yield only approximate values. The final circuit values shown in
Figure 6-1 were determined experimentally using an oscilloscope to monitor
the waveform.

Pulse-Width Modulator
The PWM half of the 556 is used in a “one-shot” configuration, where it
produces a single positive pulse for every negative-going trigger pulse it re-
ceives from the oscillator. The width of the PWM output pulse depends on the
values of C11 and R13, and on the control voltage. Without a control voltage on
that input, toy=1.1(R13)(C11), or 1lus. The resistor and capacitor establish the
range, and V, from pin 10 of the 723 to the control voltage input to the 556 (pin
11) determines the exact pulse width. The output from the PWM section of the
556 (pin 9) drives the base of an NPN transistor in the switch circuit. Again, the
equations predict approximate values; the values shown are determined ex-
perimentally.

Error Amplifier and Voltage-Reference

The switching power supply projects use the 723 regulator IC as the error
amplifier and voltage reference. The 723’s built-in current-limit circuit is not
used. Pins 2 and 3 are left unconnected.
In this project, the output voltage is fed back directly to the inverting input
of the error amplifier, pin 4, as illustrated in Figure 6-1. The reference voltage
output is connected through a voltage divider (R7 ||R8) and (R9+R10+R11) to
the non-inverting input of the error amplifier. R10 and R11 form a reference
voltage adjustment used in the closed loop calibration procedure to adjust the
output voltage of the regulator to +5V. The voltage of the non-inverting input
to the 723 should be within 0.01V to 0.03V of +5V. A 0.05uF capacitor is con-
nected between V,, and the non-inverting input of the error amplifier to stabi-
lize the error amplifier against noise feedback from Vy.
is)
 6
Buitoine Power SupPLigs

To improve the regulation stability, a network consisting of a total of 690

pF (a 220pF and a 470pF) in parallel with a 1MQ resistor is connected between
the inverting error-amplifier input, pin 4, and the frequency-compensation
input, pin 13. Both resistor and capacitor values were determined experi-
mentally. Circuit layout can affect stability. False triggering and erratic output
voltage under load are signs of unstable circuits. Keep all connecting leads as
short as possible.
The error amplifier output from the 723 is an emitter follower. The emitter,
pin 10, drives a 470Q resistor connected to ground to supply the control volt-
age to pin 11 of the 556 PWM. This voltage ranges from 3.3V to 10.3V depending
on the setting at the non-inverting reference input, the sample-voltage input,
and the reference voltage. The midpoint output current condition of the
design should set this voltage at about 7V. The collector of the internal output
transistor, V,, is tied to V., and the input voltage V,,. A 0.1uF ceramic capacitor
across V¢, reduces the effects of power-supply noise.

Inductor Choice
Using, f=50kHz, toy, is determined from the duty-cycle equation in Chapter 5
as:
it —

Pea ee SOD Gd 022

The inductance required for a peak current of 3A is calculated from the
step-down equation in Chapter 5, as follows (f=50kHz):
IZ Sue =
= = 19.4uH
3 50 X 10% x 12
An inductance of 19.4uH is the minimum inductance that can be used at
a peak current of 3A at 50kHz. The minimum current of 290mA for continuous-
mode operation using the 100,H choke was calculated using the same equa-
tion. 100uH is used so the minimum current can be at least 300mA. If a lower
minimum current is required, a larger inductance must be used. The size of the
inductor may affect the overall size of the power supply in many designs.

Switching Transistor Choice

An MJE34 PNP power transistor is chosen as the switch because of its low
Vcesan: The PNP transistor has its emitter tied to V,y=12V. It is turned on by
pulling 150mA of base current through a 50Q resistor to ground. To ensure a
rapid turn-off time, a 10Q resistor is connected between the base and emitter,
providing approximately 70mA of turn-off current. The total base plus turn-off
current is limited to approximately 220mA by the series 50Q resistor, com-
posed of two 100, 1W resistors in parallel for extra power handling capability.
Since the output waveform of the PWM is high during the on time of the
switch, the signal needs to be inverted from the PWM before driving the base of ©
the MJE34. A small-signal NPN transistor, the 2N3053, inverts the PWM output

76
 6
Switcuina Power Supply PROJECTS

and drives the base of the MJE34. The PWM output drives approximately 30
mA into the 2N3053 base through a series 220Q current-limiting resistor. A 33Q
resistor from the base to ground provides 21mA of turn-off current to ensure
rapid turn-off time.

“Catch” Diode Choice

The Schottky-barrier diode is rated at 40 volts peak repetitive reverse voltage,
and will handle an average forward current of 1A. Three diodes are used in
parallel to provide 3A. This is a weak link in the design, but was done to
demonstrate that the rest of the circuitry could handle 1.5A.

Output and Input Filters

To keep the output ripple voltage (V,) below 50mV, the minimum output- ca-
pacitor value is calculated using the step-down equation for C, from Chapter 5.
With 1, =3A, I, =1.5A and toy=8.33us, the minimum C; for this supply is:
— (8-1.5) Bo
]
«102 xX = = 150uF
2 X 0.05 x 3
Asmall size, 1000uF, 16V electrolytic capacitor with radial leads, almost 10
times the size needed, is selected for C;. A 0.1LF, 50V ceramic capacitor is
placed in parallel to bypass high-frequency noise.
A 220uF, 35V input capacitor acts as an input filter. It is necessary in a
switching power supply because the switching action of the transistor can
induce a hefty ripple voltage on the input supply voltage.

Construction Details
The project is built on a 114” x 6” strip of perfboard (RS# 276-1396). This allows
the same circuit layout of Figure 6-3 to be included on one end of a circuit
board for an application that is to be powered by the supply.

Component Layout
The component layout, while originally hand wired on perfboard, can be used
as a guide for making a printed circuit board using a PC-board kit (RS# 276-
1530). As shown in the photographs in Figure 6-2, power and ground conduc-
tors were made from 20-gauge hookup wire, with wire-wrap posts used to
connect between the circuit side and component side of the board. Smaller
wired connections were made either with wire-wrap wire or by bending the
component leads into the desired shape after insertion into the board.
Figure 6-3 shows a parts-placement and wiring diagram from the compo-
nent side and the circuit side. The component leads and wiring on each side of
the board are shown as solid lines. The parts used are listed in Table 6-3.
 6
BuitoinG Power Supplies

Figure 6-2. Step-Down Switching Power Supply +12V to +5V

MANES

eo
Ero

onoat yo
AG ow
URGDEROD
vee
7

Pre.
ew

oc (=)
A-
re
ON
OE mla 2

R1
oe

OO

AND Q1
Se
a

es
eon,
OS
YS

=
©

mea
ee 8

a. Component Side
b. Circuit Side
Figure 6-3. Parts-Placement and Wiring Diagram
78
 6
SwitcHinc Power Supply ProJecTs

Operation and Testing

A calibration procedure is included in Chapter 7. Check out your total circuit
carefully and assure that all connections are correct. Make sure that you apply
no power to your circuit until you perform the calibration procedure. Because of
component tolerances, values stated in a design may vary due to the combina-
tion of tolerances present in the circuit.
Table 6-3. Parts List for Step-Down Converter

Reference
Catalog No. Description Quantity Designator
276-1396 Perfboard, 4” x 6” 1
278-1304 Hookup wire, 20 gauge 1
278-503 Wire-wrap wire 1
276-1987 Wire-wrap posts 1
275-409 SPDT Slide Switch 1 S1
276-1728 IC, dual timer, NE556 1 U1
276-1740 IC, voltage regulator, 723 1 U2
276-2027 Transistor, PNP power, MJE34 Q1 1 Qi 2
276-2016 Transistor, NPN, 2N3053 1 @2
276-1165 Diode, Schottky 1A, 40V 3 D1, D2, D3
273-102 RF Choke 1 L1
271-1301 Resistor, 10Q, %W 1 R1
271-152 Resistor, 100, 1W 2 R2, R3
271-1313 Resistor, 220, %W 1 R4
271-007 Resistor, 33Q, “%W 1 R5
271-1317, Resistor, 470Q, Y2W 1 R6
271-1347 Resistor, 100kQ, /%W 1 R7
271-1325 Resistor, 2.2kQ, /%4W 1 R8
271-1315 Resistor, 3.3kQ, %4W 2 R9, R14
271-217 Potentiometer, 5kQ 2 R10, R17
271-1330 Resistor, 4.7kQ, “4W 1 R11
271-1356 Resistor, 1MQ, “%W 1 R12
271-1321 Resistor, 1kQ, “%W 2 R13, R16
271-1335 Resistor, 10kQ, “4W 1 R15
272-109 Capacitor, .1uF, 50V ceramic 4 C1, C3, C6, C10
272-1029 Capacitor, 220uF, 35V electrolytic 1 C2
272-958 Capacitor, 1000uF, 16V electrolytic 1 C4
272-130 Capacitor, .0047uF, 50V ceramic 1 C5
272-134 Capacitor, .047uF, 50V ceramic 1 C7
272-124 Capacitor, 220pF, 50V ceramic 1 C8
272-125 Capacitor, 470pF, 50V ceramic 1 cg
272-131 Capacitor, .01uF, 50V ceramic 2 Cites
272-126 Capacitor, .001uF, 50V ceramic 1 C12

NOTE: All 1/4W resistors are +5% tolerance

All 1/2W resistors are +10% tolerance

PROJECT #2 — STEP-UP CONVERTER +12V to +24V

An application that is well served by a switching regulator is when a dc output
voltage is required that is higher than an input dc voltage. Project #2 is a
regulated +24V supply that has an input voltage of +12V. It is a design that
demonstrates a basic step-up converter circuit, and shows some of its advan-
tages and limitations. The schematic is shown in Figure 6-4.

79
 6
Buitoine Power Supplies

Vv L1, 100WH D1, D2, D3

0 >
SNAP-TOGETHER é43
CHOKE a a
>
Q\ -- SCHOTTKY DIODES
IRF511 = :

Ci2
0.1pF4) >

4 Normal 14
S1 O
Vi Calibrate co
! ! 0.01LF
R16 : |
5kQ H a
=
— 1 1!

R8 R7
Yo |1 '
3.9kQ 2700
Ri
!
1
!
!
1
!
1

R15

=
R11
sj wedi
220kQ C10
REFERENCE “Tr 0.001 pF
VOLTAGE ADJUSTMENT =

Figure 6-4. Step-Up Converter Circuit +12V to +24V

Design Specifications
Vin = +12V Input Regulation = 2% for a +5% input
Vo = +24V variation
lLoapimax) = 750mA*t Switching Frequency = 41kHz
lLoapimin) = 2OOMA - Ripple = 100mV at |,,,, = 0.6A
Load Regulation = 2% for |,ap Current Efficiency = 90%
range Operating Ambient Temperature = 25°C

“limited to 675 mA by input supply (90% eff.)

"limited by 3A maximum switching current (100% eff.)

Input Voltage and Its Supply

The input power supply is again the linear adjustable supply of Chapter 4 with
its 1.5A maximum load current limit.

Output Voltage |
The +24V output voltage is regulated to within 2% over the output current
range, and over a +5% variation in input voltage.
=a ame ee ee ee ee
80
 6
Switcuine Power Surety PROJECTS

Load Current
Since the input supply can provide no more than 1.5A, it limits the load current
that can be drawn from the step-up converter. As a result, the maximum load
current is limited to 0.675A, assuming 90% efficiency for the power supply. The
calculations are shown in Table 6-4. If an input power supply is used that can
supply more than 1.5A, then the load current could increase to 0.75A before
the peak inductor current limit of 3A is reached.
Table 6-4. Load Current Limit
Limit Limit

lox Inimax) lLoap

Vivi
loa = BV. 3A - 0.75A

Lon ey ie: = 1.5A 0.675A

The inductance used for project #2 is a 200UH coil wound with 18 turns of
#22 magnet wire on the snap-together toroidal core. The minimum load
current for this inductance, based on a frequency of approximately 41kHz, and
a duty cycle of 0.5, is 180mA based on the following calculations:
Vin 12
[0 STS = 072K
Sper pe 200
X 10
Substituing 0.72A in the I,.,p equation in Table 6-4, Ioan «may = 180MA.

Oscillator
The 556-based oscillator/PWM circuit is identical to that of the step-down
converter with some of the values changed. The values for the step-up con-
verter are as follows:
R14 in parallel with R13 = 20kQ R15 = 1.0kQ C10 = 0.001uF
The resultant frequency is approximately 41kHz. The trigger pulse width is
slightly larger than lps.

Pulse-Width Modulator
The output from the PWM section of the 556 (pin 9) drives the gate of the
IRF511 power FET. The values for the resistor and capacitor are as follows:
C9 = 0.01pF R12 = 1.0kQ-
The to, time for median pulse width is 12s.

Error Amplifier and Voltage-Reference Choice

The error amplifier and voltage reference is provided by the 723 regulator as in
the step-down converter. Since the output voltage that must be sampled is
greater than 7 volts, the error amplifier circuit shown in Figure 6-4 differs
81
 6
Buitoinae Power SupPties

slightly from that of the step-down converter. The sampling element is an

additional voltage divider from V, with the junction ofR8 and R9 providing the
sampled voltage to the inverting input of the 723. When the output is at 24
volts, the voltage at the inverting input is from 5.85 to 5.95 volts. The reference
voltage is divided down to approximately 5.90 volts at the non-inverting input
by the voltage divider formed by resistors R1 through R5. Three circuit design
techniques assure regulator stability. First, a 0.1uF capacitor is connected
from V,, to the non-inverting input, pin 5. Second, a 690pF capacitor in parallel
with a 220kQ resistor are connected between the error-amp input, pin 4, and
the frequency-compensation input, pin 13. Third, a0.1uF ceramic capacitor is
placed from V,, to ground to reduce the effects of power-supply noise.
Pin 11, the collector of the internal output transistor is tied to V,,, and the
emitter drives a 470Q resistor connected to ground. This is the control voltage
that varies the PWM output.

Inductor Choice
I, 1S again limited by the Schottky diodes to 3A, and is used to determine the
minimum inductance as follows:
V, 12
L=—*
X toy =
i 3 X 12 x 10°
= 48uH
Only 48H are required when the power supply operates at maximum
inductor current, but the 200uH value is chosen to allow the regulator to
operate at a minimum current of 180mA. If a lower minimum current is
required, the inductor would have to be larger.

Coil Fabrication
The two ferrite halves of the snap-together core are glued together using a
steel-filled, conductive epoxy cement. Electrical tape is wrapped around
the
core before the #22 magnet wire is wound evenly on it. The completed inductor
is shown in Figure 6-6c.

Switching Transistor Choice

An IRF511 power field-effect transistor (FET), rated at Ipsuma= x)
3A Continuous,
is used as the switching transistor in the step-up design. The breakd
own
voltage is 60V, well above the levels encountered in this supply. The
power FET
has a maximum forward voltage drop of 1.8V at the peak current
of 3A. The
input capacitance of a power FET is relatively large. The 556 has
a totem-pole
output stage that rapidly charges and discharges the IRF511 input
capacitance,
ensuring fast turn-on and turn-off times.

“Catch” Diode Choice

Three Schottky barrier diodes are used in parallel to handle
a peak inductor
current of 3A, even though the maximum load current of 1.54
from V,y limits the
maximum inductor current to 2.7A.

| RE SOO EMMIS SEY AATEC EE nar

 6
SwitcHing Power Supply Provects

Output and Input Filters

To meet the goal of an output ripple voltage (V,) below 100mV, the minimum
output-capacitor value (C,) is calculated using the step-up equation in Chap-
ter 5. toy=12ps, I, =2.7A, and I,=0.675A.
Sy (23?em0.675)? cae ee ee
Seer ae 34 EpoOCH
The actual output capacitor is 10 times this value to minimize output
ripple. The 2200uF, 35V, electrolytic capacitor with axial leads has a size, even
for such a large capacitance, that fits nicely on the circuit board. Again a0.1yF,
SOV, ceramic capacitor in parallel bypasses high-frequency noise.

Construction Details
This project is again built on 1/2” x6” strip of perfboard, and is nearly identical
in layout and construction to the step-down converter. The same intercon-
nection materials were used.

Component Layout
The component layout is shown in the photographs in Figure 6-5.

i ee ee eg
24 4 4 eee

b. Circuit Side

Figure 6-5. Step-Up Switching Power Supply +12V to +24V

83.
 6
Buitoine Power SupPlits

Figure 6-6 shows a parts-placement and wiring diagram from the compo-
nent and the circuit side. The component leads and wiring on each side of the
board are shown as solid lines. The parts used are listed in Table 6-5.
R16
+Vin
Ny
C12 .
THESE
TWO POINTS
CONNECTED
BY INSULATED
R11 WIRE

R5

R4
Q1 AND
HEAT SINK
HEAT
SINK D1,D2,
AND Q1 D3

b. Circuit Side

c. Inductor Construction
Figure 6-6. Parts-Placement and Wiring Diagram
84
 6
Switcuine Power Supp.y PRoJects

Operation and Testing

A calibration procedure is included in Chapter 7. Check out your total circuit
carefully and assure that all connections are correct. Make sure that you apply
no power to your circuit until you perform the calibration procedure. Because of
component tolerances, values stated for a design may vary due to the combi-
nation oftolerances present in the circuit.
Table 6-5. Parts List for Step-Down Converter

Reference
Catalog No. Description Quantity Designator
276-1396 Perfboard, 4” x 6” 1
278-1304 Hookup wire, 20 gauge 1
278-1345 Magnet wire, 22 gauge 1
278-503 Wire-wrap wire 4
276-1987 Wire-wrap posts 1
275-409 SPDT Slide Switch 1 S1
276-1728 IC, dual timer, NE556 1 U1
276-1740 IC, voltage regulator, 723 1 U2
276-2072 FET, Power, IRF511 1 Qi
276-1165 Diode, Schottky 1A, 40V 3 Di b2.D3
273-104 Core, Snap Together 1 L1
271-025 Resistor, 1.5kQ, “AW 1 R1
271-1328 Resistor, 3.3kQ, Y%4W 1 R2
271-1325 Resistor, 2.2kQ, %4W 1 R3
271-217 Potentiometer, 5kQ, 4W 2 R4, R16
271-1330 Resistor, 4.7kQ, Y%4W if R5
271-1317 Resistor, 470Q, ”W 1 R6
271-1314 Resistor, 270Q, /W 1 R7
271-1325 Resistor, 3.9kQ, “%4W 1 R8
271-1321 Resistor, 1kQ, /4W 3 R9, R12, R15
271-1315 Resistor, 330Q, /%W 1 R10
271-1350 Resistor, 220kQ, /%4W 1 R11, 14
271-1339 Resistor, 22kQ, %W 1 R13
272-109 Capacitor, .1uF, 50V ceramic 4 C1, C3, C5, C6
272-1030 Capacitor, 470uF, 35V electrolytic 1 C2
272-1020 Capacitor, 2200uF, 35V electrolytic 1 C4
272-124 Capacitor, 220uF, 50V ceramic 1 C7
272-125 Capacitor, 470uF, 50V ceramic 1 C8
272-131 Capacitor, .01uF, 50V ceramic 2 C9, C11
272-126 Capacitor, .001uF, 50V ceramic 1 C10

NOTE: All 1/4W resistors are +5% tolerance

All 1/2W resistors are 10% tolerance

Summary
This chapter concludes the power supply projects. Switching power supply
stability can be very sensitive to layout and to the ICs used. Make sure that the
calibration procedure in Chapter 7 is followed to assure the regulators will
operate properly. In addition, Chapter 7 discusses measurement techniques,
presents data on all the project power supplies, and provides troubleshooting
tips.

85
 CHAPTER /

Measurements, Calibration
and Troubleshooting
In this final chapter, results of performance measurements on the power-
supply projects from Chapters 4 and 6 are listed, along with troubleshooting
tips and a calibration procedure for the switching power supplies.

TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS
The measurements made on the linear supplies were load regulation, power
output, percent regulation, and rms ripple voltage. The measurements made
on the switching power supplies included input regulation, conversion effi-
ciency, ripple voltage, control voltage, toy, and the sample and reference volt-
ages under various loads. The results are provided in a series of tables. The
percent of load regulation is calculated using the equation given in Chapter 4.

LINEAR POWER SUPPLIES

Table 7-1. +5V Series-Pass Power- Table 7-2. +12V Series-Pass Power-
Supply Measurements Supply Measurements

V, I, P, Vis) Reg Vo+ Vo- ik P, Vis) Reg

V A WwW mV % Vv Vv A WwW mV %
SLE SEE SE]

4.99 0 0 <1 ss: 14:8 122s 182" 30 0 air

4.98 05 25 <1 0.4% 11.80 11.81 .05 0.59 <1 0.08%
4.87 AQ 2.37 <1 2.6% 11379. 41280) 6 7.1 <1 0.16%
4.74 95 4.49 <1 5.2% 1178 e782 5 17.7 <1 0.25%
4.61 1.40 6.44 <1 8.2% *
*Not to be operated continuously unless
cooled with fan

Table 7-3. Adjustable Power-Supply Measurements

V, I, P, Vial %Reg
Vv A W mV
ss
s
%
3.0 0 0 <3 -
3.0 .05 15 <3 -
3.1 5 1.5 <3 0.33%
6.0 (6.11 @ I, = 0) 1.5 9 <3 1.8%
14.99 (15.0 @ Ip = 0) .05 15 <5 0.06%
14.98 5 as <5 0.13%
14.97 ‘We 22.5 <5 0.20%
25 (25.0 @ |, = 0) .05 Wed <10
24.8 We) 37.5 <10 0.81%
 7
MEASUREMENTS, CALIBRATION AND TROUBLESHOOTING

SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

The switching power supplies in Chapter 6 used readily available parts,
but
some of the parts are capable of greater precision than others, therefore,
adjustments are provided to overcome these variations. First, a potentiometer
allows the reference voltage applied to the non-inverting input (pin 5) of the
723 IC to be varied. Second, a switch allows the control loop to be opened, and
with a voltage from another potentiometer, to directly vary the PWM output
pulse width. These adjustments, used with the calibration procedure that
follows, allow the switching power supplies to be precisely adjusted to the
correct output voltage, regardless of component variations.

Switching Power Supply Calibration Steps

1. Disconnect the power supply providing V,y.
2. Place S1 in the Calibrate (open-loop) position, toward the open-loop po-
tentiometer (R17 for the +5V supply, R16 for the +24V supply). This con-
nects the wiper tap of the potentiometer to the PWM control-voltage input.
3. Set the potentiometer to the middle of its adjustment range.
4. Connect a load resistor across the output of the supply that will draw
approximately 500mA (102 for +5V, 500 for +24V).
5. Connect a voltmeter across the power supply output to monitor Vp.
6. Turn on the power supply for V,y.
7. Adjust the open-loop potentiometer to obtain the desired Vo=— +5V for the
step-down converter, +24V for the step-up converter.
CAUTION: Turning the open-loop potentiometer should produce asmooth,
even change in V,. If the V, change is erratic, replace the 556 and repeat the
procedure. Some 556s double trigger, causing erratic operation.
8. With V, set to the correct level, measure the voltage at pin 4 of the 723, and
record it.
9. Measure the voltage at pin 5 of the 723, and adjust the reference-voltage
adjustment potentiometer until the voltage at pin 5 equals the voltage at
pin 4. If, on the step-up converter, the potentiometer does not have enough
adjustment range to bring the pin-5 voltage down to the level at pin 4,
replace R2 with a wire (shorts R2) and repeat this step.
10. Measure the control-voltage output of the 723 at pin 10. It should be within
the 3V-10V linear range of the 723. If the voltages on pins 4 and 5 differ by
more than 0.1V, the 723 output will be either 3V or 10V, depending on
whether pin 4 or pin 5 is greater. For the supply to operate properly, the
voltages at pins 4 and 5 must be the same. If they are, and the pin-10 voltage
is outside the linear range, replace the 723 and repeat the procedure.
—_ Turn
11. off V,,, and place S1 in the Normal (closed loop) position which
connects pin 10 of the 723 to pin 11 of the 556. Zz
12. The supply is now calibrated and should regulate V, to the desired voltage
when Vj is turned on. Slightly trimming the reference-voltage adjustment
potentiometer may result in gréater V, accuracy.

87
 7
Buitoinae Power SupPLies

Table 7-4 +5V Step-Down Converter Measurements

lin P., V, I, iF Eff Vane) Cy ton Vamp Viet

Vin
Vv mA W Vv A W % mV V Lis Vv V
12 180 2.2 4.93 0.16 0.87 36.4 15 3.0 5 4.93 4.90
12 385 4.6 4.93 0.49 2.4 52 is 6.2 Wee 4.93 4.90
12 580 7 4.93 0.98 4.8 69 15 6.7 7.8 4.93 4.90
12 790 9.5 4.93 1.47 Thy? 76 16 Za 8.2 4.93 4.90

Table 7-5 + 24V Step-Up Converter Measurements

Vin lin P,, Vo I, Pe Eff Viirms) Cy ton Veomne Viet

Vv A W Vv mA W % mV Vv Ls Vv Vv
12 52 6.2. 240 203 4.9 78.5 44 7.9 11.0 5 3egeo.
12 1.01 13.2 240 480 iB) 87 71 8.2 11.9 apirope Se H//
12 hel) EMS ASSP ELS 14.2 91 150 8.2 12 ap(ele » <Shif

TROUBLESHOOTING TIPS—INITIAL OPERATION

There are five major reasons that a power supply circuit doesn’t operate
initially:
1.Wrong Circuit Connection—Check the circuit carefully to make sure all
connections are correct. The switching power supply circuits are somewhat
detailed, and thus, more difficult to build.
2.Bad Connections—It is easy to have a cold solder joint so that a connection
is open; reheat the suspected joints. Or solder may have run between con-
nections to produce a short; especially on ICs. Use an ohmmeter or continu-
ity meter to check for shorts.
3. Wrong Component Values—Assure that all component values are correct. A
common cause is that the color coding on resistors was read incorrectly.
4.Bad Components—Integrated circuits, transistors and diodes are very sensi-
tive to heat, static electricity, and conditions that exceed specifications.
They may have been damaged when soldered if heated too long, or because
a built-up static charge discharged through it. Or due to wrong circuit
connections, voltage, current or power specifications may have been ex-
ceeded. Remember, the linear regulator ICs will shut down if they are asked
to supply excessive current or get too hot. A short in the circuit could cause
this condition and make it appear that the regulator is bad. Look at the
problem and analyze it carefully.
5. Circuit Oscillations—When a circuit oscillates, a signal is being fedback from
output to input to provide positive feedback to cause the resultant output to
get larger rather than negative feedback to keep the output under control.
The cause is that there is too much gain in the circuit or the feedback signal
time relationship (phase) is wrong. Clean circuit layout and short leads are
very important to keep circuits from oscillating. A 0.14.F capacitor to ground
or to the power rail is a good tool to try to stabilize oscillations. Connect it to
the various circuit points by trial and error. If the circuit stabilizes, see if a
layout change or amplifier gain reduction might solve the problem.
a Aer ad a pee oe eel
88
 7
MEASUREMENTS, CALIBRATION AND TROUBLESHOOTING

The feedback loop may have to be opened so that the circuit can be
adjusted to proper operating conditions before the loop can be closed. Use
the
Switching power supply calibration procedure as an example of how this is
done.
It is suggested that voltage measurements be made around the power
supply circuit once it is operating to use for troubleshooting if the power
supply were to fail.

TROUBLESHOOTING TIPS—OPERATIONAL FAILURE

After a power supply has been operating properly and then fails, here are some
common Causes:
1. Fuses—A fuse has blown. Replace the fuse.
2.Exceeding Specifications—Sometime during the use of the power supply,
the specifications were exceeded. If a short is placed on the switching power
supplies of Chapter 6, the switching current of the diodes will be exceeded,
and the diodes will be damaged. In this case, the diodes usually short rather
than open. If the supplies are allowed to operate without a load, high voltage
will destroy the diodes and all the ICs. In this case, the diodes usually open.
The only solution is to replace components.
3.A Connection Has Opened or Shorted—Make voltage and continuity or
resistance measurements to isolate the problem. Repair the faulty connec-
tion. Here is where a chart of voltages around the circuit, taken when the
circuit is operating properly, is very helpful.
4.A Component Has Failed—Resistors may change in value, capacitors and
transformers usually short, switches and contacts become corroded. ICs
and other semiconductors open because of excessive temperature cycling,
short because of excessive voltage or current, or burst open because of
excessive heat.

VOLTAGE, CURRENT AND RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS

Remember, when making voltage measurements, measure across a compo-
nent, or an input or output. When measuring current, turn off the power, break
into the circuit, and put the multitester in series with the circuit component.
When measuring a component’s resistance, turn off the power and disconnect
one end of the component from the circuit. Leaving the component in the
circuit may damage the meter or may cause errors in readings. For anyone
needing help with multitester measurements, Radio Shack has a book titled
Using Your Meter, RS #62-2039, that shows how to apply a multitester.

SUMMARY
In this book, basic concepts and fundamentals are presented, including design
guidelines, component selection and why, and actual practical designs de-
tailed so they can be built. The objective was to promote understanding and
have success by applying it. We hope we have met our goal.

89
 A
APPENDIX

Appendix

Inductors for Switching Power Supplies of Chapter 6

Specifications: Other Suppliers of Same Core:

Core: 0.687” OD Micrometals, Inc.
0.375” ID 1190 N. Hawk Circle
0.187” H (Thick) Anaheim, CA 92087-1788
Part No. T68-26
Powered Iron Toroid
Permeability = 75 Pyroferric International, Inc.
With 42 turns of #22 magnet wire 200 Madison Street
Switching Inductance @ 0.5A = 170uH Toledo, IL 62468
Part No. PT680-75
Supplier.
Nova Magnetics, Inc. Permacor, Inc.
1101 E. Walnut St. 9540 S. Tulley Ave.
Garland, TX 75040 Oak Lawn, IL 60453
Part No. 9595-09-0057 Part No. P75-T17-9-5

Some Other Magnetic Materials Manufacturers or Distributors

Interconnection Products Pulse Engineering

2601 South Garnsey 7250 Convoy Court
Santa Anna, CA 92701 San Diego, CA 92111

Pulse Engineering Coil craft

3295 River Exchange Dr. #180 1102 Silver Lake Rd.
Norcross, GA 30092 Cary, IL 60013

South Haven Coil, Inc. Pulse Engineering

P.O. Box 409 942 Highway 51 North
Blue Star Highway Wesson, MS 39191
South Haven, MI 49090

Phillips Conyponents Renco Electronics, Inc.

5083 Kings Highway 60 Jeffryn Blvd. East
Saugerties, NY 12477 Deer Park, NY 11729

Temco N.W.
P.O. Box 847
Bothell, WA 98041

Master Publishing, Inc. or Radio Shack does not endorse or in any way imply
preference for, or warrant, any of the above listed suppliers.
i gs
90
 G
GLOSSARY

Glossary
AC line: Alternating-current power distribution line. Impedance(Z): The opposition (measured in ohms)
Typically 110V-125V at 60Hz in the United States. of circuit elements to alternating current. The im-
Alternating current: An electrical current (produced pedance includes both resistance and reactance.
by a voltage) that periodically changes in magni- Inductance(L): The capability of a coil to store en-
tude and direction. ergy in a magnetic field surrounding it. It produces
Ampere: The unit of measurement for electrical cur- an impedance to an ac current, and opposes
rent in coulombs (6.25 X 10" electrons) per sec- changes in current through it.
ond. There is one ampere of current in a circuit LC filter: Filter composed of both capacitors (usually
that has one ohm resistance when one volt is ap- paralleled with the load) and inductors (in series
plied to the circuit. See Ohm’s law. with the load).
Amplifier: An electrical circuit designed to increase Line voltage: See AC line.
the current, voltage or power of an applied signal. Load/line regulation: The maximum output-voltage
Capacitor: A device made up of two metallic plates variation allowed by a regulated power supply in
separated by a dielectric (insulating material). Used response to load-current or input (line) variations.
to store electrical energy in the electrostatic field Ohm (():A unit of electrical resistance, reactance or
between the plates. It produces an impedance to impedance.
an ac current, and opposes changes to the voltage Ohm’s law: A basic law of electric circuits. It states
across it. that the current I in amperes in a circuit is equal to
Circuit: A complete path that allows electrical cur- the voltage E in volts divided by the resistance R in
rent from one terminal of a voltage source to the ohms; thus, I = E/R.
other terminal. On time: The portion of the switching waveform
Closed loop: When used in reference to power sup- during which the control-switching device con-
plies, the completed circuit of the control loop ducts.
wherein a portion of the output is fedback to the Off time: The portion of the switching waveform
input to accomplish the control of the output. during which the control-switching device is not
Control loop: The circuit consisting of control de- conducting.
vice, power-supply output, sampling circuit, feed- Peak: The maximum amplitude of a voltage or cur-
back signal, error amplifier, and control voltage. rent. For a sine-wave ac, V,,., = 1.414 Vays-
See regulator action discussion in Chapter 3. Peak-to-Peak: The magnitude of the difference be-
Conversion efficiency: The percentage of input tween the maximum positive and negative peaks
power that a power supply converts to useful en- of a voltage or current.
ergy at its output. Period: For electrical circuits, the length of time re-
Current (I): The flow of charge (electrons) measured quired for one cycle of a periodic wave.
in amperes. See ampere. Phase: The angular or time displacement between
Direct Current(dc): Current in which the charge the voltage and current in an ac circuit.
(electrons) flows in only one direction. Polarity: In circuits, the description of whether a
Electromagnetic interference (EMI): Disruption of voltage is positive or negative with respect to some
the proper operation of a radio receiver or other reference point.
electronic circuit caused by electromagnetic ra- Potentiometer: A variable resistance with a wiper
diation (noise) from another circuit. This interfer- mounted on a rotating shaft.
ing noise may be transmitted through the air or Power(P): The rate at which energy is used (voltage
conducted as power-supply noise. times current.)
Farad (F): The basic unit of capacitance. A capacitor Reactance: The opposition that a pure inductance
has a value of one farad when it can store one or pure capacitance provides to a current in an ac
coulomb of charge with one volt across it. circuit.
Feedback: An electrical signal from a later process- RMS: An acronym for root mean square. The RMS
ing stage in a regulated power supply that gives an value of an alternating current produces the same
earlier stage the information it needs to properly heating effect in a circuit as the same value of
do its task, e.g.,the sampling circuit provides a direct current. For a sine-wave, Vays = 0.707 Vicar:
feedback voltage to the error amplifier. Sine Wave: A waveform ofan line alternating current
Filter: A circuit element or group of components or voltage. Its instantaneous magnitude is propor-
which passes signals of certain frequencies while tional to the sine of the angle of rotation of the coil
blocking signals of other frequencies. generating the voltage. _
Frequency: The number of complete cycles of a pe- Voltage or Volt(V): The unit of electromotive force
riodic waveform during one second, expressed as that causes current when included in a closed cir-
hertz. cuit. One volt causes a current of one ampere
Ground: Refers to a point of (usually) zero voltage, through a resistance of one ohm. See Ohm’s law.
and can pertain to a power circuit or a signal cir- Watt(W): A unit of electrical power. It is the use of
cuit. one joule of energy per second. One volt times one
Hertz: A unit of frequency equal to one cycle per ampere equals one watt. See Power.
second, named after German physicist H.R. Hertz.

91
 /
INDEX

Index
(PREM error amplifier: 24, 27, 59, 75, pole (magnet): 4
7800: 28 81 potential: 3
A
error voltage: 27 power: 1
external transistor: 31 pulsating DC: 10
AC voltage measurement: 13
pulse-width modulator: 59,
adjustment terminal: 30 F .
66, 75, 81
alternating current: 6 farad: 18
alternator: 6 feedback: 26 R
ampere: 2 filtering: 16, 20, 66 RC time constant: 18
ampere-hour: 3 floating regulator: 30 rechargeable batteries: 4
anode: 15 flyback regulator: 64 rectification: 14
armature: 6 forward bias: 15 rectifier: 15
B frequency: 6, 66, 69 reference voltage generator:
battery: 2, 4
full-wave rectifier: 16 24
battery, primary: 4 G
regulator: 23
battery, secondary: 4 generator: 6
remote sense: 30
battery, alkaline: 4 reverse bias: 15
H ripple voltage: 11, 18, 20, 35
battery, lead-acid: 4
half-wave rectifier: 15
bridge rectifier: 16 )
heat sink: 33
Cc hertz: 7 sampling circuit: 24, 27
calibration: 87 I series-pass regulator: 26, 28
capacitive filter: 19 IC regulators: 28 short-circuit protection: 32,
capacitive reactance: 18 impedance: 9 35
capacitive-inductive filter: 20 inductance: 7, 9, 61, 65, 69 sine wave: 8
capacitor: 18 induction: 6, 8, 11 step-down converter: 73
catch diode: 65, 77, 82 inductive reactance: 8, 9, 13, step-down regulator: 62, 64
cathode: 15 18 step-up regulator: 62
cell: 4 inductor action: 7, 60 step-up converter: 79
closed loop: 75 inductor: 7, 65, 72, 76 switch, control element: 65
coil inductance: 7, 9, 69 inverter regulator: 64 switching control element: 59
commutator: 6 ion: 2 switching frequency: 69
control loop: 28, 38, 82 isolation: 9, 12, 35, 42 T
control element: 24, 28, 59, 65 thermal runaway: 32
J
conventional current: 3 thermal compound: 33
joule: 1
conversion efficiency: 58, 65, thermal conduction: 32
80
junction temperature: 32
transformation: 10, 11
core: 11 L transformer: 11
current: 2 LM317: 29 transistor: 25
current limiting: 32 load: 3 transistor construction: 25
D load current: 68, 72, 74, 81 transistor load line: 26
DC circuit: 2
load regulation: 34, 80 transistor characteristic
diode: 15 M curves: 25
direct current: 2 magnetic field: 4, 6, 11 Vv
duty cycle: 59, 68 magnetic lines of force: 4 volt: 3
E minimum load: 73 voltage doubler: 21
electrochemical: 2 ce) voltage-regulator principles:
electrodes: 2 on time: 59, 68 23
electrolyte: 2 oscillator: 59, 66, 75, 81 WwW
electromagnetic interference P watt: 1
(EMI): 66 watt hour: 1
peak current: 68
electromotive force: 3
peak-inverse voltage: 15 z
electron current: 3
permeability: 9, 65 zener diode: 26

> Sareea ese re ee ee eT ee PS et

92
=
A power supply is a combination of circuits that supply the energy required
to operate electrical or electronic equipment. There are unregulated and
regulated power supplies, and linear and switching power supplies. All are
covered in this book. The book has two goals: First, to help the reader
understand the basic function of each of the components in a power supply
and how the components work together to function as a power supply.
Second, to guide the reader through the design and construction steps to
build useful power supplies. You can learn about and successfully build
working power supplies!
Building Power Supplies
SHOWS YOU HOW!
It explains how power supplies work, both unregulated and regulated, and
provides plans and instructions to build five power supplies—three linear and
two switching. All parts used are readily available at Radio Shack. It has:
= Easy to Understand Text = Complete Construction Plans for
= Clearly lilustrated Examples Three Linear Regulated Supplies
= Easy to Follow Instructions . = Complete Construction Plans for
Two Switching Regulated Supplies
Material to learn about power suppligs is presented in seven chapters as
follows:.
1. Basic Sources of DC and AC Power
Fundamentals about energy sources
2. Unregulated Power Supply Systems
Transformation, rectification and filtering to produce a dc voltage from an
ac SOUIce.
3. Basic Regulated Power Supply Systems
The basics of how to control a dc voltage to close limits as input or output
vary.
4, Linear Power Supply Projects
The design techniques and construction plans fora +5V, +12V and +3V
to +30V adjustable linear regulated supply.
5. Switching Power Supply Systems
The basics of how to control a dc voltage to close limits using a swig
regulator.
6. Switching Power Supply Projects
The design techniques and construction plans for a +5V step-do
+24V step-up switching supply.
7. Measurements, Calibration and Troubleshooting
Measurements, a calibration procedure, and troubleshooting tips for
power supplies described in the book.

Radie Shaek |
A DIVISION OF TANDY CORPORATION
FT. WORTH. TEXAS 76102

PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.

96 PAGES e?b-50e5