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Settlement and Urbanization
in Early Islamic Palestine,
7th-11th Centuries

This volume follows the changes that occurred in central Palestine during
the longue durée between the 7th to the 11th centuries. That region offers a
unique micro-history of the Islamicate world, providing the opportunity for
intensive archaeological research and rich primary sources.
Through a careful comparison between the archaeological records and
the textual evidence, a new history of Palestine and the Islamicate world
emerges – one that is different than that woven from Arabic geographies
and chronicles alone. The book highlights the importance of using a vari-
ety of sources when possible and examining each type of source in its own
context. The volume spans ancient technologies and daily life, ancient agri-
culture, and the perception of place by ancient authors. It also explores the
shift of settlements and harbors in central Palestine, as well as the gradual
development of a new metropolis, al-Ramla.
Settlement and Urbanization in Early Islamic Palestine will be of particu-
lar interest to students and scholars of the history of Islam or the history of
Palestine, or anyone working more generally in the methodology of histori-
cal research and integrating texts and archaeology.

Hagit Nol is a Marie Curie postdoctoral fellow at the Université libre de

Bruxelles, Belgium, where she studies the distribution of early mosques. She
is interested in early Islam, in economic and social history, and in the diffu-
sion of knowledge and ideas. When she has time, she reads novels or watches
Scandinavian TV series. In between, she raises two teenagers.
Studies in the History of the Ancient Near East
Series editor: Greg Fisher, University of California Santa Barbara, USA

Advisory Board of Associate Editors: Ra’anan Boustan, University of

California, Los Angeles, USA; Zeba Crook Carleton University, Canada;
Elizabeth DePalma Digeser, University of California at Santa Barbara,
USA; Matthew Gibbs, University of Winnipeg, Canada; John Lee, Univer-
sity of California at Santa Barbara, USA; Harry Munt, University of York,
UK; Richard Payne, Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, USA; Lucy
Wadeson, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium; Philip Wood, Aga Khan
University, London, UK; Alan Lenzi, University of the Pacifc, USA.
Studies in the History of the Ancient Near East provides a global forum for
works addressing the history and culture of the Ancient Near East, span-
ning a broad period from the foundation of civilization in the region until
the end of the Abbasid period. The series includes research monographs,
edited works, collections developed from conferences and workshops, and
volumes suitable for the university classroom.

Geography, Religion, and Sainthood in the Eastern Mediterranean

Erica Ferg

A Story of YHWH
Cultural Translation and Subversive Reception in Israelite History
Shawn W. Flynn

Migration and Colonialism in Late Second Millennium BCE Levant and its
Environs
The Making of a New World
Pekka Pitkänen

Geography, Religion, and Sainthood in the Eastern Mediterranean

Erica Ferg

Settlement and Urbanization in Early Islamic Palestine, 7th-11th Centuries

Texts and Archaeology Contrasted
Hagit Nol

https://www.routledge.com/classicalstudies/series/HISTANE
Settlement and Urbanization
in Early Islamic Palestine,
7th-11th Centuries
Texts and Archaeology Contrasted

Hagit Nol
First published 2022
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2022 Hagit Nol
The right of Hagit Nol to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Nol, Hagit, author.
Title: Settlement and urbanization in early Islamic Palestine (7th-
11th centuries) : texts and archaeology contrasted / Hagit Nol.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2022. |
Series: Studies in the history of the ancient Near East | Includes
bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2021051502 (print) | LCCN 2021051503 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032008721 (hbk) | ISBN 9781032008738 (pbk) | ISBN
9781003176169 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Urban archaeology–Palestine. | Palestine—
History—638-1917. | Palestine—Antiquities. | Ramlah
(Israel)—Antiquities. | Islamic antiquities—Palestine. | Human
settlements—Palestine.
Classification: LCC DS111 .N57 2022 (print) | LCC DS111 (ebook) |
DDC 956.94/03—dc23/eng/20220111
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021051502
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021051503
ISBN: 978-1-032-00872-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-00873-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-17616-9 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003176169
Typeset in Times New Roman
by codeMantra
To my family
Contents

List of figures ix
List of tables xiii
Acknowledgmentsxv

1 Introduction1

2 Settlement during early Islam: history and historiography 17

3 The Research Area48

4 The Big Data89

5 Technologies and daily life133

6 Settlement patterns through archaeological evidence183

7 Settlement patterns through texts243

8 Conclusions282

Index 291
Figures

2.1 An aerial image of qanāts near Maʿan, Jordan 28

2.2 An aerial image of Qaṣr al-Kharrāna and evidence for its
agriculture 28
3.1 Geomorphological map of the research area 49
3.2 Excavated and surveyed nodes in the research area 51
3.3 An index of clusters and sites in the research area 52
3.4 Map of the Yarqon sites 54
3.5 Sites of the coast 56
3.6 Sites around Azor 58
3.7 Sites around Ramla 59
3.8 Nodes inside Ramla 60
3.9 Sites around Rehovot 62
3.10 The Gedera cluster 64
3.11 The research area on the Madaba Map 65
4.1 Clay objects 92
4.2 Bone fgurines (‘Coptic dolls’) 94
4.3 A bone fgurine from Azor 94
4.4 A lollipop-shaped object from Ramat Gan 95
4.5 Big-built fre installation from Na’an 99
4.6 Medium-lined fre installation from Tel Yavne 100
4.7 Small-lined Fire installation and two jars from Bet Dagan 102
4.8 Open container complexes 104
4.9 Open container complex type 4 from Ganne Tal 104
4.10 Open container complex type 5 from Na’an 105
4.11 Open container complex type 6 from Mazliah 106
4.12 Subterranean installations 108
4.13 Internal view of a barrel-shaped vault installation from Ramla 109
4.14 Inscription incised on plaster, after restoration, the Pool of
the Arches 114
4.15 Equivalents of the Pool of the Arches according to their date 116
4.16 Spatial distribution of three architectural elements in Ramla 118
4.17 Relation of fagstone pavements to portable artefacts in Ramla 118
4.18 Spatial distribution of bell-shaped pits and sunken jars in Ramla 119
x Figures
4.19 Spatial distribution of refuse pits, basalt rotary querns,
and marble vessels in Ramla 119
4.20 Summary of activity areas in Ramla 120
5.1 Imagining fre apparatuses according to texts 138
5.2 Spatial distribution of fre installations in the research area 142
5.3 Cross-referencing glass waste with medium-lined FI 143
5.4 Cross-referencing lollipop objects with small-lined FI type 1 144
5.5 Cross-referencing pottery waste with big-built FI 144
5.6 Fire installations and fre remains on fve sites 145
5.7 Fire installations in the dwelling areas of Ramla 145
5.8 Fire installations in the industrial areas of Ramla 146
5.9 Cross-referencing fre installations and pottery waste in Ramla 147
5.10 Cross-referencing fre installations and kiln bars in Ramla 147
5.11 Cross-referencing fre installations and glass waste in Ramla 148
5.12 Spatial distribution of open-container complex types 2 and 3 157
5.13 Spatial distribution of open-container complex types 1, 4, and 5 157
5.14 Spatial distribution of open-container complex types 3, 5, and 6 158
5.15 Plastered barrel-shaped vault installations and industrial
areas at Ramla 167
5.16 Subterranean installation type 5 in relation to activity
areas in Ramla 168
5.17 Wells, channels, and bathhouses in the research area 169
5.18 Bathhouses, wells, and sāqiya jars 170
5.19 Wells, reservoirs, and sāqiya jars in Ramla 170
6.1 The nodes of the research area and reconstruction of water
streams 184
6.2 Water installations in the research area 185
6.3 The distribution of wine and juice presses along watercourses 187
6.4 Querns in relation to natural water sources and wells 188
6.5 Sites in modern Ramla, Mazliah, and Yashresh 191
6.6 Sites in and around modern Ashdod 192
6.7 Sites in the research area and the concentration rate of
their features 193
6.8 Spatial distribution of sites type 1 in relation to water streams 195
6.9 Spatial distribution of sites types 2, 3, and 4 197
6.10 Iron and rotary querns on site types 2, 3, and 4 200
6.11 Bone artefacts and stamped jar handles on site types 1 and 2 201
6.12 Spatial distribution of soapstone bowls and ‘grenades’ in Ramla 203
6.13 Spatial distribution of soapstone braziers and copper-alloy
spatulas in Ramla 203
6.14 Spatial distribution of stamped jar handles and iron
objects in Ramla 204
6.15 Spatial distribution of zoomorphic objects in Ramla 205
6.16 Spatial distribution of lollipops, marble vessels, and bone
fgurines in Ramla 206
 Figures xi
6.17 Spatial distribution of zoomorphic objects in the research area 207
6.18 Spatial distribution of marble vessels in the research area 207
6.19 Spatial distribution of stamped jar handles, bone fgurines,
and soapstone bowls in the research area 208
6.20 Phases A to C in Ramla 211
6.21 Phase D and the subterranean cisterns in Ramla 212
6.22 Phase E in Ramla 213
6.23 The development of Ramla from the 7th to the 10th
century (phase A to D) 213
6.24 Sites from phases A and B in comparison to pottery-based
Umayyad structures 214
6.25 Ashlar and big-small walls in relation to phases C and D
in Ramla 215
6.26 Ashlar and two-line walls in relation to phases D and E
in Ramla 215
6.27 Lod from the 7th to the 11th century according to its
architecture 216
6.28 Lod from the 7th to the 11th century according to its
original dating 217
6.29 Mapping and clustering sites of phase A (7th century) 220
6.30 Mapping and clustering sites of phase B (8th century) 221
6.31 Mapping and clustering sites of phase C (9th century) 222
6.32 Mapping and clustering sites of phase D (late 9th to mid-
10th century) 223
6.33 Mapping and clustering sites of phase E (mid-10th to 11th
century) 225
6.34 Nodes of the 7th and 8th centuries according to pottery
and architecture 228
6.35 Nodes of the 9th and 10th centuries according to pottery
and architecture 229
6.36 Nodes of the 10th and 11th centuries according to pottery
and architecture 230
6.37 Typology of sites in phase A (7th century) 232
6.38 Typology of sites in phases A and B (7th–8th centuries)
and pottery production 233
6.39 Typology of sites in phase C (9th century) 234
6.40 Typology of sites in phase D (late 9th to mid-10th century) 234
6.41 Typology of sites in phase E (mid-10th to 11th century) 235
7.1 Spatial distribution of al-Ramla coins from excavations in
Israel/Palestine and Jordan 270
7.2 Spatial distribution of al-Ramla coins within the Ramla cluster 271
Tables

3.1 The distance between toponyms 67

3.2 Crops in the research area 69
4.1 Correlations on the node level of medium-lined fre installations 101
4.2 Small-lined FI type 1 and the characteristics of its nodes 103
4.3 Small-lined FI type 2 and the characteristics of its nodes 103
4.4 Distinguished elements and relative chronology 113
4.5 A summary of the possible tpq for architectural elements 114
4.6 Summary of the phases 117
5.1 Terminology and function – fre apparatuses in the written
sources 137
5.2 A summary of terms and functions – fre apparatuses 139
5.3 Terminology and translation – installations related to grape juice 154
5.4 Dating open-container complexes 156
5.5 Terminology and translation – water installations 161
5.6 Terminology and translation – drainage and sewage installations 162
5.7 Terminology and translation – storage facilities 164
6.1 Crops and their water requirements in modern agriculture 186
6.2 Crops and their tolerance of high salinity and excess water 189
6.3 The main characteristics of type 1 sites 194
6.4 Characteristics of type 2 sites 196
6.5 The main characteristics of type 3 sites 198
6.6 The main characteristics of type 4 sites 199
6.7 Summary of artefacts patterns 208
6.8 Dating results of nodes in Lod 218
6.9 The chronology of sites according to their type 227
7.1 Frequency of settlement-type terms in the fve Arabic geographies 249
7.2 Comparing settlement-type terms from Palestine with other
regions in the Arabic geographies 250
7.3 A summary of settlement terms in different languages in
Palestine in the 7th–13th centuries 253
7.4 The history and identifcation of the two Azotus: scenario 1 258
7.5 The history and identifcation of the two Azotus: scenario 2 259
7.6 Settlement terminology along the 4th–13th centuries 260
Acknowledgments

This book is based on my Ph.D. dissertation at Universität Hamburg which

was written not only through blood, sweat, and (mainly) tears but also with
much assistance from supervisors and friends. I am indebted to all. Writing
the book was possible thanks to the help and support of my editor Greg
Fisher, my friend and copyeditor Anja Rutter, my parents Benny and Leah,
and my dear men at home: Mohamed, Assif, and Anir.
1 Introduction

A sequence of political events can be deduced from chronicles on Greater

Syria and Egypt in the 7th–11th centuries. According to these, the region
was conquered by Arabs in the frst half of the 7th century. These Arabs
were believers of a new Faith – Islam – and in the eastern Mediterranean
their rule replaced the former Roman-Christian empire after hundreds
of years of authority. The new power was led by the Umayyad family and
based its capital in Damascus. In the year 750, the Abbasid dynasty took
over and shifted the political center to Iraq and Baghdad. In the mid-9th
century, the Tulunids operated as a regional authority under the Abbasids.
The 10th century saw different groups struggling for power until the rise of
the Fatimids, who then ruled for 200 years. Finally, the 12th century saw
mainly wars between the Ayyubids and the Crusaders.
This sequence of events, if true, gives only a partial picture and lacks
the economic, social, and cultural aspects of the region’s history. The main
questions concern who lived in the region at that time and what infuence
the political changes had on their lives. More particularly, their income
sources, trade networks, and technologies require some consideration, as
well as their aesthetics, religion, and social organization. Some of these
questions will be the focus of this study which concentrates on one case
study in the Levant. By doing so, it aims to achieve an in-depth analysis of
settlement types and occupation trends in one area of the Islamicate World
(i.e. spaces ruled by Muslim elites or where Muslims are the majority)1 and
a micro-historical perspective. In other words, this research conducts social
history but employs methods which are less common in that feld.
Archaeology is the natural candidate to answer such questions. It comes
with no surprise that several publications have already offered conclusions
to similar questions on Greater Syria.2 These studies introduce information
derived from geographies and chronicles in Arabic, but mainly emphasize
the data from archaeological excavations and surveys. Importantly, these
studies assemble the interpretations and conclusions that excavation and
survey teams have provided for archaeological sites and generally do not
discuss the raw data afresh.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003176169-1
2 Introduction
The methodology I used for this research differs from former studies in
several ways. First, I analyze and interpret texts and archaeology separately
and then contrast them. A strong result would be a correlation of the two
source groups, while contradictions should raise doubts about the authen-
ticity of the written source or the methodology of the archaeological re-
search. Moreover, I use the narratives in the texts from a critical and even
a skeptical perspective. The third innovative approach of this research is
a contextual interpretation of the datasets, namely, a classifcation of ar-
tefacts, sites, and toponyms through a consistent list of categories on the
one hand, and through their unique set of characteristics on the other. At
the same time, I avoid early interpretations of the data, in contrast to inter-
pretations suggested in other studies or by common sense.3 For example,
I do not presume that any site with a bathhouse or a mosque is a ‘city’.
Alternatively, I argue that settlement types must be analyzed through the
characteristics which resemble and differentiate them from their neighbors,
and that for doing so, wider contexts should be taken into account. A special
emphasis is given to the division between ‘form’, ‘term’, and ‘function’ of
objects, structures, and settlements.4 In that regard, my main use of texts is
for terminological purposes.
The fourth distinctive method this research employs is a re-consideration
of the archaeological data. Instead of employing the interpretation of exca-
vators for sites and structures, I extract the raw data from the excavation re-
ports. These data involve artefacts, raw materials, construction techniques,
and spolia activities. Some of these might have been overlooked as insig-
nifcant earlier, some might have been interpreted in the context of the site
alone, whereas regional overview and a larger quantity of specimens might
change these views. This method led to a novel chronology of installations
and construction techniques and to a new dating tool for early Islamic sites.
Finally, through this case study, I treat theoretical questions that concern
the archaeological method, such as the identifcation of cities, or the distinc-
tion between contexts of production, distribution, and consumption.
The name ‘Palestine’ conceals many denotations. Palestine is, frst, the
land and homeland of the Palestinian nation. Second, it is the modern po-
litical domain of the Palestinian Authority and the territories occupied by
Israel. Third, it is the name of the region governed by the British ‘Man-
date’ until 1948. Moving back in history to early Islam and orienting the
meaning of the term in this book, Palestine was an administrative territory
which included the southern part of the later British domain. It comprised
the settlements Caesarea, Jerusalem, Jericho, and Ascalon, as well as oth-
ers between these. Historians of Islam occasionally disregard nation-states,
or European colonies, and tend to consider only imagined historical terri-
tories such as ‘Arabia’ or ‘Andalusia’. However, the exact domain of these
territories is unknown, borders were apparently absent, and the places they
included changed over time. Archaeologists, on the other hand, excavate
physical remains during geographically positioned excavations for which
 Introduction 3
nation-states issued the licenses. One should not expect a correlation be-
tween a historical space and modern states. The historical space of Palestine
in this study is part of historical Syria or al-Shām. In parallel, the physical
domain is situated in central Israel which forms part, in my defnition, of
Israel/Palestine in the Levant.
The term ‘settlement’ also denotes different things. Its frst interpretation
is an inhabited location with some social identity, such as ‘city’ or ‘village’.
For that sense, I will keep using the word ‘settlement’ or use ‘settlement
type’ when appropriate. These terms differ from ‘site’ in archaeological con-
texts which can indeed mean a ‘settlement’ but may describe any spot of
human activity (e.g. a cemetery, a terrace, or a well). The second meaning
has a wider spatial context and includes a populated area and its cultivated
lands (henceforth ‘settled area’). The third denotation is the act of spatial
domination (henceforth ‘occupation’). The fourth interpretation consists of
the act of land occupation for cultivation or for the exploitation of natural
resources (henceforth ‘colonization’). Another relevant term in that context
is ‘settlement patterns’. This emphasizes the spatial differences between set-
tlement types or between settled areas and changes over time in consecutive
occupation or colonization periods.
My inquiry into the settlement in historical Palestine and central Israel
involves a list of questions and methods. The frst main branch examines
settlement patterns according to the archaeological evidence (Chapter 5).
To that end, I shall date architectural elements from stratifed contexts and
then chart chronological changes within sites and in the region. In addition,
types of sites are defned according to their artefacts, raw materials, instal-
lations, and chronology, along with interpretations of their economy, their
relation to the landscape, and their contacts to other sites. In practice, the
steps for establishing a site typology include reconstructing the landscape
(Chapter 2), collecting raw data from the research area and classifying in-
stallations (Chapter 3), and interpreting the function of these installations
(Chapter 4). In order to interpret the function of installations, and thus the
economy of individuals and settlements, I frst analyze the ancient terminol-
ogy for several devices. Second, I employ a method of ‘ethno-archaeology’
in fnding analogies in the use of similar devices in contemporary societies.
For the reconstruction of the landscape and particularly the reconstruction
of the natural water sources, I use aerial images, maps, and itineraries as
late as the early 20th century. The second main branch of the research ex-
amines settlement patterns according to the texts, namely through narra-
tives and terminology (Chapter 6). For the narratives, I examine the links
between toponyms attributed to the research area. Regarding terminology,
I analyze settlement types with the help of relevant terms in a wider dataset.
This study promotes not only an understanding of the economy and land-
scape of the research area, but it also provides a micro-history of coloniza-
tion and urbanization processes in the Islamicate world. The written sources
are ambiguous regarding the defnition of cities, and yet, that settlement type
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