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Summary of Lecture -15
➢ For HD lubrication the opposing surfaces
must be conformal.
➢ the gap between the two sliding surfaces
must converge.
➢ HD lubrication is often referred to as the
ideal lubricated contact condition because
h/ > 5, where h is the fluid film thickness
and is the roughness parameter.
Hydrodynamic Bearings: There are two types of hydrodynamic bearings, Fixed /
Pivoted Pad Thrust bearing and journal bearing
Normal load W carried by the bearing per unit width:
Fixed / Pivoted Pad Journal bearing
Thrust bearing
Pressure Distribution 𝐿2 𝑅2
𝑊 = 6𝜂𝐾𝑈 𝑊 = 𝑆𝜂𝑈
𝑑𝑝 ℎ − ℎ∗ ℎ02 ℎ2
= −6𝜂𝑈
𝑑𝑥 ℎ3 𝑙𝑛 1+𝑛 2
𝐾= −
𝑛2 𝑛 2+𝑛
𝑤 2 𝜋𝜀
ℎ S= 0.621𝜀 2 + 1 0.5
𝑛 = 1ൗℎ − 1 𝐷 1 − 𝜀2 2
0
ME – 576
TRIBOLOGY: Friction, Wear and Lubrication
Lecture 15: Lubrication
Learning Outcomes:
➢ Types of Lubricants
➢ Properties of Lubricants
➢ Different Lubrication Strategies
➢ Hydrodynamic Lubrication
➢ Elasto-hydrodynamic Lubrication
➢ Boundary Lubrication
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Elasto-hydrodynamic Lubrication (EHL)
If the contacting surfaces are counterformal (non-conforming), involving nominally
a line or point contact then the local pressures in the contact zone will be much
higher than those encountered in the HD Lubrication
Examples of Counterformal contacts: (a) Gear Teeth, (b) A cam and its follower
(c) A ball in a bearing race
Elasto-hydrodynamic Lubrication (EHL)
EHL is important in nonconforming, heavily loaded contacts such as point
contacts of ball bearings and point and line contacts of gear teeth, and compliant
bearings and seals at moderate loads.
Fig. 8.6.1 Schematics of (a) a radial ball bearing, and (b) contact of two spur gears.
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Elasto-hydrodynamic Lubrication (EHL)
Types of Contacts
The most commonly encountered forms of contacts are:
1. Point contact
2. Line contact
When a sphere comes into contact with a flat surface, it initially forms a point
contact with a circular shape and the size of the footprint grows as a function of
load.
When a cylinder comes into contact with a flat surface, it forms a line contact
and it grows into a rectangular footprint as the load is increased.
However, in a ball bearing, it was observed that the point contact between a ball
and raceway develops into an elliptical footprint.
Two nonconforming surfaces with simple shapes can be analyzed by
considering an equivalent surface in contact with a plane surface. For Ex. Two
cylinders or two spheres with radii ra and rb can be represented by an equivalent
cylinder or sphere, respectively in contact with a plane surface with the radius of
the equivalent surface as:
ra rb
R=
ra + rb
Elasto-hydrodynamic Lubrication (EHL)
In the EHL regime, the elastic deformation of the bounding solids is large and
affects the hydrodynamic lubrication process.
The contact stresses in nonconforming contacts can be very high and the
viscosity of most liquid lubricants at these pressures can be very high, as much as
108 times, so that a change to a solid phase occurs in the contact.
In EHL, we are faced with simultaneous solution of the Reynolds equation, the
elastic deformation equations, and the equation relating viscosity and pressure
Typically for liquid lubricants,
= 0 exp( p )
Shear-rate and thermal effects also become important and need to be taken into
account.
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Summary of Lecture -15
Elasto-hydrodynamic Lubrication (EHL)
➢ If the contacting surfaces are counterformal
(non-conforming)
➢ If the local pressures in the contact zone will be
much higher
In EHL, we are faced with simultaneous solution of the Reynolds equation,
the elastic deformation equations, and the equation relating viscosity and
pressure
Typically for liquid lubricants,
= 0 exp( p )
Shear-rate and thermal effects also become important and need to be
taken into account.
ME – 576
TRIBOLOGY: Friction, Wear and Lubrication
Lecture 16: Lubrication
Learning Outcomes:
➢ Types of Lubricants
➢ Properties of Lubricants
➢ Different Lubrication Strategies
➢ Hydrodynamic Lubrication
➢ Elasto-hydrodynamic Lubrication
➢ Boundary Lubrication
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Boundary Lubrication
In some applications, the solid surfaces are so close together that some
asperities come into contact and others are mitigated by a thin film of lubricant.
Under these conditions, the lubricant viscosity is relatively unimportant and the
physical and chemical interactions of the lubricant with the solid bodies
controls the friction and wear. Even a monolayer of adsorbed molecules may
provide some protection against wear.
Boundary lubrication usually occurs under high-load and low speed conditions in
machine components such as bearings, gears, cam and tappet interfaces and piston
ring and liner interfaces.
Schematic of two surfaces separated by a boundary layer of lubricant.
Boundary Lubrication
The boundary films are formed by physical
adsorption, chemical adsorption, and
chemical reaction.
The physisorbed film can be either
monomolecular (typically < 3 nm) or
polymolecular.
The chemisorbed films are
monomolecular, but stoichiometric films
formed by chemical reaction can have a
large film thickness.
The stability and durability of surface films
decrease in the following order: chemical
reaction films, chemisorbed films, and
physisorbed films.
(a) Schematic diagram representing the physisorption with preferred orientation of three polar molecules
of hexadecanol to a metal surface; (b) schematic diagram representing the chemisorption of stearic acid
on an iron surface to form a monolayer of iron stearate, a soap; (c) schematic representation of an
inorganic film formed by chemical reaction of sulfur with iron to form iron sulfide.
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Boundary Lubrication
Desirable Properties of Boundary Lubricants and Solid Surfaces
➢ A good boundary lubricant should have a high degree of interaction with
the sliding surface. As a general rule, liquids are good lubricants when
they are polar and thus able to grip solid surfaces.
➢ A solid surface should have a high surface energy, so that there will be a
strong tendency for molecules to adsorb on the surfaces.
➢ Solid surfaces should have a high wetting (or low contact angle).
➢ For better lubrication, the surface should be reactive to the lubricant
under test conditions, to form chemically reacted films.
➢ Surfaces should be functional with polar groups and dangling bonds
(unpaired electrons) so that they can react with lubricant molecules and
adsorb them.
Boundary Lubrication
Examples of non-polar and polar lubricant molecules
Structures of non-polar and polar (-OH) organic lubricant molecules.
Polar lubricants contain reactive functional groups with low ionization potential or
groups having high polarization.
Two perfluoropolyether (PFPE) lubricant types – Z-15 and Z-Dol – have been
used for lubrication of magnetic rigid disks.
In the case of Z-Dol, polar –OH end groups can be attached to an active substrate
which will chemically bond.
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Boundary Lubrication
Properties of the solid surface that are desirable for lubrication
A solid should have high surface energy so that there will be a strong tendency for
molecules to absorb on the surface.
Examples are shown below for (1) hydrophilic silicon oxide surface and its reactivity
to ambient water and (2) amorphous carbon surface with polar groups and dangling
bonds which promote absorption of PFPE molecules.
(b)
Schematic illustrations of (a) a hydrophilic silicon
oxide surface before and after adsorption of water
molecules; hydrogen bonding occurs between the solid
surface and water molecules, (b) a hydrogenerated
diamondlike carbon surface with adsorbed polar
(a) perfluoropolyether (Z-Dol) lubricant molecules;
• represents dangling bonds.
Boundary Lubrication and Lubricants
Effect of Adsorbed Gases
Boundary films occur on almost all
surfaces. Normally, air covers any
surface with an oxidized film plus
adsorbed moisture and organic
material. Inadvertent lubrication by
air is the most common boundary
lubrication.
The most readily observed cause of
breakdown of thin film lubrication is the
melting of a solid film and
degradation of liquid films.
(a) Effect of oxygen on the coefficient of
friction of outgassed iron surfaces and (b)
effect of hydrogen sulfide on the coefficient
of friction of outgassed iron surfaces.
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Boundary Lubrication
Effect of Chemical Films
The addition of a small trace of a polar lubricant (lauric acid in the example below) to
a nonpolar oil (paraffinic oil) can bring about a considerable reduction in the friction
and wear of chemically active surfaces.
Table 9.2.2 Efficiency of lubrication by paraffin oils or 1% lauric acid in paraffin oil compared
with reactivity of metal to lauric acid
Coefficient of friction at 20oC
1% Lauric acid in Transition
% Acid reactivea
Metal Clean Paraffin Oil paraffin oil Temperature (oC)
Unreactive
Platinum 1.2 0.28 0.25 20 None
Silver 1.4 0.8 0.7 20 None
Nickel 0.7 0.3 0.28 20 None
Chromium 0.4 0.3 0.3 20 None
Glass 0.9 0.4 0.4 20 None
Reactive
Zinc 0.6 0.2 0.04 94 10
Cadmium 0.5 0.45 0.05 103 9.3
Copper 1.4 0.3 0.08 97 4.6
Magnesium 0.6 0.5 0.08 80 Trace
Iron 1.0 0.3 0.2 Trace
* Estimated amount of acid involved in the reaction assuming formation of a normal salt.
Boundary Lubrication
Greases
Greases are used where circulating liquid lubricant cannot be contained because
of space and cost and where cooling by the oil is not required or the application of
a liquid lubricant is not feasible.
A grease is a semisolid lubricant produced by the dispersion of a thickening agent
in a liquid lubricant that contain other ingredient that impart special properties.
The majority of greases are composed of petroleum and synthetic oils thickened
with metal soaps and other agents such as clay, silica, carbon black and PTFE.
The petroleum oil-based greases can be used at temperatures up to 175C
depending on the thickener. The synthetic oil-based greases can be used at
higher temperatures.
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ME – 576
TRIBOLOGY: Friction, Wear and Lubrication
Lecture 16: Lubrication
Learning Outcomes:
➢ Types of Lubricants
➢ Properties of Lubricants
➢ Different Lubrication Strategies
➢ Hydrodynamic Lubrication
➢ Elasto-hydrodynamic Lubrication
➢ Boundary Lubrication
➢ Solid Lubrication
Solid Lubrication
➢ Challenges such as listed below are encountered in various applications:
➢ Food-Processing Machinery: Contamination from liquid lubricant
➢ Healthcare equipment: Contamination from liquid lubricant
➢ Space Applications: High vacuum environments where a liquid lubricant would evaporate.
➢ High Temperature applications: Liquid lubricant may decompose or oxidize
➢ Solid Lubrication is one of the solutions to overcome the above challenges in
these applications.
➢ Solid materials which exhibit low coefficients of friction may be used as lubricants
in preference to liquid or gas films in some applications
➢ Or, one of the mating component may be composed of or coated with the solid
lubricant or made from a composite containing it, in order to produce a “Self-
Lubricating” system.
➢ Self-Lubricating System: A system with a low interfacial strength which needs
no external source of lubricant during its lifetime resulting in savings in
maintenance and lubrication costs.
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Solid Lubrication
Solid Lubricants
Solid lubricants can exceed the operating temperatures of sliding systems beyond
10000C while maintaining relatively low coefficient of frictions.
They can be applied as thin coatings, incorporated into composite bearing
materials, or used as bulk materials.
Solid Lubricants can be broadly classified as:
➢ Organic Polymers
➢ Lamellar Solids
➢ Inorganic Compounds
➢ Soft Metallic films
Solid Lubrication
Solid Lubricants – Organic Polymers
Polytetrafluoro ethylene (PTFE) most commonly known as TEFLON, is one of the most
frequently used polymer as a solid lubricant, because of its inherent lubricity properties.
Applications:
➢ It can be applied as a thin coating on harder substrates
➢ Incorporated into composite bearing materials
➢ Can be used as dry powders
➢ Can be used as a bulk material
➢ Can be incorporated into lubricating oils and greases as suspensions of fine particles
which come into action under severe contact conditions and provide boundary
lubrication.
Limitations:
➢ It has a temperature limitation of ~2500C above which it will decompose or oxidize.
A few other polymers also show self-lubricating properties with relatively low coefficient of
friction and good wear resistance. They are:
➢ Ultra-high molecular weigh polyethylene (UHMWPE)
➢ Polyetheretherketone(PEEK)
➢ Nylon
➢ Polyimides,
➢ acetals
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Solid Lubrication
Solid Lubricants – Lamellar Solids - Graphite
Behavior:
➢ It shows low coefficient of friction mainly due to its lamellar structure.
➢ Within the layers, the atoms are tightly packed and the bonding between the atoms
is covalent and strong. These layers are separated by relatively large distances,
and held together by weak van der Waals type bonding. These can be visualized
as infinite parallel layers of hexagonals stacked by a distance c apart.
➢ Under the action of a relatively small force, displacement of the layers easily occurs
which is responsible for low friction.
Applications:
➢ It can be applied as a thin coating
➢ Incorporated into composite bearing materials
➢ Can be used as dry powders
➢ Can be used as a bulk material
➢ Can be incorporated into lubricating oils and greases as suspensions of fine particles
which come into action under severe contact conditions and provide boundary
lubrication.
Limitations:
➢ The lubricating properties of graphite depend on the presence of condensable
vapours and it is most suitable in normal environment.
➢ It has a temperature limitation of ~4000C in air above which it will decompose or
oxidize.
Solid Lubrication
Solid Lubricants – Lamellar Solids - Molybdenum-di-Sulphide (MoS2)
Behavior:
➢ It shows low coefficient of friction mainly due to its lamellar structure.
➢ Within the layers, the atoms are tightly packed and the bonding between the atoms
is covalent and strong. These layers are separated by relatively large distances,
and held together by weak van der Waals type bonding. These can be visualized
as infinite parallel layers of hexagonals stacked by a distance c apart.
➢ Under the action of a relatively small force, displacement of the layers easily occurs
which is responsible for low friction.
Applications:
➢ It can be applied as a thin coating
➢ Incorporated into composite bearing materials
➢ Can be used as dry powders
➢ Can be incorporated into lubricating oils and greases as suspensions of fine particles
which come into action under severe contact conditions and provide boundary
lubrication.
Limitations:
➢ The lubricating properties of MoS2 is adversely affected by atmospheric humidity,
hence it shows good performance under vacuum.
➢ It has a temperature limitation of ~3000C in air and ~5000C in vacuum above
which it will decompose or oxidize.
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Solid Lubrication
Solid Lubricants – Lamellar Solids
➢ Many other materials have lamellar structures other than graphite and MoS2.
➢ Tungsten disulphide (WS2) is one such material which has a lamellar structure.
It resists oxidation better than MoS2 and can lubricate at significantly higher
temperatures.
➢ Other inorganic compounds with lamellar structures vary in their lubricating
action.
➢ Hexagonal boron nitride (BN) has a structure similar to graphite but shows
rather high friction in air (0.2 to 0.4). However it shows good oxidation
resistance.
➢ Boric acid (H3BO3) also has a lamellar structure can be used as a dry
lubricating powder.
Solid Lubrication
Solid Lubricants – Inorganic Compounds
➢ Some of the inorganic solids without lamellar structures also possess low shear
strengths and some of these are useful as lubricants, particularly at higher
temperatures.
➢ Calcium and Barium fluorides (CaF2 and BaF2), lead oxide and sulphide (PbO
and PbS) and boric oxide (B2O3) can be used as high temperature lubricants
either in bulk composite form or incorporated into coatings.
➢ Ceramic-bonded composite films containing CaF2 can give a COF as low as
0.1 at temperatures upto 10000C.
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Solid Lubrication
Solid Lubricants – Thin Films
➢ Thin films of soft metals constitute another class of solid lubricants.
➢ The COF for sliding over a thin soft metal layer on a harder substrate may be
estimated as:
𝜏
𝜇 = 𝑖ൗ𝑝0
Where 𝜏𝑖 is the shear strength of the film and p0 is the indentation pressure of the
substrate material.
➢ The friction force is determined by the shear strength of the film material.
➢ The normal load is carried by deformation of the substrate and
➢ hence the two quantities 𝜏𝑖 and p0 can be varied independently leading to a low
value of COF.
Solid Lubrication
Solid Lubricants – Thin Films
➢ Lead, tin (µ = 0.09), indium (µ = 0.06), silver (µ = 0.2) and gold have all widely
and successfully been used as solid lubricant films.
➢ Very thin coatings ( 0.1 µm) will suffice to lubricate suitably smooth hard
substrates.
➢ Metallic films of this thickness can be used to lubricate rolling element bearings
for use in space or ultra-high vacuum or for high temperature operation.
➢ However, the COF for the above metals may be extremely high in the bulk
form. And hence the COF is dependent upon the thickness of the thin
films.
There is an Optimum film thickness for minimum friction.
Thinner films cannot prevent asperity contacts between
the base metals while for thicker films the frictional
behavior becomes more similar to sliding on a bulk
specimen of the soft metal.
Fig: COF for a steel sphere sliding against a tool steel
surface coated with a thin film of indium metal as a function
of film thickness.
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