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From Quantum Cohomology to
Integrable Systems
 OXFORD GRADUATE TEXTS IN MATHEMATICS
Books in the series
1. Keith Hannabuss: An introduction to quantum theory
2. Reinhold Meise and Dietmar Vogt: Introduction to
functional analysis
3. James G. Oxley: Matroid theory
4. N.J. Hitchin, G.B. Segal, and R.S. Ward: Integrable systems: twistors,
loop groups, and Riemann surfaces
5. Wulf Rossmann: Lie groups: An introduction through linear groups
6. Qing Liu: Algebraic geometry and arithmetic curves
7. Martin R. Bridson and Simon M. Salamon (eds): Invitations to
geometry and topology
8. Shumel Kantorovitz: Introduction to modern analysis
9. Terry Lawson: Topology: A geometric approach
10. Meinolf Geck: An introduction to algebraic geometry and
algebraic groups
11. Alastair Fletcher and Vladimir Markovic: Quasiconformal maps
and Teichmüller theory
12. Dominic Joyce: Riemannian holonomy groups and calibrated
geometry
13. Fernando Villegas: Experimental Number Theory
14. Péter Medvegyev: Stochastic Integration Theory
15. Martin A. Guest: From Quantum Cohomology to Integrable Systems
From Quantum
Cohomology to
Integrable Systems

Martin A. Guest
Tokyo Metropolitan University

1
3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6dp
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ISBN 978–0–19–856599–4

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Preface

A glance at the current mathematics research literature reveals the torrent of

ideas and results flowing from quantum cohomology, Frobenius manifolds,
and mirror symmetry. These are concepts that were mostly unheard of 20
years ago. But the new ideas are not simply ‘abstract nonsense’; they are
deeply related to virtually all mainstream areas of mathematics and have
already provided many new results in, and new connections between, those
areas.
While I had always intended to write this book in the style of ‘lecture
notes’, and it did indeed grow from several series of lectures which I have
given, the end result is much less ambitious than I had initially hoped, and
more philosophical. To some extent this is a consequence of lack of time
and perseverance on my part, but it also reflects the novelty and vitality of
the subject. Each bit of progress seems to lead in several new directions, all
of which provide tempting diversions from the original task.
It is impossible for anyone to write a definitive book in these circum-
stances. I have settled for this introduction to the subject, emphasizing those
aspects which are well established and unlikely to change much; it is just a
starting point. On the other hand, this book is not a summary of research
articles. It is more elementary and I have provided my own interpretation,
which involved rethinking some aspects of the subject. However, the expo-
sition relies very much on traditional mathematics, and traditional notation,
and it is designed to be read by traditional mathematicians.
The first chapter of this book gives a very brief introduction to the
ideas of algebraic topology for readers who are either not pure mathe-
maticians or who have had little need for cohomology in their own work.
The second chapter introduces quantum cohomology as a generalization of
cohomology: in both cases, a certain product operation is defined in terms
of intersection of cycles. For cohomology, these cycles are just subsets of
a given manifold M; for quantum cohomology, they are subsets of a cer-
tain space of ‘complex curves’ in M. Instead of going into the details of the
construction of this space, we just give an informal definition followed by
some simple but important examples. The third chapter presents, in a sim-
ilarly informal way, the quantum differential equations. These differential
vi Preface

equations lie at the heart of the subject, and this book. They are a sys-
tem of linear overdetermined partial differential equations. Although they
can be defined for cohomology too, they have constant coefficients in that
case, and so are of little interest. The non-triviality of the quantum differ-
ential equations sets quantum cohomology apart from cohomology, but,
much more significantly, the quantum differential equations have a differ-
ential geometric interpretation, which leads to the link with the theory of
integrable systems.
In Chapter 4, with three chapters of motivation behind us, we review the
elementary theory of linear differential equations that will form the founda-
tion of the rest of the book. This is mostly very straightforward, though it
uses the language of D-modules, which is a somewhat non-standard topic.
The quantum differential equations are most naturally described as a D-
module, the quantum D-module, and we regard this language as extremely
helpful. Nevertheless, the reader who prefers not to deal with D-modules
may replace the word ‘D-module’ by ‘flat connection’ without being led too
far astray.
Chapter 5 represents the true start of the book. Assuming the definition
of quantum cohomology, we define the quantum D-module, and describe
some of its key properties. From this point we have no further need of the
topological or geometrical definition of quantum cohomology; we shall be
concerned only with its associated D-module.
In Chapter 6 we approach the same object from a different direction.
Starting from a certain type of D-module, we consider whether or not it has
any of the properties of a quantum D-module. This leads to close links
between quantum cohomology and integrable systems. To this end, we
introduce a construction procedure, based on [62]. The main point of this
construction is that it begins from easily recognizable data (a collection of
scalar differential equations) and converts it to a D-module having many
of the properties of a quantum D-module. In other words, since it is very
difficult to recognize a fully fledged quantum D-module directly, we take
an indirect approach. This has the advantage that our point of view can
accommodate other integrable systems, which may only partially resemble
quantum cohomology.
To put this in context, in Chapters 7 and 8 we review some of the
famous (infinite-dimensional) integrable systems, concentrating on the
KdV equation and the harmonic map equations, where D-modules and
flat connections provide a natural framework. After a purely differen-
tial equation-theoretic discussion in Chapter 7, we review in Chapter 8
the infinite-dimensional Grassmannian, and how it can be used to
produce important families of solutions to those differential equations.
 Preface vii

The effectiveness of this method can be explained by the fact that the
Grassmannian is a geometrical representation of the underlying D-module,
and the geometry of finite-dimensional Grassmannians is a familiar source
of intuition. In particular, Schubert cell decompositions arising from
lower/upper triangular matrix group factorizations are a surprisingly use-
ful tool. In the infinite-dimensional case these become Birkhoff loop group
factorizations. Although this point of view is well known (it is simply a
convenient way of handling the Riemann–Hilbert problem), it is not usu-
ally discussed in this way at the level of D-modules, where it also gives a
decomposition into simpler components.
In the remaining two chapters we return to our main focus, quantum
cohomology. First of all, in Chapter 9, we give the standard description of
quantum cohomology as an integrable system; this says that the quantum
cohomology of a manifold can be regarded as a solution of an integrable
system known as the WDVV equations. This integrable system has some
(though certainly not all) of the features of the KdV equation or the har-
monic map equations. The full extent of these similarities is still to be
investigated, but one aspect is already clear: the infinite-dimensional Grass-
mannian plays an indispensable role. This is because the Grassmannian
point of view reveals mirror symmetry, in the sense that the quantum coho-
mology D-module is represented as an object which resembles a variation
of Hodge structure. After a brief review of variations of Hodge structure at
the beginning of Chapter 10, we explain this point of view, and show how
most of the theory developed in this book contributes to it.
Let us try to summarize all this in a few brief sentences. The main purpose
of this book is to explain how quantum cohomology is related to differen-
tial geometry and the theory of integrable systems. In concrete terms, the
concept of D-module unifies several aspects of quantum cohomology, har-
monic maps, and soliton equations like the KdV equation. It does this by
providing natural conditions on families of flat connections and their ‘exten-
sions’, from which these equations are derived. These conditions can be
strong enough to determine the equations completely, despite their disparate
geometric origins. Our goal is simply to explain this unified way of thinking.
A brief word about the notational conventions in this book is necessary.
Whenever different areas of mathematics interact, well-established notation
in one area can conflict with equally well-established notation in another.
I have decided to tolerate such conflicts when the context can be relied
upon to indicate the meaning, rather than make a desperate attempt to
be systematic. For example, I allow the differential operators L, P of KdV
theory to coexist with other L and P, such as the L in the next paragraph,
and the parabolic subgroup P of a generalized flag manifold GC /P. I hope
viii Preface

the reader will agree that an uncompromising attitude to such conflicts can
do more harm than good.
Another kind of notational problem arises when the literature already
contains several well-established names for the same object. I have tried to
make sensible choices in such cases. Occasionally, however, I have intro-
duced entirely new notation, in order to emphasize a new point of view. A
minor example is the use of h (instead of
) for the ‘spectral parameter’ of
quantum cohomology; I use this to remind the reader that I generally have
in mind ‘abstract quantum cohomology’ or even more general situations.
A more troublesome matter is the choice of convention for the ‘pullback of
the Maurer–Cartan form’. I write this as

F −1 dF,

with F as ‘general purpose’ notation, but usually I use L instead of F when

the map is holomorphic in the sense that dL/d z̄ = 0. Since it is overwhelm-
ingly conventional to write matrix equations in the form Y
= AY with Y
a column vector, I introduce H = F t where H is interpreted as the funda-
mental solution matrix of such a system, so that dHH −1 = A. This avoids
excessive use of transposes, at the cost of using both H and F.
There are several excellent books and survey articles on quantum coho-
mology, but these invariably take for granted a particular kind of back-
ground: physics, symplectic geometry, algebraic geometry, or singularity
theory. Originally I intended to write an unbiased account, but, in fact, the
book is heavily biased towards the ‘quantum differential equations’. It is
therefore not a substitute for other texts which cover quantum cohomol-
ogy or Frobenius manifolds more systematically, and it should preferably
be read in conjunction with such texts. Nevertheless, I have tried to write
something which would be readable for people working in various fields.
With this in mind, it may be appropriate to say how I became involved
in the subject ten years ago. I had been searching for applications of a
result of Graeme Segal, on the approximation of spaces of continuous
maps by spaces of rational maps. Despite the simplicity and plausibility
of the statement (motivated by Morse theory), there were at least two
unsatisfactory aspects: first, the lack of interesting applications; second, the
restriction to manifolds which are generalized flag manifolds, toric varieties,
or their mild generalizations. When I first heard about quantum cohomol-
ogy, which evidently involves spaces of rational maps, I wondered whether
Segal’s theorem should be interpreted as evidence for the special nature of
quantum cohomology of manifolds whose rational curves are ‘sufficiently
flexible’.
 Preface ix

Around the same time I gave some lectures on elementary Morse theory.
As a source of concrete examples, I paid special attention to Grassmannians
and toric manifolds, where the distinguished collection of Morse functions
provided by the torus action permits algorithmic calculations of the coho-
mology algebra as well as the Betti numbers. I was (like others before me)
struck by the fact that manifolds with large1 torus actions seem to acquire
their cohomology from a rather small amount of data. At this point I ran-
sacked the library looking for information about what I felt was surely part
of a well known theory, but could not find anything. The case of cohomol-
ogy seemed unlikely to be new (later on I realised that the theory of GKM
manifolds addresses this question), and I hoped that quantum cohomology
might present a more interesting test case.
With these two problems in the background, I was drawn to Alexander
Givental’s inspiring articles on ‘homological geometry’. These demon-
strated that the results of quantum cohomology computations are even more
interesting than the fact that they can be carried out (a distinction not always
clear in more mature research areas). Even better, the results indicated links
with the theory of integrable systems and loop groups, about which I had
just finished writing a book. I was hooked and began to read the literature.
My activities intensified when I read about Givental’s mysterious functions
I and J, and I speculated idly (without knowing even the definitions of these
functions) that they might be related by some well known integrable systems
procedure like ‘dressing’. I soon realized that the Birkhoff factorization is
responsible for this, and that I had before my eyes an example of the ‘DPW
procedure’ in the theory of harmonic maps, something that I was already
very familiar with.
Subsequently, in measuring quantum cohomology against the harmonic
map equations and equations of KdV type, I learned a lot about these more
familiar integrable systems. For example, it was only after realising that
the KdV equation arises through a simple ‘D-module extension procedure’
(section 4.4) that I began to understand the relation between the various
standard approaches (section 8.5). I also became interested in previously
shunned topics, such as the significance of coordinate changes in classical
differential geometry. As a result, large chunks of the book are devoted to
expositions of well known material, viewed retrospectively in the light of
quantum cohomology.

1 ‘Large’ means the existence of an algebraic torus orbit whose closure contains all critical points
of the associated family of Morse functions. Generalized flag manifolds and toric manifolds both
have this property.
x Preface

Like many other people, I was motivated by the work of Edward Witten
and Maxim Kontsevich which showed that the KdV equation appears in
higher genus quantum cohomology theory, and I hoped to discuss what is
behind this. However, it seems fair to say that the experts are not yet in full
agreement regarding this point. In any case I found so much to say about the
genus zero case that the Witten–Kontsevich theory has been squeezed out
and left for another day; it needs an entire book of its own. Nevertheless, the
presentation of the ‘finite-dimensional’ genus zero theory in this book may
be helpful in understanding better the ‘infinite-dimensional’ higher genus
theory. I am well aware of other major omissions but any of these topics
would have led in very different directions, and I have made more effort to
tell a coherent story than to be comprehensive.
Quantum cohomology is rapidly becoming a respectable area of mathe-
matics, but it is still popularly regarded as somewhat obscure. I hope this
book explains why the latter should not be so; that quantum cohomology is
natural and related to ordinary geometry (though admittedly not in an ordi-
nary way). As with any research topic which is related to several different
areas, everyday language used by practitioners in one area may seem utterly
mysterious to those in another. I have made an attempt to minimize such
difficulties by avoiding specialized technical terms and considering simple
cases wherever possible.
For beginners, a further word of warning may be in order. The research
literature on quantum cohomology is full of brilliant ideas and promis-
ing new directions, but, perhaps unavoidably in such a fast-moving and
competitive area bordering on theoretical physics, many authors are casu-
ally optimistic in their exposition. Jargon is rife, the distinction between ‘is
true’ and ‘should be true’ is occasionally blurred, and, in moments of frus-
tration, one might be forgiven for thinking that a paper has been written
with the sole purpose of misleading the enemy. Do not be discouraged by
this! Calculations are always ahead of theory, and in the quantum coho-
mology literature the results of spectacular calculations have often been
published before a general result can be proved (or even stated), so the lit-
erature has acquired a certain messiness. There is a lot to be done, but, with
the help of readers like you, it will all work out in the end.

Martin Guest
Tokyo, 2007
Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to Toshitake Kohno, Reiko Miyaoka, and Hiroaki

Kanno who invited me to give short courses on quantum cohomology and
integrable systems at Tokyo University, Kyushu University, and Nagoya
University between 2004 and 2005. Preparing these lectures revealed huge
gaps in my knowledge and stimulated me to try to write a book where
everything would be explained properly.
As the book progressed, I received valuable advice, encouragement,
and support, in many forms, from John Bolton, Josef Dorfmeister, Claus
Hertling, Alan Huckleberry, Yoshinobu Kamishima, Ryoichi Kobayashi,
Tosiaki Kori, Kee Lam, Yoshiaki Maeda, Seiki Nishikawa, Yoshihiro
Ohnita, Mutsuo Oka, Richard Palais, John Parker, and Chuu-Lian Terng.
My research during this period was generously supported by grants from
the JSPS.
I would like to thank Amartuvshin Amarzaya, Hiroshi Iritani, Liviu
Mare, Takashi Otofuji, Hironori Sakai, and Takashi Sakai, for discussions
and collaboration.
I am grateful to John Bolton, Ramiro Carrillo, Josef Dorfmeister, Kee
Lam, Thomas Reichelt, Wayne Rossman, and Hironori Sakai for pointing
out errors in earlier versions of the manuscript.
Finally, I would like to express my deep gratitude to my colleagues at
Tokyo Metropolitan University who, as well as providing a very stimulating
environment, have gone out of their way to treat me professionally and
personally with great kindness.
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

Preface v

Acknowledgements xi

Introduction xvii

1. Cohomology and quantum cohomology xvii

2. Differential equations and D-modules xx
3. Integrable systems xxii

1 The many faces of cohomology 1

1.1 Simplicial homology 2

1.2 Simplicial cohomology 3
1.3 Other versions of homology and cohomology 4
1.4 How to think about homology and cohomology 6
1.5 Notation 7
1.6 The symplectic volume function 10

2 Quantum cohomology 12

2.1 3-point Gromov–Witten invariants 12

2.2 The quantum product 16
2.3 Examples of the quantum cohomology algebra 19
2.4 Homological geometry 29
xiv Contents

3 Quantum differential equations 33

3.1 The quantum differential equations 33

3.2 Examples of quantum differential equations 39
3.3 Intermission 43

4 Linear differential equations in general 46

4.1 Ordinary differential equations 46

4.2 Partial differential equations 53
4.3 Differential equations with spectral parameter 62
4.4 Flat connections from extensions of D-modules 67
4.5 Appendix: connections in differential geometry 71
4.6 Appendix: self-adjointness 89

5 The quantum D-module 100

5.1 The quantum D-module 100

5.2 The cyclic structure and the J-function 102
5.3 Other properties 106
5.4 Appendix: explicit formula for the J-function 112

6 Abstract quantum cohomology 116

6.1 The Birkhoff factorization 116

6.2 Quantization of an algebra 124
6.3 Digression on Dh -modules 125
6.4 Abstract quantum cohomology 130
6.5 Properties of abstract quantum cohomology 135
6.6 Computations for Fano type examples 138
6.7 Beyond Fano type examples 144
6.8 Towards integrable systems 152

7 Integrable systems 154

7.1 The KdV equation 155

7.2 The mKdV equation 160
 Contents xv

7.3 Harmonic maps into Lie groups 164

7.4 Harmonic maps into symmetric spaces 171
7.5 Pluriharmonic maps (and quantum cohomology) 176
7.6 Summary: zero curvature equations 178

8 Solving integrable systems 182

8.1 The Grassmannian model 183

8.2 The fundamental construction 186
8.3 Solving the KdV equation: the Guiding Principle 191
8.4 Solving the KdV equation 197
8.5 Solving the KdV equation: summary 202
8.6 Solving the harmonic map equation 206
8.7 D-module aspects 218
8.8 Appendix: the Birkhoff and Iwasawa decompositions 219

9 Quantum cohomology as an integrable system 223

9.1 Large quantum cohomology 224

9.2 Frobenius manifolds 229
9.3 Homogeneity 236
9.4 Semisimple Frobenius manifolds 239

10 Integrable systems and quantum cohomology 243

10.1 Motivation: variations of Hodge structure (VHS) 244

10.2 Mirror symmetry: an example 255
10.3 h-version 265
10.4 Loop group version 270
10.5 Integrable systems of mirror symmetry type 276
10.6 Further developments 287

References 293

Index 303
This page intentionally left blank
Introduction

1. Cohomology and quantum cohomology

Although we shall end up in the largely uncharted territory of integrable
systems, the natural starting point of this book is cohomology theory and its
recent offshoot known as quantum cohomology theory. Algebraic topology
in general, and cohomology theory in particular, was one of the truly new
subjects of the 20th century. It is firmly based on geometric intuition, yet
succeeds in making these intuitive notions very precise, to the extent that
monodromy groups, Riemann surfaces, differential forms, and characteris-
tic classes have become part of the everyday language of mathematicians and
theoretical physicists. The foundations of the subject can be dry, because the
framework has to be developed carefully and there are various choices to be
made, in particular a choice of category of spaces and maps. However, over
the past 50 years a working procedure has emerged whereby most mathe-
maticians tend to think of homology in terms of submanifolds, and coho-
mology in terms of differential forms, and apply general principles without
worrying too much about the category until it becomes absolutely necessary.
This is natural precisely because it is close to the origins of the subject.
The same problems occur with quantum cohomology, although they are
more acute because quantum cohomology is at an earlier stage of devel-
opment. Quantum cohomology emerged from physics in the 1990’s and
quickly attracted the attention of mathematicians because of its spectac-
ular predictions concerning enumeration problems in classical algebraic
geometry. Even where such problems are not of immediate interest (such
as in this book), no mathematician can fail to be impressed by the results,
as they point to deeper connections beyond topology. Indeed, despite its
definition and name, quantum cohomology does not behave like ordinary
cohomology at all; it fails to be functorial in any naive sense, and it does
not measure any obvious topological property. The mathematical founda-
tions came only after great effort by researchers in algebraic geometry and
symplectic geometry—and unfortunately these foundations are a significant
barrier to anyone trying to learn the subject.
xviii Introduction

We present quantum cohomology in Chapter 2 as a natural generalization

of ordinary cohomology, with some detailed examples, but without going
into the technical foundations. The basic idea is that, while the cohomology
of a manifold M involves studying the intersections of cycles in M itself,
quantum cohomology involves the intersections of cycles in the space of
‘complex curves’ in M. This leads to the quantum product, which is a family
of multiplications
◦t : H ∗ M × H ∗ M → H ∗ M
on the total cohomology group

M
dim
H∗M = HiM
i=0

of M, generalizing the usual cup product. The parameter t will vary in H 2 M

for most of this book, but occasionally we shall allow it to vary in H ∗ M,
or an even larger vector space. With respect to a basisb1 , . . . , br of the
complex vector space H 2 M = H 2 (M; C), we write t = ri=1 ti bi , and we
extend further to a basis b0 , . . . , bs of H ∗ M = H ∗ (M; C) (usually choosing
b0 to be the identity element). Then, the quantum product is specified by
the structure constants cijk = cijk (t) of ◦t :


s
bi ◦t bj = cijk bk .
k=0

These structure constants are closely related to the 3-point Gromov–Witten

invariants, which count those holomorphic maps f : CP1 → M (in each
homotopy class) which ‘hit’ Poincaré dual cycles to the cohomology classes
bi , bj , bk . To an algebraic topologist it may seem inauspicious that we start
immediately by choosing a basis, but it is convenient to do so because we
shall soon be doing calculus and solving differential equations on the vector
space H 2 M, for which the local coordinates t1 , . . . , tr are undeniably useful.
With this in mind let us introduce the partial derivatives

∂ ∂
∂1 = , ..., ∂r = .
∂t1 ∂tr

In terms of the new variables qi = eti , it turns out (for sufficiently nice man-
ifolds M) that, if the subalgebra of H ∗ M which is generated multiplicatively
by H 2 M is written in the form

HM ∼
= C[b1 , . . . , br ]/(R1 , . . . , Ru ),
 1. Cohomology and quantum cohomology xix

then the corresponding quantum subalgebra can be written in the form2

QH  M ∼
= C[b1 , . . . , br , q1 , . . . , qr ]/(R1 , . . . , Ru ),

where the relations Ri satisfy Ri |q=0 = Ri . The relations are not unique,
of course, but natural expressions for them often arise. For example,
when M = CPn , the n-dimensional complex projective space, H 2 M is
one-dimensional and it generates the entire algebra H ∗ M, and one has

H ∗ CP n ∼
= C[b]/(bn+1 ), QH ∗ CPn ∼
= C[b, q]/(bn+1 − q).

The discussion so far applies when M is a homogeneous space such as CPn ,

and more generally when M is a Fano manifold. But quantum cohomology
can be defined in much more general situations, and it soon becomes neces-
sary to replace polynomials by more general functions of q, and to address
convergence problems (in particular, around the crucial point q = 0). How-
ever, for the purpose of the current discussion we shall assume that we are
in the Fano situation. To simplify the notation, let us assume also that
H  M = H ∗ M and QH  M = QH ∗ M.
One of the most intriguing aspects of quantum cohomology is its rela-
tion with differential equations. This leads to connections with the theory
of integrable systems (Hamiltonian systems, soliton equations, etc.) and
mirror symmetry (a duality between certain quantum field theories). The
differential equations arise when one regards the underlying vector space
of QH ∗ M as the space of polynomial functions  : H 2 M → H ∗ M, or,
more abstractly, as the space of polynomial sections of the trivial vector
bundle
H 2 M × H ∗ M → H 2 M, (t, x)  → t.
This is because the bundle has a natural connection ∇, given by the quantum
product in the following
 way. Since the bundle is trivial, we can write ∇ =
d + ω where ω = ri=1 ωi dti is the local connection form. Then ωi is defined
to be the matrix of the linear transformation ‘quantum multiplication by bi ’.
So far we have not used any property of the quantum product; any vector
space with a family of products would give a connection in the same way.
But for the quantum product it can be proved that the connection is flat,
that is, its curvature dω + ω ∧ ω is zero. This is equivalent to saying that
the system of differential equations

∇∂i  = 0, i = 1, . . . , r

2 We use here the standard notation C[x , x , . . .] for the algebra of polynomials in the vari-
1 2
ables x1 , x2 , . . ., and C[x1 , x2 , . . .]/(F1 , F2 , . . .) denotes its quotient by the ideal generated by the
polynomials F1 , F2 , . . . .
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