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Praise for Organizational Climate and Culture
“Ehrhart, Schneider, and Macey have created a rich, thoughtful, and com-
prehensive resource for scholars and practitioners. They lead us through a
wide range of complex issues with style and substance. You’ll know a lot
more about culture and climate after you read it. I know I did!” —Daniel
Denison, Ph.D., IMD Business School, Switzerland

“This book breaks new ground regarding the integration of scholarship and
practice, quantitative and qualitative methods for studying and changing
organizational climate and culture, and includes a sizeable body of litera-
ture.” —W. Warner Burke, Teachers College, Columbia University

“This volume offers a powerful and scholarly overview of the climate and
culture literatures and seeks to integrate them. The authors are hugely knowl-
edgeable about these areas and so it is just a treasure trove of information.
It offers new insights about the links between strategy and culture and offers
a comprehensive overview of measurement methods for climate and culture.
The authors take clear positions on some of the key controversies in the field,
the writing is clear, there are good summaries at the end of each chapter,
and some novel methods of communicating key issues to readers. One such
method is the use of a summary of key critiques of some concepts with the
authors’ helpful responses to critiques. The authors do not, as so many aca-
demics do, sit on the fence in relation to key controversies.” —Michael West,
Lancaster University, UK
This page intentionally left blank
 Organizational Climate
and Culture

The fields of organizational climate and organizational culture have co-

existed for several decades with very little integration between the two.
In Organizational Climate and Culture: An Introduction to Theory, Re-
search, and Practice, Mark G. Ehrhart, Benjamin Schneider, and William
H. Macey break down the barriers between these fields to encourage a
broader understanding of how an organization’s environment affects its
functioning and performance. Building on in-depth reviews of the de-
velopment of both the organizational climate and organizational culture
literatures, the authors identify the key issues that researchers in each
field could learn from the other and provide recommendations for the
integration of the two. They also identify how practitioners can utilize
the key concepts in the two literatures when conducting organizational
cultural inquiries and leading change efforts. The end product is an in-
depth discussion of organizational climate and culture unlike anything
that has come before that provides unique insights for a broad audience
of academics, practitioners, and students.

Mark G. Ehrhart is Associate Professor at the Department of Psychology

at San Diego State University. His research interests include organiza-
tional climate and culture, organizational citizenship behavior, leader-
ship, and work stress, and the application of these topics across levels of
analysis and in service and health/mental health settings. He has over
30 journal articles and book chapters on these topics, including in such
journals as the Journal of Applied Psychology, Academy of Management
Journal, Personnel Psychology, and the Journal of Management. He is on the
editorial board for the Journal of Applied Psychology, and is a member of
the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) and the
Academy of Management.

Benjamin Schneider is Senior Research Fellow at CEB and Professor

Emeritus, University of Maryland. Ben’s interests concern organiza-
tional climate and culture, employee engagement, service quality, staffing
issues, and the role of manager personality in organizational life. Ben has
been awarded SHRM’s Michael R. Losey Award, SIOP’s Scientific Con-
tributions Award, the Academy of Management’s HR Division Career
Contributions Award, and the Academy of Management’s OB Division
Lifetime Achievement Award.

William H. Macey is Managing Director, Global Research Office at CEB

and has more than 35 years of experience consulting with organizations
to design and implement survey research programs. He served as an advi-
sor to the Mayflower Group from 1992 to 2010 and is the co-author of
several recent publications on employee engagement. He is a Fellow of
the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, the American
Psychological Association, and the Association for Psychological Science,
and is a SIOP past president.
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT SERIES
Series Editors
Arthur P. Brief
University of Utah
Kimberly D. Elsbach
University of California, Davis
Michael Frese
University of Lueneburg and National University of Singapore

Ashforth (Au.): Role Transitions in Organizational Life: An Identity-Based

Perspective.
Bartel/Blader/Wrzesniewski (Eds.): Identity and the Modern Organization.
Bartunek (Au.): Organizational and Educational Change: The Life and
Role of a Change Agent Group.
Beach (Ed.): Image Theory: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations.
Brett/Drasgow (Eds.): The Psychology of Work: Theoretically Based Empiri-
cal Research.
Brockner (Au.): A Contemporary Look at Organizational Justice: Multiply-
ing Insult Times Injury.
Chhokar/Brodbeck/House (Eds.): Culture and Leadership Across the
World: The GLOBE Book of In-Depth Studies of 25 Societies.
Darley/Messick/Tyler (Eds.): Social Influences on Ethical Behavior in
Organizations.
De Cremer/Tenbrunsel (Eds.): Behavioral Business Ethics: Shaping an
Emerging Field.
De Cremer/van Dick/Murnighan (Eds.): Social Psychology and Organizations.
Denison (Ed.): Managing Organizational Change in Transition Economies.
Dutton/Ragins (Eds.): Exploring Positive Relationships at Work: Building a
Theoretical and Research Foundation.
Earley/Gibson (Aus.): Multinational Work Teams: A New Perspective.
Ehrhart/Schneider/Macey (Aus.): Organizational Climate and Culture.
Elsbach (Au.): Organizational Perception Management.
Fayard/Metiu (Aus.): The Power of Writing in Organizations: From Letters
to Online Interactions.
Garud/Karnoe (Eds.): Path Dependence and Creation.
Grandey/Diefendorff/Rupp (Eds.): Emotional Labor in the 21st Century:
Diverse Perspectives on Emotion Regulation at Work.
Harris (Ed.): Handbook of Research in International Human Resource
Management.
Jacoby (Au.): Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transfor-
mation of Work in the 20th Century, Revised Edition.
Kossek/Lambert (Eds.): Work and Life Integration: Organizational, Cul-
tural and Individual Perspectives.
Kramer/Tenbrunsel/Bazerman (Eds.): Social Decision Making: Social Di-
lemmas, Social Values and Ethical Judgments.
Lampel/Shamsie/Lant (Eds.): The Business of Culture: Strategic Perspec-
tives on Entertainment and Media.
Lant/Shapira (Eds.): Organizational Cognition: Computation and Inter-
pretation.
Lord/Brown (Aus.): Leadership Processes and Follower Self-Identity.
Margolis/Walsh (Aus.): People and Profits? The Search Between a Com-
pany’s Social and Financial Performance.
Miceli/Dworkin/Near (Aus.): Whistle-blowing in Organizations.
Nord/Connell (Aus.): Rethinking the Knowledge Controversy in Organiza-
tion Studies: A Generative Uncertainty Perspective.
Messick/Kramer (Eds.): The Psychology of Leadership: Some New Approaches.
Pearce (Au.): Organization and Management in the Embrace of the
Government.
Peterson/Mannix (Eds.): Leading and Managing People in the Dynamic
Organization.
Rafaeli/Pratt (Eds.): Artifacts and Organizations: Beyond Mere Symbolism.
Riggio/Murphy/Pirozzolo (Eds.): Multiple Intelligences and Leadership.
Roberts/Dutton (Eds.): Exploring Positive Identities and Organizations:
Building a Theoretical and Research Foundation.
Schneider/Smith (Eds.): Personality and Organizations.
Smith (Ed.): The People Make the Place: Dynamic Linkages Between Indi-
viduals and Organizations.
Thompson/Choi (Eds.): Creativity and Innovation in Organizational
Teams.
Thompson/Levine/Messick (Eds.): Shared Cognition in Organizations:
The Management of Knowledge.
Zaccaro/Marks/DeChurch (Eds.): Multiteam Systems: An Organization
Form for Dynamic and Complex Environments.
 Organizational
Climate and Culture
An Introduction to Theory,
Research, and Practice

Mark G. Ehrhart
San Diego State University
Benjamin Schneider
CEB
William H. Macey
CEB
First published 2014
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex BN3 2FA
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2014 Mark G. Ehrhart, Benjamin Schneider, and William H. Macey
The right of Mark G. Ehrhart, Benjamin Schneider, and William H. Macey to be identified
as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Ehrhart, Mark G.
Organizational climate and culture : an introduction to theory, research,
and practice / Ehrhart Mark G., Benjamin Schneider, William H. Macey.
pages cm. — (Series in organization and management)
1. Organizational behavior. 2. Corporate culture. I. Schneider,
Benjamin, 1938– II. Macey, William H. III. Title.
HD58.7.E384 2013
302.3'5—dc23 2013022806

ISBN: 978-0-415-87980-4 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-84872-528-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-85766-4 (ebk)
Typeset in Berling
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
M.G.E.: For Karen and Evan, who are such integral
parts of the climate and culture of my life.

B.S.: For Boaz, Gabe, CeCe, Chloe, and Gillian, who

make their Poppy happy every day.

W.H.M.: For Billy, Sarah, and Brandon.

This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

About the Authors xv

Series Foreword xvii
Preface xix

1. Introduction 1
Definitions of Organizational Climate and Culture 1
Assumptions 3
Our Goals: What We Hope to Accomplish 4
What We Are Not Trying to Accomplish 5
Organization of the Book 6
Summary 8

2. History of Organizational Climate Theory

and Research 11
From 1939 to the Mid-1960s: The Early Years
of Climate Research 12
From the Late 1960s through the Early 1970s:
The Expansion of Empirical Climate Research 32
The Mid-1970s: Major Critiques of the Climate
Literature and Their Resolution 50
Conclusion 59

3. Organizational Climate Research: The Current State

of the Field 63
The Definition of Organizational Climate 64
Climate at the Individual Level: Psychological
Climate 70

xi
xii Contents

Measurement and Levels of Analysis 72

Types of Climate Studied: Molar and Focused Climates 79
Climate Strength 98
Other Boundary Conditions of Climate–Outcome
Relationships 105
Climate Itself as a Moderator Variable 108
Additional Approaches to Studying Climate: Antecedents
and Mediators 110
Summary and Conclusions 114

4. Foundations of Organizational Culture 117

A Brief History of Research on Organizational Culture 118
Approaches to Understanding Organizational Culture 125
Defining Organizational Culture 130
Levels of Culture and Cultural Forms 135
Methods for Studying Organizational Culture 138
Summary: On Understanding and Studying
Organizational Culture 144

5. The Emergence, Effectiveness, and Change

of Organizational Cultures 145
The Emergence of Organizational Culture 145
Socialization and the Perpetuation of Organizational
Culture 153
Organizational Culture and Organizational Effectiveness 160
Organizational Subcultures 168
Culture Strength 173
Organizational Culture Change 178
Summary: The Emergence, Effectiveness, and Change
of Organizational Cultures 192

6. Integrating Organizational Climate

and Organizational Culture 195
On the Relative Absence of the Integration of Climate
and Culture 196
Similarities Between Organizational Climate and Culture 197
Differences Between Organizational Climate and Culture 203
What Organizational Climate Researchers Could
Learn from Organizational Culture Research 208
What Organizational Culture Researchers Could
Learn from Organizational Climate Research 213
Toward Integrating Organizational Climate and Culture 217
Contents xiii

Climate, Culture, and Competitive Advantage 225

Climate, Culture, and Organizational Change 229
Conclusion 231

7. Thoughts for Practitioners on Organizational

Cultural Inquiry 233
Why Executives Care: Strategy, Leadership,
and Organizational Culture 234
The Bases for Cultural Diagnosis and Change 236
Talent Management and Cultural Inquiry 239
The Measurement Framework for Cultural Inquiry
and Diagnosis 241
Qualitative Approaches to Cultural Diagnosis 244
Quantitative Approaches to Cultural Diagnosis 249
Blending Qualitative and Quantitative Cultural
Inquiry: A Case Example 275
Summary of Key Points to Consider in Conducting
a Cultural Diagnosis 279

8. Summary and Conclusion 283

Organizational Climate 283
Organizational Culture 289
Integrating Organizational Climate and Culture 296
Implications for Practice 299
Organizational Climate and Culture: A Research Agenda 301
Conclusion 304

References 305
Author Index 339
Subject Index 349
This page intentionally left blank
 About the Authors

Mark G. Ehrhart is Associate Professor at the Department of Psychology

at San Diego State University. He received his Ph.D. in industrial/organi-
zational psychology from the University of Maryland. His research inter-
ests include organizational climate and culture, organizational citizenship
behavior, leadership, and work stress, and the application of these topics
across levels of analysis and in service and health/mental health settings.
He has over 30 journal articles and book chapters on these topics, includ-
ing in such journals as the Journal of Applied Psychology, Academy of Man-
agement Journal, Personnel Psychology, and the Journal of Management.
He is on the editorial board for the Journal of Applied Psychology and is a
member of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology and
the Academy of Management.

Benjamin Schneider is Senior Research Fellow at CEB and Professor

Emeritus, University of Maryland. Ben’s interests concern organizational
climate and culture, employee engagement, service quality, staffing is-
sues, and the role of manager personality in organizational life. He has
published 140 journal articles and book chapters as well as ten books.
Ben has won awards for his research including SHRM’s Michael R. Losey
Award, SIOP’s Scientific Contributions Award, the Academy of Manage-
ment’s HR Division Career Contributions Award, and the Academy of
Management’s OB Division Lifetime Achievement Award. Besides the
University of Maryland, Ben has taught at Yale University, Michigan State
University, Bar-Ilan University (on a Fulbright), and for shorter periods
of time at Dartmouth College, Peking University, and the University of
Aix-Marseille. Ben joined CEB in 2003 and since then has consulted with
companies and associations on projects concerning service climate, safety
climate, innovation climate, and the ways potential employees experience
the selection process and the consequences of those experiences.

William H. Macey is Managing Director, Global Research Office at CEB

and has more than 35 years of experience consulting with organizations

xv
xvi About the Authors

to design and implement survey research programs. He served as an ad-

visor to the Mayflower Group from 1992 to 2010 and is the co-author
of several recent publications on employee engagement. He is a Fellow
of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP), the
American Psychological Association, and the Association for Psychologi-
cal Science, and is a SIOP past president. He received his Ph.D. from
Loyola University Chicago in 1975.
 Series Foreword

Ehrhart, Schneider, and Macey have written an important book, for it

bridges the science–practice divide. It puts meat on the bones of the po-
tentially elusive constructs of “organizational climate” and “organizational
culture.” Definitions, history, research, and relationships between the two
constructs as well as their practical utility are dealt with in informative
and actionable ways. Readers will leave the book with an impressive un-
derstanding of their scientific merits and their utility as managerial tools.
You are in for a terrific read!

Arthur P. Brief
Kim Elsbach
Michael Frese

xvii
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

This book is about how the people in work organizations experience

them. It concerns the ways people interpret and understand what hap-
pens to them at work, and how they describe what it is like to work in
their organizations. That is, it addresses the abstractions and meanings
people derive from their work experiences—the company is very service-
oriented, the company treats us fairly, the company values profits above
all—as well as the specific kinds of things that happen to employees that
yield those abstractions.
There is great variety in the way these issues have been conceptual-
ized and studied, but most are captured under the broad categories of
organizational climate and organizational culture. We present how each
of these concepts came to prominence and how they have evolved over
time. A major goal of the book is to provide a firm foundation for inte-
grating across the literatures on climate and culture to produce a view
of organizations that is tangible and manageable while retaining the ab-
stractions that are so useful for common conversation. The cover of the
paperback, designed by Chad Smith, visually captures our goal of bridg-
ing these two well-developed literatures that for too long have existed
side by side but separate.
This book is a testament to the impressive body of work that now ex-
ists on the study of organizational climate and culture, and we acknowl-
edge all of those who have contributed to the rich foundation of effort
on which this book rests. In addition, the book has profited greatly from
our work with various collaborators and students in our careers and their
willingness to provide the energy and insight that pushed our thinking
forward. The clients we have worked with in consulting roles have also
pushed our thinking and made us cognizant of the necessity to not only
be academically rigorous but relevant as well. Readers will appreciate this
drive for relevance in how we describe research approaches and, especially,
our notion of using data as a basis for both understanding and change.
The book would not exist without the calm prodding of Anne Duffy
of Routledge. Anne never pushed us overtly and never threatened us,

xix
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