Machine Learning For Absolute Beginners A Plain English Introduction 2 Edition Edition Oliver Theobald No Waiting Time
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Machine Learning
For
Absolute Beginners:
A Plain English Introduction
Second Edition
Oliver Theobald
Second Edition
Copyright © 2017 by Oliver Theobald
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or
by any means, including photocopying, recording, or
other electronic or mechanical methods, without the
prior written permission of the publisher, except in
the case of brief quotations embodied in critical
reviews and certain other non-commercial uses
permitted by copyright law.
PREFACE
WHAT IS MACHINE LEARNING?
MACHINE LEARNING CATEGORIES
THE MACHINE LEARNING TOOLBOX
DATA SCRUBBING
SETTING UP YOUR DATA
REGRESSION ANALYSIS
CLUSTERING
BIAS & VARIANCE
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS
DECISION TREES
ENSEMBLE MODELING
DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT
BUILDING A MODEL IN PYTHON
MODEL OPTIMIZATION
NEXT STEPS
FURTHER RESOURCES
DOWNLOADING DATASETS
APPENDIX: INTRODUCTION TO PYTHON
1
PREFACE
Machines have come a long way since the onset of the Industrial
Revolution. They continue to fill factory floors and manufacturing
plants, but their capabilities extend beyond manual activities to
cognitive tasks that, until recently, only humans were capable of
performing. Judging song contests, driving automobiles, and
detecting fraudulent transactions are three examples of the complex
tasks machines are now capable of simulating.
But these remarkable feats trigger fear among some observers. Part
of this fear nestles on the neck of survivalist insecurities and
provokes the deep-seated question of what if? What if intelligent
machines turn on us in a struggle of the fittest? What if intelligent
machines produce offspring with capabilities that humans never
intended to impart to machines? What if the legend of the singularity
is true?
The other notable fear is the threat to job security, and if you’re a
taxi driver or an accountant, there’s a valid reason to be worried.
According to joint research from the Office for National Statistics and
Deloitte UK published by the BBC in 2015, job professions including
bar worker (77%), waiter (90%), chartered accountant (95%),
receptionist (96%), and taxi driver (57%) have a high chance of
becoming automated by the year 2035.[1] Nevertheless, research on
planned job automation and crystal ball gazing concerning the future
evolution of machines and artificial intelligence (AI) should be read
with a pinch of skepticism. In Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers,
Strategies, author Nick Bostrom discusses the continuous
redeployment of AI goals and how “two decades is a sweet spot…
near enough to be attention-grabbing and relevant, yet far enough to
make it possible that a string of breakthroughs…might by then have
occurred.”([2])([3])
While AI is moving fast, broad adoption remains an unchartered path
fraught with known and unforeseen challenges. Delays and other
obstacles are inevitable. Nor is machine learning a simple case of
flicking a switch and asking the machine to predict the outcome of
the Super Bowl and serve you a delicious martini.
Far from a typical out-of-the-box analytics solution, machine learning
relies on statistical algorithms managed and overseen by skilled
individuals called data scientists and machine learning engineers.
This is one labor market where job opportunities are destined for
growth but where supply is struggling to meet demand.
In fact, the current shortage of professionals with the necessary
expertise and training is one of the primary obstacles delaying AI’s
progress. According to Charles Green, the Director of Thought
Leadership at Belatrix Software:
“It’s a huge challenge to find data scientists, people with machine
learning experience, or people with the skills to analyze and use
the data, as well as those who can create the algorithms required
for machine learning. Secondly, while the technology is still
emerging, there are many ongoing developments. It’s clear that
AI is a long way from how we might imagine it.” [4]
Perhaps your own path to working in the field of machine learning
starts here, or maybe a baseline understanding is sufficient to fulfill
your curiosity for now.
This book focuses on the high-level fundamentals, including key
terms, general workflow, and statistical underpinnings of basic
machine learning algorithms to set you on your path. To design and
code intelligent machines, you’ll first need to develop a strong grasp
of classical statistics. Algorithms derived from classical statistics sit at
the heart of machine learning and constitute the metaphorical
neurons and nerves that power artificial cognitive abilities. Coding is
the other indispensable part of machine learning, which includes
managing and manipulating large amounts of data. Unlike building a
web 2.0 landing page with click-and-drag tools like Wix and
WordPress, machine learning is heavily dependent on Python, C++,
R, and other programming languages. If you haven’t learned a
relevant programming language, you will need to if you wish to make
further progress in this field. But for the purpose of this compact
starter’s course, the following chapters can be completed without any
programming experience.
While this book serves as an introductory course to machine
learning, please note it does not constitute an absolute beginner’s
introduction to mathematics, computer programming, and statistics.
A cursory knowledge of these fields or convenient access to an
Internet connection may be required to aid understanding in later
chapters.
For those who wish to dive into the coding aspect of machine
learning, Chapter 14 and Chapter 15 walk you through the entire
process of setting up a machine learning model using Python. A
gentle introduction to coding with Python has also been included in
the Appendix and information regarding further learning resources
can be found in the final section of this book.
2
WHAT IS MACHINE LEARNING?
In 1959, IBM published a paper in the IBM Journal of Research and
Development with an obscure and curious title for that time.
Authored by IBM’s Arthur Samuel, the paper investigated the
application of machine learning in the game of checkers “to verify the
fact that a computer can be programmed so that it will learn to play
a better game of checkers than can be played by the person who
wrote the program.” [5]
Although it wasn’t the first published work to use the term “machine
learning” per se, Arthur Samuel is regarded as the first person to
coin and define machine learning as the concept and specialized field
we know today. Samuel’s landmark journal submission, Some Studies
in Machine Learning Using the Game of Checkers, introduces
machine learning as a subfield of computer science that gives
computers the ability to learn without being explicitly programmed. [6]
While not directly treated in Arthur Samuel’s initial definition, a key
characteristic of machine learning is the concept of self-learning. This
refers to the application of statistical modeling to detect patterns and
improve performance based on data and empirical information; all
without direct programming commands. This is what Arthur Samuel
described as the ability to learn without being explicitly programmed.
Samuel didn’t infer that machines may formulate decisions with no
upfront programming. On the contrary, machine learning is heavily
dependent on code input. Instead, he observed machines can
perform a set task using input data rather than relying on a direct
input command.
Supervised Learning
As the first branch of machine learning, supervised learning
comprises learning patterns from labeled datasets and decoding the
relationship between input variables (independent variables) and
their known output (dependent variable). An independent variable
(expressed as an uppercase “X”) is the variable that supposedly
impacts the dependent variable (expressed as a lowercase “y”). For
example, the supply of oil (X) impacts the cost of fuel (y).
Supervised learning works by feeding the machine sample data
containing various independent variables (input) and the desired
solution/dependent variable (output). The fact that both the input
and output values are known qualifies the dataset as “labeled.” The
algorithm then deciphers patterns that exist between the input and
output values and uses this knowledge to inform further predictions.
Using supervised learning, for example, we can predict the market
value of a used car by analyzing other cars and the relationship
between car attributes (X) such as year of make, car brand, mileage,
etc., and the selling price of the car (y). Given that the supervised
learning algorithm knows the final price of the cars sold, it can work
backward to determine the relationship between a car’s value
(output) and its characteristics (input).
After the machine deciphers the rules and patterns between X and y,
it creates a model: an algorithmic equation for producing an outcome
with new data based on the underlying trends and rules learned from
the training data. Once the model is refined and ready, it can be
applied to the test data and trialed for accuracy.
Unsupervised Learning
In the case of unsupervised learning, the output variables are
unlabeled, and combinations of input and output variables aren’t
known. Unsupervised learning instead focuses on analyzing
relationships between input variables and uncovering hidden patterns
that can be extracted to create new labels regarding possible
outputs.
If you group data points based on the purchasing behavior of SME
(Small and Medium-sized Enterprises) and large enterprise
customers, for example, you’re likely to see two clusters of data
points emerge. This is because SMEs and large enterprises tend to
have different procurement needs. When it comes to purchasing
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