Fundamentals of mechatronics:

1. Appreciate what mechatronics is about.

2. Comprehend the various forms of and elements of control systems:
 open-loop,
 closed loop and
 sequential.
3. Recognize the need for models of systems in order to predict
behavior.

1.1 Mechatronic system: Definitions & Components

Figure 1.1 Typical components of a mechatronics system

Mechatronics is the field of study concerned with the design, selection, analysis, and
control of systems that combine mechanical elements with electronic components,
including computers and/or microcontrollers. Mechatronics topics involve elements from
mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and computer science, and the subject
matter is directly related to advancements in computer technology.

The term ‘mechatronics’ was coined by Auslander, et al. [2] have defined
Yasakawa Electric Company [1] to refer mechatronics as the application of
to the use of electronics in mechanical complex decision-making to the
control operation of physical systems. This
definition removes the specific
(i.e., ‘mecha’ from mechanisms and technology to be used to perform
‘tronics’ from electronics). the operation from the definition.
A block diagram of a typical mechatronic system is shown in Figure 1.1. A mechatronic
system has at its core a mechanical system which needs to be commanded or controlled.
Such a system could be a vehicle braking system, a positioning table, an oven, or an
assembly machine. The controller needs information about the state of the system. This
information is obtained from variety of sensors, such as those that give proximity, velocity,
temperature, or displacement information. In many cases, the signals produced by the
sensors are not in a form ready to be read by the controller and need some signal
conditioning operations performed on them. The conditioned, sensed signals are then
converted to a digital form (if not already in that form) and presented to the controller.

The controller is the ‘mind’ of the mechatronic system, which processes user commands
and sensed signals to generate command signals to be sent to the actuators in the
system. The user commands are obtained from a variety of devices, including command
buttons, graphical user interfaces (GUIs), touch screens, or pads.

In some cases, the command signals are sent to the actuators without utilizing any
feedback information from the sensors. This is called open-loop operation, and for
it to work, this requires a good calibration between the input and output of the system
with minimal disturbances. The more common mode of operation is the closed loop
mode in which the command signals sent to the actuators utilize the feedback
information from the sensors. This mode of operation does not require calibration
information, and it is much better suited for handling disturbances and noise.

The choice of the controller for the mechatronic system depends on many factors,
including cost, size, ease of development, and transportability. Many mechatronic systems
use personal computers (PCs) with data acquisition capabilities for implementation.
Examples include control of manufacturing processes such as welding, cutting, and
assembly.

A significant number of controllers for a mechatronic system are implemented using a

microcontroller unit (MCU), which is a single-chip device that includes a processor,
memory, and input-output devices on the same chip. Microcontrollers often are used for
control of many consumer devices, including toys, hand-held electronic devices, and
vehicle safety systems. Control systems that use MCUs often are referred to as embedded
control systems.

The control system for a mechatronic system can be classified as either a discrete event
control system or a feedback control system. In a discrete-event system, the controller
controls the execution of a sequence of events, while in a feedback control system, the
controller controls one or more variables using feedback sensors and feedback control
laws. Almost all realistic systems involve a combination of the two.

In many cases, the command signals to the actuators are first converted from a digital to
an analog form. Amplifiers implemented in the form of drive circuits also can be used to
amplify the command signals sent to the actuators. The actuator is the mechanism that
converts electrical signals into useful mechanical motion or action.

1.2 The Integrated, Interdisciplinary Approach

However, the meaning of mechatronics has now become wider than its original definitions.
It is used to describe a philosophy in engineering technology in which there is a
coordinated, and concurrently developed, integration of mechanical engineering with
electronics and intelligent computer control in the design and manufacture of products
and processes. As a result, mechatronic products have many mechanical functions
replaced with electronic ones. This results in
 much greater flexibility,
 easy redesign and reprogramming, and
 the ability to carry out automated data collection and reporting.

A mechatronic system is a complete integration of mechanical, electrical and control

systems in which there is a concurrent approach to the design. Not just a marriage or
merger of the three. Such an integrated and interdisciplinary approach to engineering
design is increasingly being adopted for various designs in applications including cars,
robots, machine tools, washing machines, cameras, etc.

The integration across the traditional boundaries of mechanical engineering, electrical

engineering, electronics and control engineering has to occur at the earliest stages of the
design process if
 cheaper,
 more reliable,
 more flexible
systems are to be developed.

Mechatronics has to involve a concurrent approach to these disciplines rather than a

sequential approach of developing, say, a mechanical system, then designing the
electrical part and the microprocessor part. Thus mechatronics is in itself, a design
philosophy, an integrating approach to engineering.

1.3 Elements of Mechatronics

The study of Mechatronics brings together areas of technology involving:

 sensors and measurement systems,
 drive and actuation systems, and
 microprocessor systems, together with the
 analysis of the behavior of systems and control systems.

Figure 1.2 shows how the basic elements of a mechatronics system are interconnected.

Figure 1.2 Basic elements of a mechatronics system

1.4 Examples of Mechatronic Systems

  Auto Exposure, Autofocus camera: Automatically focuses and adjusts aperture
and shutter speed to give correct exposure.
 Truck Smart suspension: Adjusts to uneven loading to maintain a level platform,
adjusts to corners, moving on rough ground, etc, to maintain a smooth ride.
 Automated Production line: Ensures all automated processes are carried out
automatically in the correct sequence, reporting outcomes at each stage.

1.5 What is an Embedded System?

The term embedded system is used where microprocessors are embedded into systems
and it is this type of system we are generally concerned with in mechatronics. A
microprocessor may be considered as being essentially a collection of logic gates and
memory elements that are not wired up as individual components but whose logical
functions are implemented by means of software.

As an illustration of what is meant by a logic gate, we might want an output if input A AND
input B are both giving on signals. This could be implemented by what is termed an AND
logic gate. An OR logic gate would give an output when either input A OR input B is on. A
microprocessor is thus concerned with looking at inputs to see if they are on or off,
processing the results of such an interrogation according to how it is programmed, and
then giving outputs which are either on or off.

For a microprocessor to be used in a control system, it needs additional chips to give

memory for data storage and for input/output ports to enable it to process signals from
and to the outside world.

Microcontrollers are microprocessors with these extra facilities all integrated together on a
single chip. An embedded system is a microprocessor-based system that is designed to
control a range of functions and is not designed to be programmed by the end user in the
same way that a computer is. Thus, with an embedded system, the user cannot change
what the system does by adding or replacing software.

1.6 The Design Process

The design process for any system can be considered as involving a number of stages.

A. The need
The design process begins with a need from, perhaps, a customer or client. This
may be identified by market research being used to establish the needs of potential
customers.

B. Analysis of the problem

The first stage in developing a design is to find out the true nature of the problem,
i.e. analyzing it. This is an important stage in that not defining the problem
accurately can lead to wasted time on designs that will not fulfil the need.

C. Preparation of a specification
Following the analysis, a specification of the requirements can be prepared. This will
state the problem, any constraints placed on the solution, and the criteria which
may be used to judge the quality of the design. In stating the problem, all the
functions required of the design, together with any desirable features, should be
specified. Thus there might be a statement of mass, dimensions, types and range of
 motion required, accuracy, input and output requirements of elements, interfaces,
power requirements, operating environment, relevant standards and codes of
practice, etc.

D. Generation of possible solutions

This is often termed the conceptual stage. Outline solutions are prepared which are
worked out in sufficient detail to indicate the means of obtaining each of the
required functions, e.g. approximate sizes, shapes, materials and costs. It also
means finding out what has been done before for similar problems; there is no
sense in reinventing the wheel.

E. Selections of a suitable solution

The various solutions are evaluated and the most suitable one selected. Evaluation
will often involve the representation of a system by a model and then simulation to
establish how it might react to inputs.

F. Production of a detailed design

The detail of the selected design has now to be worked out. This might require the
production of prototypes or mock-ups in order to determine the optimum details of
a design.

G. Production of working drawings

The selected design is then translated into working drawings, circuit diagrams, etc.,
so that the item can be made.

1.6 Comparing Traditional and Mechatronic Designs

Engineering design is a complex process involving interactions between many skills and
disciplines. With traditional design, the approach was for the mechanical engineer to
design the mechanical elements, then the control engineer to come along and design the
control system. This gives what might be termed a sequential approach to the design.
However, the basis of the mechatronics approach is considered to lie in the concurrent
inclusion of the disciplines of mechanical engineering, electronics, computer technology
and control engineering in the approach to design. The inherent concurrency of this
approach depends very much on system modelling and then simulation of how the
model reacts to inputs and hence how the actual system might react to inputs.
In designing mechatronic systems, one of the steps involved is the creation of a model of
the system so that predictions can be made regarding its behavior when inputs occur.
Such models involve drawing block diagrams to represent systems. A system can be
thought of as a box or block diagram (see the examples of figure 1.3), which has an input
and an output and where we are concerned not with what goes on inside the box but with
only the relationship between the output and the input.
 Figure 1.3: (a)spring, (b)motor, (c)thermometer

The term modelling is used when we represent the behaviour of a real system by
mathematical equations, such equations representing the relationship between the inputs
and outputs from the system. For example, a spring can be considered as a system to
have an input of a force F and an output of an extension x (Figure 1.3(a)). The equation
used to model the relationship between the input and output might be
F = kx, where k is a constant.
A measurement system can be thought of as a box which is used for making
measurements. It has as its input the quantity being measured and its output the value of
that quantity. For example, a temperature measurement system, i.e. a thermometer, has
an input of temperature and an output of a number on a scale (Figure 1.3(c)).

1.7 Modelling Systems

The response of any system to an input is not instantaneous. For example, for the spring
system described by Figure 1.4(a), though the relationship between the input, force F, and
output, extension x, was given as F=kx, this only describes the relationship when steady-
state conditions occur. When the force is applied it is likely that oscillations will occur
before the spring settles down to its steady-state extension value (Figure 1.4). The
responses of systems are functions of time. Thus, in order to know how systems behave
when there are inputs to them, we need to devise models for systems which relate the
output to the input so that we can work out, for a given input, how the output will vary
with time and what it will settle down to.

Figure 1.4: The response to an input for a spring.

As another example, if you switch on a kettle it takes some time for the water in the kettle
to reach boiling point (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: The response to an input for a kettle system.

Likewise, when a microprocessor controller gives a signal to, say, move the lens for
focusing in an automatic camera then it takes time before the lens reaches its position for
correct focusing. Often the relationship between the input and output for a system is
described by a differential equation. To be discussed later…….

1.8 Connected systems

In other than the simplest system, it is generally useful to consider it as a series of

interconnected blocks, each such block having a specific function. We then have the
output from one block becoming the input to the next block in the system. In drawing a
system in this way, it is necessary to recognize that lines drawn to connect boxes indicate
a flow of information in the direction indicated by an arrow and not necessarily physical
connections.

An example of such a connected system is a CD player. We can think of there being three
interconnected blocks: the CD deck which has an input of a CD and an output of electrical
signals; an amplifier which has an input of these electrical signals, and an output of bigger
electrical signals; and a speaker which has an input of the electrical signals and an output
of sound (Figure 1.5). Another example of such a set of connected blocks is given in the
next section on measurement systems.

Figure 1.5: A CD Player

1.9 Measurement Systems

Of particular importance in any discussion of mechatronics are measurement systems.

Measurement systems can, in general, be considered to be made up of three basic
elements (as illustrated in Figure 1.6).

1. A sensor responds to the quantity being measured by giving as its output a signal
which is related to the quantity. For example, a thermocouple is a temperature
 sensor. The input to the sensor is a temperature and the output is an e.m.f., which
is related to the temperature value.

2. A signal conditioner takes the signal from the sensor and manipulates it into a
condition which is suitable either for display or, in the case of a control system, for
use to exercise control. Thus, for example, the output from a thermocouple is a
rather small e.m.f. and might be fed through an amplifier to obtain a bigger signal.
The amplifier is the signal conditioner.

Figure 1.6: A measurement system and its constituent elements.

3. A display system displays the output from the signal conditioner. This might, for
example, be a pointer moving across a scale or a digital readout.

As an example, consider a digital thermometer (Figure 1.7). This has an input of

temperature to a sensor, probably a semiconductor diode. The potential difference across
the sensor is, at constant current, a measure of the temperature. This potential difference
is then amplified by an operational amplifier to give a voltage which can directly drive a
display. The sensor and operational amplifier may be incorporated on the same silicon
chip.

Figure 1.7: A digital thermometer system.

1.10 Control Systems

A control system can be thought of as a system which can be used to:

1. Control some variable to some particular value, e.g. a central heating system where
the temperature is controlled to a particular value;
2. Control the sequence of events, e.g. a washing machine where when the dials are
set to, say, ‘white’ and the machine is then controlled to a particular washing cycle,
i.e. sequence of events, appropriate to that type of clothing;
3. Control whether an event occurs or not, e.g. a safety lock on a machine where it
cannot be operated until a guard is in position.

1.10.1 Feedback

Below is a number of feedback examples. Think about how the following implement
feedback in the system.
 Human body temperature
 Room temperature with central heating
  Picking up a pencil

Figure 1.8: Feedback control: (a) human body temperature, (b) room temperature with
central heating, (c) picking up a pencil.

Feedback control systems are widespread, not only in nature and the home but also in
industry. There are many industrial processes and machines where control, whether by
humans or automatically, is required. For example,
 Process control where such things as temperature, liquid level, fluid flow, pressure,
etc., are maintained constant. Thus in a chemical process there may be a need to
maintain the level of a liquid in a tank to a particular level or to a particular
temperature.
 There are also control systems which involve consistently and accurately positioning
a moving part or maintaining a constant speed. This might be, for example, a motor
designed to run at a constant speed or perhaps a machining operation in which the
position, speed and operation of a tool are automatically controlled.

1.10.2 Open and Closed Loop Systems

There are two basic forms of control system, one being called open loop and the other
closed loop. See comparison of open loop and closed loop in heating a room in figure 1.9.
 Figure 1.9: Heating a room: (a) an open-loop system, (b) a closed-loop system.

1.10.3 Open and Closed Loop Systems

Figure 1.10 shows the general form of a basic closed-loop system, consisting of five
elements.

Figure 1.10: The elements of a closed-loop control system.

1. Comparison element
This compares the required or reference value of the variable condition being controlled
with the measured value of what is being achieved and produces an error signal. It can be
regarded as adding the reference signal, which is positive, to the measured value signal,
which is negative in this case:

Error signal = Reference Value Signal - Measured Value Signal

The symbol used, in general, for an element at which signals are summed is a segmented circle,
inputs going into segments. The inputs are all added, hence the feedback input is marked as
negative and the reference signal positive so that the sum gives the difference between the
signals.

A feedback loop is a means whereby a signal related to the actual condition being
achieved is fed back to modify the input signal to a process. The feedback is said to be
negative feedback when the signal which is fed back subtracts from the input value. It is
negative feedback that is required to control a system. Positive feedback occurs when
the signal fed back, adds to the input signal.
 2. Control element
This decides what action to take when it receives an error signal. It may be, for example, a
signal to operate a switch or open a valve. The control plan being used by the element
may be just to supply a signal which switches on or off when there is an error, as in a room
thermostat, or perhaps a signal which proportionally opens or closes a valve according to
the size of the error. Control plans may be hard-wired systems in which the control plan is
permanently fixed by the way the elements are connected together, or programmable
systems where the control plan is stored within a memory unit and may be altered by
reprogramming it.

3. Correction element
The correction element produces a change in the process to correct or change the
controlled condition. Thus it might be a switch which switches on a heater and so
increases the temperature of the process or a valve which opens and allows more liquid to
enter the process. The term actuator is used for the element of a correction unit that
provides the power to carry out the control action.

4. Process element
The process is what is being controlled. It could be a room in a house with its temperature
being controlled or a tank of water with its level being controlled.

5. Measurement element
The measurement element produces a signal related to the variable condition of the
process that is being controlled. It might be, for example, a switch which is switched on
when a particular position is reached or a thermocouple which gives an e.m.f. related to
the temperature.

1.10.4 Simple Illustration of a closed loop

For example, imagine you are in a room with a fireplace to warm the room, and you are
holding a thermometer to measure the temperature of the room. The closed loop in figure
10 can be represented as follows:

 Controlled variable: the room temperature

 Reference value: the required room temperature

 Comparison element: the person comparing the measured value

with the required value of temperature

 Error signal: the difference between the measured and required

temperatures

 Control unit: the person

 Correction unit: the switch on the fire

 Process: the heating by the fire

 Measuring device: a thermometer

 1.10.5 Some Examples of Closed Loop systems

1. Automatic control of water level.

Figure 1.11: The automatic control of water level.

1 Controlled variable – water level in tank

2 Reference value – initial setting of the float and lever position
3 Comparison element – the lever
4 Error signal – the difference between the actual and initial
5 settings of the lever positions
6 Control unit – the pivoted lever
7 Correction unit – the flap opening or closing the water supply
8 Process – the water level in the tank
9 Measuring device – the floating ball and lever.

The above is an example of a closed-loop control system involving just mechanical

elements. We could, however, have controlled the liquid level by means of an electronic
control system. We thus might have had a level sensor supplying an electrical signal which
is used, after suitable signal conditioning, as an input to a computer where it is compared
with a set value signal and the difference between them, the error signal, then used to
give an appropriate response from the computer output. This is then, after suitable signal
conditioning, used to control the movement of an actuator in a flow control valve and so
determine the amount of water fed into the tank.
 2. Shaft speed control

Figure 1.13 shows a simple automatic control system for the speed of rotation of a shaft. A
potentiometer is used to set the reference value, i.e. what voltage is supplied to the
differential amplifier as the reference value for the required speed of rotation. The
differential amplifier is used both to compare and amplify the difference between the
reference and feedback values, i.e. it amplifies the error signal. The amplified error signal
is then fed to a motor which in turn adjusts the speed of the rotating shaft. The speed of
the rotating shaft is measured using a tachogenerator, connected to the rotating shaft by
means of a pair of bevel gears. The signal from the tachogenerator is then fed back to the
differential amplifier:

10 Controlled variable – speed of rotation of shaft

11 Reference value – setting of slider on potentiometer
12 Comparison element – differential amplifier
13 Error signal – the difference between the output from
14 The potentiometer and that from the
15 Tachogenerator system
16 Control unit – the differential amplifier
17 Correction unit – the motor
18 Process – the rotating shaft
19 Measuring device – the tachogenerator
20

Figure 1.12: Speed control of a motor

 1.10.6 Analog and Digital Control Systems

 Analogue Signals: Continuous functions of time, the amplitude of the signal being
the measure of the variable (Figure 1.14(a))
 Digital signals: A sequence of on/off signals. The value of the variable being
represented by the sequence of on/off pulses. For example, for a 3 digit signal
shown in Figure 1.14 (b).

Digit Analog
Digit 1 Digit 3
2 Level (V)
OFF OFF OFF 0
OFF OFF ON 1
OFF ON OFF 2
OFF ON ON 3
ON OFF OFF 4
ON OFF ON 5
ON ON OFF 6
ON ON ON 7

Figure 1.14: Signals: (a) analogue and (b) the digital version of the analogue signal
showing the stream of sampled signals

Most of the situations being controlled (which are also the inputs and outputs of control
systems) are analogue in nature so to use a digital control system we need to convert the
controller inputs from analogue to digital then controller output signals from digital back to
analogue, necessitating the use of analog-to-digital converters (ADC) and digital-to-analog
converters (DAC).

Figure 1.15(a) shows the basic elements of a digital closed-loop control system; compare it
with the analogue closed-loop system in Figure 1.10. The reference value, or set point,
might be an input from a keyboard. Analogue-to-digital (ADC) and digital-to-analogue
(DAC) elements are included in the loop in order that the digital controller can be supplied
with digital signals from analogue measurement systems and its output of digital signals
can be converted to analogue form to operate the correction units. It might seem to be
adding a degree of complexity to the control system to have this ADC and DAC, but there
are some very important advantages:

 Digital operations can be controlled by a program, i.e. a set of stored instructions

 Information storage is easier,
 Accuracy can be greater;
 Digital circuits are less affected by noise and also
 Are generally easier to design.

Figure 1.15 (a) The basic elements of a digital closed-loop control system, (b) a microcontroller control system.

The digital controller could be a digital computer which is running a program, i.e. a piece
of software, to implement the required actions. The term control algorithm is used to
describe the sequence of steps needed to solve the control problem. The control algorithm
that might be used for digital control could be described by the following steps:
 22 Read the reference value, i.e. the desired
value.
23 Read the actual plant output from the ADC.
24 Calculate the error signal.
25 Calculate the required controller output.
26 Send the controller output to the DAC.
27 Wait for the next sampling interval.

Usually, in mechatronics applications, the expense and bulk of a computer is not required
and a microchip (microcontroller) is often used for digital control. Besides the system may
need to be mobile. A microcontroller is a microprocessor with added integrated elements
such as memory and ADC and DAC converters; these can be connected directly to the
plant being controlled so the arrangement could be as shown in Figure 1.15(b).

Compare the digitally controlled shaft speed control system of figure 1.16 to the analogue
controlled one of figure 1.12 (reproduced here for quick reference.

Also suggest how you would integrate digital control in the room heating system of 1.9(b),
illustrating with a diagram.

1.10.6.1 Digital Control Software

The software used with a digital controller needs to be able to:

 Read data from its input ports.
 Carry out internal data transfer and mathematical operations.
 Send data to its output ports.
In addition it will have:
 Facilities to determine at what times the control program will be implemented.

a) Polling
The program waits for the ADC sampling time to occur and then springs into action when
there is an input of a sample. The program repeatedly checks the input ports for such
sampling events. For example:
1. Check the input ports for input signals.
2. No signals so do nothing.
3. Check the input ports for input signals.
4. No signals so do nothing.
5. Check the input ports for input signals.
6. Signal so read data from its input ports.
7. Carry out internal data transfer and
mathematical operations.
8. Send data to its output ports.
9. Check the input ports for input signals.
10. No signals so do nothing.
11. And so on.

a) Interrupt Control
The program does not keep checking its input ports but receives a signal when an input is
due. This signal may come from an external clock which gives a signal every time the ADC
takes a sample. For example:

1. No signal from external clock.

2. Do nothing.
3. Signal from external clock that an input is due.
4. Read data from its input ports.
5. Carry out internal data transfer and mathematical operations.
6. Send data to its output ports.
7. Wait for next signal from external clock.

1.10.7 Sequential Controllers

Here, control is exercised by items being switched on or off at particular preset times or
values in order to control processes and give a step sequence of operations. For example,
after step 1 is complete then step 2 starts. When step 2 is complete then step 3 starts,
etc.

In sequential control, actions are strictly ordered in a time- or event-driven sequence. This
can be achieved by
 An electric circuit with sets of relays or
 Cam-operated switches which are wired up in such a way as to give the required
sequence.

Examples of Cam-Operated switches

 Figure 1.17: Cam-operated switches

Such hard-wired circuits are now more likely to have been replaced by a microprocessor-
controlled system, with the sequencing being controlled by means of a software program.

Let’s take the example of a domestic washing machine…. A number of operations have to
be carried out in the correct sequence. These may involve:

 A pre-wash cycle when the clothes in the drum are given a wash in cold water,
followed by
 A main wash cycle when they are washed in hot water, then
 A rinse cycle when they are rinsed with cold water a number of times, followed by
 Spinning to remove water from the clothes.

Each of these operations involves a number of steps. For example, a prewash cycle
involves:

 Opening a valve to fill the machine drum to the required level,

 Closing the valve,
 Switching on the drum motor to rotate the drum for a specific time and
 Operating the pump to empty the water from the drum.

The operating sequence is called a program, the sequence of instructions in each program
being predefined and ‘built’ into the controller used. Check out washing machine operation
(YouTube: https://youtu.be/_EUxskkQjV8).

1.10.8 Programmable Logic Controllers

In many simple systems there might be just an embedded microcontroller, this being a
microprocessor with memory all integrated on one chip, which has been specifically
programmed for the task concerned.

A more adaptable form is the programmable logic controller (PLC). This is a

microprocessor-based controller which uses programmable memory to store instructions
and to implement functions such as logic, sequence, timing, counting and arithmetic to
control events and can be readily reprogrammed for different tasks. Figure 1.19 shows the
control action of a PLC, the inputs being signals from, say, switches being closed and the
program used to determine how the controller should respond to the inputs and the output
it should then give.
 Figure 1.17: A washing machine system

Programmable logic controllers are widely used in industry where on/off control is
required. For example, they might be used in process control where a tank of liquid is to
be filled and then heated to a specific temperature before being emptied. The control
sequence might thus be as follows.

1 Switch on pump to move liquid into the tank.

2 Switch off pump when a level detector gives the on signal, so indicating that the
liquid has reached the required level.
3 Switch on heater.
4 Switch off heater when a temperature sensor gives the on signal to indicate the
required temperature has been reached.
5 Switch on pump to empty the liquid from the container.
6 Switch off pump when a level detector gives an on signal to indicate that the tank
is empty.

Discussion Questions

1. Identify the sensor, signal conditioner and display elements in the measurement
systems of
(a) A mercury-in-glass thermometer
(b) A digital blood pressure tester
2. Explain the difference between open- and closed-loop control.
3. Identify the various elements that might be present in a control system involving a
thermostatically controlled electric heater.
4. The automatic control system for the temperature of a bath of liquid consists of a
reference voltage fed into a differential amplifier. This is connected to a relay which
then switches on or off the electrical power to a heater in the liquid. Negative
feedback is provided by a measurement system which feeds a voltage into the
differential amplifier. Sketch a block diagram of the system and explain how the
error signal is produced.
5. Explain the function of a programmable logic controller.
6. Explain what is meant by sequential control and illustrate your answer by an
example.
7. State steps that might be present in the sequential control of a dishwasher.
8. Compare and contrast the traditional design of a watch with that of the
mechatronics-designed product involving a microprocessor.
9. Compare and contrast the control system for the domestic central heating system
involving a bimetallic thermostat and that involving a microprocessor.