East West College of Engineering

Engineering Physics Subject Code: BPHYS202/102

Module – 1
CHAPTERS-1 and 2
LASERS and OPTICAL FIBERS
LASER: Characteristic properties of a LASER beam, Interaction of Radiation with Matter, Einstein’s A and B Coefficients and
Expression for Energy Density (Derivation), Laser Action, Population Inversion, Metastable State, Requisites of a laser system,
Semiconductor Diode Laser, Applications: Bar code scanner, Laser Printer, Laser Cooling (Qualitative), Numerical Problems.
Optical Fiber : Principle and structure, Propagation of Light, Acceptance angle and Numerical Aperture (NA),Derivation of
Expression for NA, Modes of Propagation, RI Profile, Classification of Optical Fibers, Attenuation and Fiber Losses,
Applications: Fiber Optic networking, Fiber Optic Communication. Numerical Problems. 8 Hrs
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CHAPTER 1

LASERS

Introduction:
The word Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser light has
properties of highly monochromatic, Highly directional, Highly Coherence, high focus ability and high
intensity etc.

Basic Principle of interaction of light With matter.

The interaction of light with matter makes transition of an atom or a molecule from one energy state to another. If the transition is
from lower state to higher state it absorbs the incident energy. If the transition is from higher state to lower state, atom emits
difference of energy levels between two orbits in the form of an electromagnetic radiation.
If ∆E is the difference between the two energy levels, then, according to Max Planck,
∆E = h  = (E2-E1)

Emission or Absorption takes place by quantum of energy called photons. Energy of one photon is h which is called quantum
energy or one photon energy, h= Planck’s constant=6.625x10-34 JS and ‘ ’ is the frequency of radiation emitted or absorbed.

Discussion of different types of interactions of light with matter

[Q. Explain different types of interaction of Light with matter]

Emission of laser light is based on particular type of interaction of light with matter. Light interacts with
matter in three ways. They are

1) Induced / Stimulated absorption

2) Spontaneous emission
3) Induced / Stimulated emission.
Induced absorption/ Stimulated absorption

“The process in which an atom is raised from a lower energy state to a higher state, due to absorption
of an incident photon is called induced absorption”.

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Explanation:

Let ‘E1’ and ‘E2’ be the energies of two energy levels in a material, such that E2>E1. When a photon of
energy h is incident on an atom at level E1, the atom is stimulated or induced to go to a higher energy
level by absorbing the energy. The process is represented as

Atom + Photon → Atom*

Spontaneous Emission:

The emission of a photon by an atom due to which “atom makes transition from a higher energy state to a
lower energy state by itself without an aid of any external energy” is called spontaneous emission.

Explanation:

Let ‘E1’ and ‘E2’ be two energy levels in a material, such that E 2>E1. The time of stay of an atom in the
excited state is usually very short of the order of 10-8 to 10-9s and it is called life time of an atom. After this
time the atom undergo transition to lower energy level without the aid of external energy. This process is
called Spontaneous Emission.

This process is represented as; Atom* → Atom + Photon

The photons emitted in spontaneous emission are not in the same direction and phase. Therefore emitted
light is incoherent light.

Stimulated Emission:

Emission of a photon by an atom, when light of suitable energy incident on the atom, due to which the atom
makes transition from a higher energy state to a lower energy state is called Stimulated emission.

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Explanation:
Let ‘E1’ and ‘E2’ be two energy levels in a material, such that E 2>E1. Let the atom is at higher level E2. Let
the energy of the incident photon be equal ‘h’ which is equal to difference between the two energy levels.
The atom on absorbing energy; get de-excited from higher level E2 to lower level E1.
h=E2–E1 is the energy of photon emitted.

The Incident photon stimulates or induces the excited atom to emit a photon of exactly the same energy as
that of the incident photons. In this process two photons are emitted. The photons thus emitted are called
stimulated photons which are identical in all respect i.e. having same phase, same frequency and direction
with respect to the incident photon. Thus stimulated emission is the particular type of emission which is
responsible for emission of laser light.
The process is represented by
Atom* + Photon → Atom + 2 photons

Population and Boltzmann Factor:

Population:
The number of atoms present in a particular energy level is called as its population. Number of atoms
present in particular energy level per unit volume of the material is called population density.

Boltzmann Factor or population level

The ratio of number of atoms present in higher energy level to that of in lower energy level is called
population level or the Boltzmann factor and is given by,

 E2  E1   h 
N2  
KT  
e  e  KT 
N1

where N1 and N2 represent population densities in lower energy state E1 and higher energy state E2
respectively.

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Where k is Boltzmann constant. At thermal equilibrium condition 𝑒−(𝐸₂ −𝐸₁)/𝑘𝑇 < 1. i.e N 2  N1 ;
Hence population density of any higher energy state will always be lesser than that of in the lower
energy states.
Expression for energy density of radiation in terms of Einstein’s Coefficients (A & B):
[(Q) What are Einstein’s Coefficient’s? Derive an expression for energy density of radiation in terms of these constants].
“Einstein coefficients are certain constants which give information about probability of
emission and absorption in terms of energy density of radiation.
Let N1 and N2 be the number of atoms present per volume in the lower energy state E 1 and in
excited state E2 respectively. Let  &   d be the frequency range, incident on the system, then U ν is
called the energy density of radiation.
(1) The case of induced absorption (IA):
An atom in E1 induced to go to E2 by absorbing a photon of frequency,   ( E2  E1 ) / h

The rate of induced absorption depends on number of atoms N 1 present in E1 and energy density U  .
Number of induced absorptions per unit time per unit volume is called rate of induced absorption.
Therefore, Rate of induced Absorption  N1U

IA  B12 N1U ---------------------- (1)

Where ‘B12’ is proportionality constant called Einstein’s Coefficient for induced absorption.

2] The case of Spontaneous emission (SE):

An atom in the excited state E2 makes transition to ground state E1 by itself by the emission of photon of
frequency  . Number of such spontaneous emissions per unit time per unit volume is called rate of
spontaneous emission.

Rate of spontaneous emission is proportional to the number of atoms in the higher energy state (N 2).

Therefore, Rate of spontaneous emission  N2

SE  A21N 2 ---------------------- (2)

Where A21 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein’s coefficient for spontaneous emission

3] The case of Stimulated /Induced emission (IE):

When the radiation of frequency  incident on the atom in the energy state E 2, stimulate the atom to make
downward transition and causes the emission of stimulated photons. Number of such stimulated emissions
per unit time and per unit volume is called rate of stimulated emission.

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The rate of Stimulated /Induced emission depends on number density N2 in E2 and amount of incident
radiation U 

Therefore, Rate of induced emission  N1U

IE  B21N1U ------------------------------------ (3)

Where B21 is the constant of proportionality called the Einstein’s coefficient for stimulated emission

At thermal equilibrium;

The rate of IA= The rate of SE+ The rate of IE

From equations (1), (2) & (3)

B12 N1U = A21N2 + B21N 2U

U (B12N1 - B21N2) = A21N2

A21N 2
i.e U 
B12 N1  B21N 2

 
A N  1 
U  21 2   …………… (4)
B21N 2  B12 N1  1
 B21 N 2 

From Boltzmann’s factor ; Number of atoms lying in higher energy level to that of lower energy level which
 h
N2
is given by  e kT
N1

Where T is temperature and ‘k’ is Boltzmann’s constant

h
N1 kT
It can be written as; =e
N2

 
 
A 1 …… (5)
on substituting for N1/N2 ; Eqn. (4) becomes U  21  
B21  B12 hkT 
 e  1
 B21 

According to Planck’s law; the equation for energy density of radiation is given by,

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 
8h 3  1 
U  h
------------- (6)
c3  
1Xe kT  1

Comparing equations (5) and (6) on the basis of positional identity, we have,
A21 8h 3 B12
 and 1
B21 c3 B21

B12 = B21
This means that the probability of Stimulated absorption is equal to the probability of stimulated emission.
Because of the above identity, the subscripts could be dropped, and hence A21=A and B21=B.
Thus the expression for energy density, in terms of Einstein’s coefficients can be expressed as,

 
A 1 
U 
B  h 
 e kT  1 

Is the expression for energy density of radiation.

Conditions for Laser action:- Population Inversion and Metastable state

[Q: Discuss conditions required for laser action]
Continuous emission of laser light by stimulated emission is called laser action. The required conditions for
laser action are (a) Population Inversion & (b) Metastable state.

Population Inversion:

 E2  E1   h 
N2  
KT  
According to Boltzmann’s factor e  e  KT 
number of atoms present in ordinary excited
N1
state is less than that of in lower energy state i.e N2 <N1.
The reason is that average life time of atoms in an ordinary excited state is of the order of
-8
10 S. After this time, all the atoms undergo spontaneous emission to the ground state. Hence laser action is
not possible.
For laser action, an inverted condition of the above, called population inversion is required i.e N 2 >N1.
The state in which there exists large number of atoms in higher energy level than lower energy level is
called population inversion
Metastable state: Population inversion is possible to achieve in certain systems which possess a special
kind of excited states called metastable states. Metastable states exists in three level or four level Energy
systems .

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 ‘Metastable state’ is an intermediate energy state present between an ordinary excited state and
the ground state where the atoms stay for a longer duration of the order of 10-3 to 10-2 S.
 On supplying energy to the system; it is possible to achieve population inversion.
 The process of exciting atoms from lower energy level to higher energy level is called pumping and
the source of energy required for this purpose is called pumping source or excitation source.

 Consider three energy levels E1, EM and E2, such that E2> EM> E1. Let EM be the metastable state.
Under normal conditions more atoms remain in lower energy state E1. But when suitable amount of
energy is supplied, the atoms at E1 are excited to E2. The excited atoms at E2, stay for a period of 10-8 S
and after this time they undergo non-radioactive transition to the metastable state EM, where they stay for
a longer duration of the order of the 10-3 to 10-2 S. If rate of pumping of atoms from E1 to E2 is increased,
the population of E1 decreases continuously and that of EM increases rapidly. Thereby at a particular
stage the population of EM becomes more than that of E1. Therefore the condition at which there exists
more number of atoms in higher energy level than lower energy level is called population inversion.
This state is known as population inversion. This is required condition for laser action.

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Requisites of a Laser system
(Question: Explain requirements of a laser system)
The important requisites of a laser system are
a) An Active medium
b) An Excitation source and
c) A Resonant cavity
Active medium: A medium consisting of metastable states, which supports for population inversion is
called active medium. Such a medium consists of three or four level energy system. Accordingly the lasers
are classified as three level laser or four level laser.

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In the active medium, stimulated emissions is initiated by a few spontaneously emitted photons. Each
stimulated emission gives rise to two identical photons. These two photons initiate two excited atoms to
undergo stimulated emissions and there will be four identical photons. Thus the photon multiplication takes
place and therefore light is amplified in the medium.

b) Excitation source/energy:
The external energy used to excite atoms from ground state to the higher energy to achieve population
inversion is called excitation energy/source. The source of energy may be optical, electrical, thermal or
chemical. Accordingly, the pumping action is classified as ‘Optical pumping’ (ex. Ruby laser), ‘Electrical
pumping’( Ex. He-Ne laser,CO2 laser, Ga As laser) and ‘Chemical pumping’.

c) Laser cavity:

Laser cavity consists of two mirrors fixed on either side, along the length of the active medium. One of the
mirrors is completely silvered to reflect entire incident light where as other is partially silvered to exit laser.
Therefore active medium together with reflecting mirror is called laser cavity. The cavity reflects photons
into the active medium so that stimulated emission continues. When intensity becomes sufficiently high part
of the light is emitted through semi silvered mirror
Inside the cavity two types of wave exist - one which is moving to the left and the other
which is moving to the right. The two waves interfere constructively if path difference between the two
waves is equal to integral multiple of  .Therefore for constructive interference; 2L  m
2L
m=1,2, 3....where m is number of modes supported for interference. Wavelength of light emitted is  
m

Gallium Arsenide Laser (A Semiconductor Laser)

(Question: Explain the construction and working of semiconductor laser with energy level diagram)
Construction: Gallium-arsenide (Ga-As) laser is a semiconductor laser and was constructed by William
Hall. Schematic diagram of a, Ga-As semiconductor laser is as shown in the figure.

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● A single crystal of Ga-As is heavily doped to form n and p-regions. The n-region is obtained by
doping Ga-As crystal with tellurium and p-type is by zinc. The doping concentration is very high and
is of the order of 1017 to 1019 dopant atoms/cm3.
● The diode is extremely small in size with sides of the order of 1mm and junction width varying
from1μm to 100 μm.
● The p-n junction acts as active medium. The faces are made optically flat and parallel. The one side
is fully polished to reflect light and other side is partially silvered so as to transmit light, this forms
resonant cavity.
● The end faces of p and n junctions parallel to plane of the junctions are provided with electrodes for
biasing. These electrodes are forward biased using DC power supply.
Working:
The energy band diagram for the diode under forward bias is as shown.
Before applying voltage, the concentration of electrons at the bottom of conduction band will be lesser than
the concentration of electrons in the valence band. This is due to more number of spontaneous emissions.
When junction is forward biased, charge carriers are pumped by the D.C voltage source. The electrons are
injected from the n-type region, and holes are injected from the p-side region
into the junction. i.e. electrons in valence band(VB) are excited into
conduction band(CB).

● When electron leaves VB, a vacancy is created in VB. As current increases, more and more electrons
are excited into the CB. Therefore, at thermal equilibrium, bottom of CB consists of full of electrons
and top of VB is full of holes (absence of electrons).

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● The state of an excited electron in conduction band is unstable and hence within a short duration of
10-9S, the electron fall back into the valence band to recombine with a hole. The energy associated with
this recombination is emitted in the form of photon.
● This photon stimulates another electron in conduction band to recombine with a hole in the valence
band with the release of another photon.
● These photons are coherent and travel together which are get reflected from the end faces. These
reflected photons will further stimulate electron-hole recombination with the release of additional
photons. These photons get resonated by travelling back and forth and finally emerge from the partially
reflecting face generating a continuous laser beam.
● Energy band diagram in terms of VB and CB is as shown in the diagram.

Energy band diagram in terms of VB and CB

● The energy gap of GaAs diode is 1.4 eV and hence wavelength of emitted laser light is

in IR region.
Advantages and uses: The semiconductor diode lasers are simple, compact and highly efficient. They
require less power. They are less monochromatic and highly heat sensitive. Ga-As laser is used in optical
fibers communication, printing and CD writing, etc.

Applications of lasers:

 Due to unique properties of lasers, they have number of applications in medicine, material processing,
communications, Cutting metal sheets, drilling holes in hard and brittle materials, energy resources,3- D
photography, used in defence as Laser range finder and in medical used for Eye surgery and skin
treatment.

1. Bar code Scanner

[Q] Explain working of Bar code scanner
 A barcode consists of series of Parallel bars or lines or strips of different width which contain
certain information for entering data into a computer System.
 A barcode scanner/reader is a device that decodes and captures the information contained on
barcodes.
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 Scanning head emits laser light on the barcode. White areas of the barcode reflect all the
incident light where as black areas reflect least amount of light.
 Light reflected from barcode is received by photo detector.
 As the scanner moves over the barcode, the cell generates a pattern of on and off pulses that
correspond to the black and white stripes. So, for the code shown in the figure ("black, black
black, white, black, white, black, black",) an electronic circuit attached to the scanner produces
"off, off, off ,on, off ,on, off ,off" analog signal. Later on analog signal is converted into digital
signal.
 The digital data from the scanner is sent to a computer program, which identifies the final
barcode as 11101011.

 1.Laser light source 2. Bar code 3. Photo detector 4. Analog and digital converter 5. Digital data captured on
Computer

2. Laser Printer
Laser Printer is a digital printing device which is used to create high quality text and images
on a sheet of paper.
A laser printer consists of three main units they are; scanning unit, toner cartridge unit, and fuser
assembly unit.
1) The scanning unit consists of a laser diode, a scanning motor, and a mirror
2) The toner cartridge unit consists of three drums and an image transfer roller drum [ITR].
3) The fuser assembly unit consists of a fuser roller which contains a heating element called
corona wire.

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Working
 When print button of the computer is pressed, the information is sent to the memory unit of
printer.
 The printer begins to heat up and after some time corona wire gets heated and getting ready
to transfer its positive static charge to the drum. When the drum rotates positive charge are
deposited on its entire surface.
 The laser light reflected from the mirrors incident on the drum. It removes the positively
charged particles and deposits the negatively charged particles.
 The toner cartridge and hopper slowly releases positively charged carbon particles on the
drum. Carbon particles stick [clink] to the negatively charged areas.
 Now the data fixed to the drum rolls over the sheet of paper. Then the paper gets heated up
and the toner is then melted to the paper by hot rollers called the fuser unit, and the page is
printed.
Advantages
 Laser printers are comparatively more economical, faster and more efficient.
 They do not make noise and are more stable.
 The life span is considerably high.
 Laser printers can produce high quality output on ordinary papers.
 The cost per page of toner cartridges is lower than other printers.

Disadvantages:
1. The initial cost of laser printers can be high.
2. Laser printers are more expensive than dot-matrix printers and ink-jet printers.
3. Laser Cooling:

 It is technique used to cool down atomic and molecular samples to nearly absolute zero temperatures
using a laser.
 Slowing down of atoms and molecules decreases their kinetic energy and thermal energy, as a result
temperature decreases and hence cooling is produced.
 Doppler cooling is important technique used under laser cooling.
Doppler cooling:
When laser light is incident on an object, it exerts a force on it. If the frequency of the
incident laser is less than resonant frequency of the atoms, then slow down or cool the atoms.
Due to Doppler effect, the incoming laser light, whose frequency is lesser than the frequency
of the atom, then atom observes the incoming photon with a higher frequency than its actual value and
hence, the atom can absorb some energy. The photons that subsequently get radiated by the atom will be
higher frequency than the observed value. To compensate the difference between the energy of absorbed
and emitted photons, the atom suffers a loss in its kinetic energy and thermal energy.

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Shortage of energy is taken from kinetic energy of atoms, they suffer a decrease in their momentum and
velocity and hence, atoms are cooled down. Since the atoms return from the optically excited state to the
ground state after 10 ns. The absorption-emission process repeats very rapidly. To cool at a faster rate,
arrangement of six laser beams is employed so that the atoms, motion can be slowed down effectively in
all 6 directions.
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Problems on Lasers
1. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels, out of which one corresponds to a metastable state, if
the wavelength of light emitted at 330K is 632.8nm.
N2
Solution:  ? T=330K;   632.8nm ; K=1.38X10-23JK-1 ;C=3X108 ms-1
N1
 h 
 
N2
 e  KT 
N1

 hC   6.63 X 103 4 X 3 X 108 6 8.9 6 

 
   632.8 X 109 X 1.38 X 102 3 X 330  e 
 KT 
e e  
 1.1x1030

2. Find the ratio of population of two states in a He-Ne laser that produce light of wavelength 6328A0 at
270C. [June/July 2024-5M]
N2
Solution:  ? T=270C+273=300K;   6328A0 ; K=1.38X10-23JK-1;C=3X108 ms-1
N1
 h 
 
N2
 e  KT 
N1

 hC   6.63 X 103 4 X 3 X 108  7 5.8 6 

 
 KT  
 6328 X 101 0 X 1.38 X 10 2 3 X 300  e

e e 

  1.13 X 1033

3. Find the ratio of population of two states in a He-Ne laser that produce light of wavelength 694.3nm0 at
300K. [MQP-II]
N2
Solution:  ? T=300K;   694.3nm ; K=1.38X10-23JK-1 ;C=3X108ms-1
N1
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 h 
 
N2
 e  KT 
N1

 hC   6.63 X 103 4 X 3 X 108  6 9.1 4 5 

 
 KT  
 694.3 X 10 9 X 1.38 X 10 2 3 X 300  e

e e 

  9.347 X 10 31

3. The ratio of population of two energy levels, out of which upper one corresponds to a metastable state, is
1.059x10-30.Find the wavelength of light emitted by spontaneous at 330K. [June/July 2023-4M and Jan 2020]

 1.059x1030 ; T=330K; k=1.38X10-23JK-1; C=3X108 ms-1 = --- ?

N2
Solution: Given N1
 h   hC 
   
N2  KT   e  KT 
e
N1
 hC 
N1  
 e  KT 
N2

 hc 
1  
 30
 e  kT 
1.059 x10

 hc 
 
 kT 
0.944 X 10 30
e

Taking ln on both sides

hC
log e e  ln( 0.944 x1030 )
KT
hc
X 1  69.02
kT
hC 6.63x1034 X 3 X 108
   23
 6327 A0
69.02 XkT 69.02 X 1.38 X 10 X 330
4. A laser beam at thermal equilibrium temperature 300K has two energy levels with a wavelength
separation of 1 .Find the ratio of population densities of the upper and lower levels.
N
Solution: N    T=300K;   1m =10-6 m; K=1.38X10-23JK-1 ;
2
C=3X108ms-1
1

 h   hC   6.63X 1034 X 3 X 108 

      e 48.007 
 6 23 
 e  KT   e
N2
 e  KT  10 X 1.38X 10 X 300 
N1

 1.415X 1021
N2
N1

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3. A pulse from laser with power 1mW lasts for 10nS. If the number of photons per second is 3.491x107,
calculate the wavelength of laser. [VTU-Feb 2022/4M]
Solution:  =?
Total energy of the laser Et=Pt=1x10-3X10X10-9=10-11J----- (1)
Number of photons emitted=n=3.491X107
hC 6.63X 1034 X 3X 108
Energy of one photon=E= h    
   (2)

Total energy=number of photons X Energy of one photon

hC
Etotal  n

Substituting (1) and (2) gives
1011  3.491X 107 X 6.63X 1034 X 3X 108 X
1

= 694 nm
4. A He-Ne laser is emitting a beam with an average power of 4.5mw.Find the number of photons emitted
per second by the laser. The wavelength of the emitted radiation is 6328A0.
Solution: n=--?; = 6328A0; t=1S
Total energy of the laser Et=Pt=4.5x10-3X1=4.5X10-3J----------- (1)
hC 6.63X 1034 X 3 X 108
h      ( 2)
 6328X 1010
Energy of one photon=E=
Total energy=number of photons X Energy of one photon
hC
Etotal  n

Substituting (1) and (2) gives

4.5 X 103  nX 6.63X 1034 X 3 X 108 X

1
6328x109

n= 1.4316x1016
5. A pulsed laser emits photons of wavelength 780nm with 20 mw average/pulse. Calculate the number of
photons contained in each pulse, if the pulse duration is 10ns.
hC
Et  n 17
Hint:  Answer n=7.86X10
6. A laser source has a power output of 10-3 W. Calculate the number of photons emitted per second given
the wavelength of laser 692.8 nm. [VTU-MQP 1]
Solution: p=10-3w
hC
Et  n

7. Find the number of modes of the standing waves in the resonant cavity of length 1m of a laser operating
at wavelength of 632.8nm.

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Solution: L=1m; = 632.8nm; m=--?

2L=m
m =2L/=2X1/632.8X10-9
m=3.16x106
8. A Ruby laser emits pulse of 20ns,with average power pulse being100KW.If the number of photons in
each pulse is 6.981x1015 calculate the wavelength of laser.
Solution:
t=20nS
Number of photons emitted=n=3.491X107
Energy emitted in in 1S= 100kW=105J
Total energy emitted 20n---E=t105X20X10-9=2X10-3J----(1)
hC 6.63X 1034 X 3X 108
Energy of one photon=E= h      (2)
 
Total energy=number of photons X Energy of one photon
hC
Etot  n

Substituting (1) and (2) gives
nhC 6.981 X 1015 X 6.63 X 10 34 X 3 X 10 8
  3
 6942 A0
Etot 2 X 10
CHAPTER-2 Optical Fibers
Question: Explain construction and working of optical fibers

Optical fibers are used in optics as wave guides. They are transparent dielectric materials able to guide
visible and infrared light over long distances. The work on the principle of Total Internal Reflection(TIR).
When a ray of light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium and if the angle of incidence is greater
than the critical angle then the light gets totally reflected.

Construction
The structure of an optical fiber is shown in Figure. The optical fiber consists of fibers of plastic or glass
cylinder called ‘Core’. The core is surrounded by a concentric cylinder of similar material called ‘Cladding’
but of lower refractive index (n2) than that of core (n1). The purpose of the cladding is to make the light to be
confined to the core. The core and cladding are made up of either glass or plastic (dielectric). The cladding
is enclosed in a jacket called ‘Sheath’ made of polyurethane,
which protects the fiber from abrasions, contaminations and the
harmful influence of moisture. In addition, it improves
mechanical strength of the fiber.

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Working or guiding mechanism in optical fiber as a wave guide

Light waves can be guided through the optical fiber, it is called “light guide” or “wave guide”. Light
travels as an electromagnetic wave through an optical fiber. Light enters from one end of the optical fiber
and strikes the interface of the core and cladding at an angle greater than critical angle of incidence. The ray
undergoes series of total internal reflections and emerge from the other end with minimum loss of energy.
Thus, the light will be guided through the core even if the fiber is bent. Since each reflection is a total
internal reflection, the light signal maintains its strength and also confines itself completely within the core
during the course of propagation. At the other end of the fiber, the light is received by a detector such as a
photosensitive device.

Numerical aperture and condition for ray propagation

(Q: Derive an expression for numerical aperture and state the condition for ray propagation)
Consider a light ray AO incident at an angle ‘θi= θ0’ enters into the fiber. Let ‘θ1’ be the angle of
refraction for the ray OB. The refracted ray OB incident at a critical angle (90˚- θ1) at B; grazes the interface
between core and cladding along BC. If the angle of incidence is greater than critical angle, it undergoes
total internal reflection. Thus θ0 is called the waveguide acceptance angle and Sinθ0 is called the numerical
aperture (NA).
NA of an optical fiber is light gathering
capacity of the fiber.

The main function of the optical fiber is to accept and transmit as much light as possible. The light
gathering ability of a fiber depends on two factors, viz. core size and the numerical aperture.
Let n0, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of the medium, core and cladding respectively.
From Snell’s law,
nosinθ0 = n1sinθ1 ------------------- (1)
At B the angle of incidence is (90 - θ1)
From Snell’s law,
n1Sin(90-θ1) = n2Sin90
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n1Cosθ1 = n2
Cosθ1 = n2 / n1 ---------------------- (2)
From eqn. (1)
n
sin  0  1 1  cos 2 1 ------------------- (3)
n0
Using eqn. (2) in (3)
n1 n22
sin  0  1 2
n0 n1
n12  n22
sin  0  -------------- (4)
n0
The surrounding medium is air, no = 1
sin  0  n12  n22
Where Sinθ0 is called numerical aperture.
N.A
Therefore for the ray to propagate θi< θ0 OR

Sinθi< Sinθ0
is the condition for ray propagation.

Define the terms

1. Critical propagation angle:

For the ray to undergo TIR, angle of refraction with the axis of the fiber must be less than certain
maximum value called Critical propagation angle (θ1). If the angle of refraction with axis of the fiber is
greater than this angle, the angle of incidence at the interface becomes less than critical angle and hence
ray escape outside the fiber without undergoing TIR.
2. Wave guide acceptance angle or acceptance cone half angle:
For the ray to undergo successive total internal reflection, the angle made by the incident ray at the axis
of the fiber must be less than certain maximum value called Wave guide acceptance angle or acceptance
cone half angle. OR
If the incident ray is rotated about the fiber axis keeping θ o constant, it forms a cone. The rays which are
incident within this cone travel inside the fiber undergo TIR is called Wave guide acceptance angle or
acceptance cone half angle.

3. Numerical aperture:
Numerical aperture of an optical fiber is a measure of light gathering capacity of the fiber, it equal to
the sine of wave guide acceptance angle.i.e
n1 n2
Sin0  1  22
n0 n1

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Where n1, n2 and n0 represent refractive indices of core, cladding and surrounding medium
respectively.
4. Fractional Index Change:
“It is the ratio of difference in the refractive indices between the core and cladding to the refractive
index of the core of an optical fiber”.
n  n2
Δ = 1
n1

5. Relation between N.A and Δ

Consider, Δ =

n1  n2  n1 ----------------------------- (1)

We have; N.A =

= from eqn. (1)

Considering n1≈n2

Increase in the value of Δ increases N.A, as it enhances the light gathering capacity of the fiber. Δ value
cannot be increased very much because it leads to intermodal dispersion intern signal distortion.
6. Refractive index profile:
The graph obtained by plotting refractive index of the fiber with respect to radial distance from the axis
of the fiber is called Refractive index profile.
7. V-number :
The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a parameter called V-
number and is given by

V=

If the surrounding medium is air, then

Where ‘d’ is the core diameter, n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and cladding respectively, ‘λ’
is the wavelength of light propagating through the fiber.

V=

If the fiber is surrounded by a medium of refractive index n0, then,

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V=

For V >1, the number of modes supported by the fiber is given by,

number of modes (M) ≈ V2/2.

Types of optical fibers:

[Q]: Write a note on types of fibers based on geometry, refractive index profile and mode propagation sketches)
Depending on NA, fractional index change, refractive index profile, fractional index change and modes of
propagation optical fibers, are classified into 3types.They are
1. Step index single mode fiber (SISM)
2. Step index multimode fiber (SIM)
3. Graded index multimode fiber (GRIM)
1. Step index Single mode fiber (SISM):
❖ In steps index single mode optical fiber, refractive index of core is uniform. Similarly refractive index
of cladding is also uniform; but it is lesser than that of cladding. Hence R.I profile of SISM optical
fiber takes the shape of a step as shown in the figure.
❖ Core diameter of these type of fibers is of about 8-10μm and cladding diameter is about 60-70μm.
❖ Since the core diameter is very small, it can guide a single mode as shown in the diagram. Hence
it is called single mode fiber.
❖Wave guide acceptance angle, NA, and fractional index change of these fibers are very small.
❖ Laser can be used as the source of light for operating systems involving these fibers.
❖They are used in long distance communication like in operating submarine cables systems.
❖Losses of signal in these fibers are very less and are the best guides. These types of fibers are less
expensive.
❖ The disadvantage of these fibers is that, difficult to join strands of one with the other because of their
narrow core.

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2. Step index multimode fiber (SIM):

❖ It’s construction is similar to that of single mode fiber but it’s core has larger diameter. The core and the
cladding diameter of step index multimode fiber is 50 to 200 μm and 100 to 250 μm respectively. The
geometry of a step index multimode fiber is as shown in Figure.
❖ Because of it’s larger diameter it can propagate large number of modes as shown in figure.
❖ The NA, fractional index change, acceptance angle are very large compared to SISM.
❖ In SIMM fibers Laser or LED is used as a source of light.
❖ Its refractive index profile is also similar to that of a single mode fiber but with a larger plane region for
core.
❖ It is least expensive and finds its application in data link between central offices which has lower band
width.
❖ Its core has much larger diameter by the virtue of which it will be able to support propagation of larger
number of modes as shown.

3.Graded index multimode fiber (GRIN):

❖ Its geometry is similar to that of SIMM i.e diameter of the Core and Cladding diameter are 50 to 200 μm
and 100to 250 μm respectively. Its geometry is as shown in the figure.
❖ In GRIM optical fibers, RI of a core is not uniform. It decreases uniformly from the axis of the fiber
towards core-cladding and becomes equal to that of the cladding at the interface. But the R.I of cladding
is uniform but lesser than that of the core.
❖ Either laser or LED is used as source for operating the system.
❖ This fiber can propagate several modes and propagation is more orderly as shown in the figure.
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❖ It is most expensive; splicing can be done with some difficulty. It is used in telephone trunk between the
central offices.

Signal attenuation in optical fibers:

[Q] What is attenuation? Mention the expression for attenuation coefficient.

The loss of signal suffered by optical signal when it propagates through the fiber is called attenuation or
fiber loss. As a result output power through an optical fiber is always less than that of input signal.
It can be shown that attenuation co-efficient is given by

10  Pout 
  log  dB / km
L  in 
P

Types of attenuation losses in optical fibers

(Q: Explain different types of attenuation losses)
Attenuation is caused by three mechanisms; they are Absorption, Scattering and Radiation losses.
a] Absorption:. This arises due to absorption of photons associated with optical signal. These absorption
losses are of two types. They are intrinsic loss or an extrinsic loss.
Intrinsic absorption:- The absorption of signal photons by basic core material itself is called
intrinsic loss. The molecules in the fiber absorb energy at certain wavelength. Even a highly pure glass (core
material) absorbs light energy (photons) in specific wavelength region.
Extrinsic absorption:- These are due to the absorption of light energy (photons) by the impurities
present in the fiber. Electrons on absorbing energy get excited to the higher energy states. Later these
electrons are de-excited into the lower energy levels by liberating energy in the form of heat. The type of
impurity atoms generally present in the fibers are such as transition metal ions such as Iron, chromium,
vanadium and manganese etc. The other impurity atoms which would cause significant loss is the Hydroxyl

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ion (OH−) which enter into the fiber at the time of fabrication. This indicates high purity silica glass required
for communication.
These losses can be minimized by restricting metals ions content to less than few parts/billion and
OH impurity to less than few parts per million.

b] Scattering: There is structural inhomogeneity and imperfection present in the fiber which enters into the
fiber during fabrication of the fiber.

This leads to sharp variations in the refractive index of the material. Which are caused by the materials
which are smaller than wavelength of the signal. When signal travels through the fiber, the photons may get
scattered by these smaller particles. This type of scattering is same as “Rayleigh scattering” (The Rayleigh
scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength [I  λ−4] which means that signal of
smaller wavelengths are scattered to a larger extent. Due to Rayleigh scattering, the photons move in random
direction and leave the fiber, thus leading to loss. Thus, loss can be minimized by using the signals having
larger wavelengths. It is found that scattering loss can be minimised by using signal of wavelength more
than 0.8 µm, below which the scattering loss is very high.

c] Radiation losses (Bending losses):

The radiation losses occur due to bending of optical fibers. These bendings generally occur while turning or
wrapping the fiber. Two types of bendings are observed in optical fibers. They are macro bending and
microbending of the fiber.
Macrobending:
Bending of the fiber having radii, more than radius of optical fiber is called Macro bending. If the bending is
more than critical value, may result in the modification of the angle of incidence on the core-cladding
interface and hence signal fails to undergo TIR ; hence radiation loss takes place (see Fig).

Microbending:
The bendings that occur due to non uniformities in the manufacture of the fiber or by the lateral pressure or
crushing force acting on the fiber during cabling. At these bends light rays undergo reflections . As a result
light leak out of the fiber. These losses can be minimized by covering the fiber with compressible jacket
(polyurethane jacket) over the fiber, which can withstand the stresses and also by keeping the fiber straight.

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Fiber Optics Communication System: (Point to Point Communication)

(Q: Explain fiber optic communication/Describe point to point communication)
Fiber Optics Communication System: The transmission of signal through optical fibers which involves
conversion of electrical signal into optical signal using LED or semiconductor lasers at the transmitting end
and conversion of optical signal back to electrical signal using transducers at the receiving end is called
optical fiber communication.

Fig. Block diagram of point to point communication

❖ In a typical point to point communication system, the analog signal such as voice of a telephone is
converted into binary form using a coder. The binary data comes out of the coder in the form of electrical
pulses.
❖ The binary electrical signal is converted into optical signal using LED or Laser diode after passing
through optical transmitter.
❖ This optical signal is transmitted through optical fiber by TIR.
❖ At the receiving end photo detector detects the optical signal and converts back into binary electrical data.
❖ The binary electrical data is converted back into analog signal after passing through a decoder.
This type of communication is employed in telephone trunk lines.

Fiber Optic Networking

Local Area Network
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a type of computer network that interconnects multiple computers
and computer driven devices in a particular physical location. Traditionally copper coaxial cables are used

Passive Optical LAN

Passive here refers to the unpowered condition of the fiber and splitting/combining
components. Passive optical LANs are built entirely using Optical fiber cables. The passive
optical LAN is complicated as it works on the concept of optical network terminals (ONT) and
passive optical splitters. Network switches act as passive splitters and the commercial media
converters act as optical network terminals in a real-time application of passive optical LAN.

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Advantages (Merits) of optical communication over metallic cables communication system

1) Optical fibers can carry very large amount of information due to its large bandwidth.
2) The materials used for making optical fiber are SiO2/Plastic, both are available at low cost compared to
metallic cable.
3) The materials of optic fibers are dielectric in nature. So, they do not interference with electromagnetic
signal.
4) Fibers are much easier to transport because of their compactness and lightweight.
5) They easily adjust with electronic system.
6) In optical fibers there is no leakage of signal, where as in metallic cables there is leakage of signal
because electromagnetic signal interfere easily with other channels.
7) Lightning may cause disturbance in metallic cables where as signals passing through optic fibers do not
undergo any distubance.
8) It can be operated in high temperature range.
9) Direct tapping is not possible in optical fiber communication, where as in metallic cables tapping is
possible due to leakage of signal.
10) The fibers are free from corrosion caused by salt, pollutants, radiation, moisture etc.
11) It does not get affected by nuclear radiations.
12) In optical fibers signal can travel up to 80km without decreasing amplitude, where as in metallic cable
they can travel only upto 5km and hence amplifiers are required for every 0.5 to 1km.

Disadvantages (Demerits) of optical communication system

1. The optical connectors used to connect two fibers are expensive.
2. Fibers undergo expansion and contraction with temperature that upset some critical alignments
which lead to loss in signal power.
3. Attenuation loss is large, when length of the fiber increases. Hence, amplifiers are required to
amplify the weak signal in long distance communication.
4. The bending will increase the loss of the signal. Hence, the fiber should be laid straight.

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Other Applications of Optical fibers

a) Medical applications: Fibro scopes widely employed in endoscopic applications for visualization
of internal portions of human body.
b) Military applications: In aircrafts and ships, use of optical fibers in place of copper reduces much
weight.
c) Industrial applications: Optical fibers are used in fabrication of sensors to monitor various physical
quantities such as pressure, temperature, flow rate, current, etc.
-------------------

Problems on optical fibers

1. Calculate the numerical aperture, fractional index change and V-number for a optical fiber of core
of diameter 40micro meter and with refractive indices of 1.55 and 1.50 respectively for core and
cladding. The Wavelength of the light propagating is 1400nm.Assume fiber is kept in air.
  
Solution: NA    ? d=40micro-m; n1=1.55, n2=1.50
V  

a) Numerical aperture= Sin = = =0.3905

b) Angle of acceptance(  )=Sin-1(NA)

= Sin-1(0.3905)=22.980
n1  n2 1.55  1.50
c) Fractional index change =Δ =   0.03225
n1 1.55

d 3.142X 40 X 106
XNA  X 0.3905  35.03
1400X 109
d) V-number =V = = 
e) V >1
V 2 352
Therefore number of modes supported by the fiber for propagation is =   613
2 2

2. An optical fiber of refractive index of 1.5 is to be cladded with another glass to ensure total internal
reflection that will contain light travelling within 50 of the fiber axis. What maximum index of
refraction is allowed for the cladding?
Solution: n1=1.50, n2=? θ1=5  θc=90-5=850
Applying Snell’s law at the boundary
n1sin θc= n2sin900
1.5sin850= n2
n2= 1.494
If n2= 1.494 refracted ray grazes the surface and if n2>1.494; angle of refraction will be lesser than 900
i.e the ray escapes out of the fiber. For the ray to undergo TIR n2 must be lesser1.494.

3. The optical fiber has core of refractive index 1.5 and R.I of cladding is 3% less than the core
index. Calculate the numerical aperture, angle of acceptance and internal critical angle.
Solution: n1=1.50, n2=1.50-3%n1=1.4547, NA=?  =? 1 =?

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Numerical aperture= Sin = = 1.502  1.45472 





=0.3660

Angle of acceptance (  )=Sin-1(NA)= Sin-1(0.3660)=21.460

Applying Snell’s law at the boundary
n1sin θc= n2sin900
Sin θc= (1.4547X1/1.5)
θc= sin-1(0.9698)=75.880
4. The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 300 when kept in air. Find the angle of acceptance
when it is in a medium of refractive index 1.33. [VTU-Jan/Feb 2023&June/July 2023—4M&Jan 2025-5M]
Solution:  0  30 , when n0  1 in air &  0  ? ; when n10  1.33 in medium
0 1

n n
2 2
In air Sin ( 0)  1 2

n 0

n n
2 2

Sin (30)  1 2

n n  0.5    [1]
2 2
Therefore 1 2

In water
n n
2 2

Sin ( 0) 
1 1 2
1
n 0

n n
2 2

Sin ( 0) 
1 1 2
........[2]
1.33

Substituting for n12  n22  0.5 gives

0.5
Sin ( 0)   0.376........[2]
1

1.33


1
)  Sin (0.376)
1
( 0

 )  22.086
1
( 0

5. The numerical aperture of an optic fiber is 0.2 when surrounded by air. Determine the refractive
index of core given R.I of cladding is 1.5874.Also find the acceptance angle when the fiber is in
water. Assume R.I of water is 1.533.
Solution: NA  0.2 when n0  1 in air &  10  ? ; when n10  1.33 in medium

n n
2 2
In air Sin ( 0)  1 2

n 0

n n
2 2

Sin (30)  1 2

1
2) Therefore n n
2
1
2
2
 0.5    [1]

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3) In water
n n
2 2
4) Sin ( 0) 
1 1 2
1
n 0

n n
2 2
5) Sin ( 0) 
1 1 2
........[2]
1.33

6) Substituting for n12  n22  0.5 gives

0.5
7) Sin ( 0)   0.376........[2]
1

1.33

8) 
(
1 1
)  Sin (0.376)
0

9) ( 1
0
)  22.086

Solution:

 
 n 2 n22 
 1 
In air NAair= Sin0air = = 1

n1 21.58742 
0.2= 1

0.04=n12-2.5198

n1=1.599

 
 n 2n22 
1  1 
In water NA1= Sin 0 = 1 --- (2)
n 0

 n 2  n 2   0.2
Substituting for  1 2  in (2) gives

NA
air 0.2
NAw= 1.33  1.33 =0.1503

But NAw=Sinθ0w

Sinθ0w=0.1503

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Angle of acceptance in water=

1. Calculate number modes an optical fiber can propagate. Given wavelength of light=1μm,radius of
the core=50μm,R.I of core=1.5 R.I of cladding=1.48 Assume fiber is kept in air.

Solution: V-number =V = = 76.657

The number of modes supported for propagation M=V2/2=77X77=2964

2. Given the numerical aperture 0.3 and RI of core 1.49. Calculate the critical angle for core-
cladding interface. [VTU-MQP 2].
Solution:NA=0.3, n1=1.49, n0=1 (Assuming surrounding medium is air), c  ? ; n2=?
n n
2 2

sin  0  NA  1 2

n 0

1.49  n
2 2

0.3 
2

1
Squaring
0.09  1.49  n2
2 2

n  1.49  0.09  2.2201  0.09  2.1301

2 2
2

n2  2.1301  1.459

Applying Snell’s law at the interface, gives

n Sin  n
1 c 2
xSin900
n2 1.459
Sin  c    0.9791
n1 1.49
 c
 Sin 1 (0.9791)  78.260
3. Calculate number modes that an optical fiber can propagate inside an optical fiber with the data given below.
Wavelength of light Propagating through fiber=1μm,radius of the core=50μm,
R.I of core=1.53 R.I of cladding=1.50 Assume fiber is kept in air. [VTU-Jan -2021/4marks] Ans: V=94 and M=4486
Problems on Attenuation
4. A fiber 500 m long has an input power of 8.6mw and output power 7.5 mw, find the loss
specification in the fiber. [ Repeated many time]
Solution: Data; L=500m=0.5km po=7.6m, pi=8.6m

10  Po  10  7.5 X 103 
  log     log    1.18 dB
L  Pin  0.5  8.6 X 10 3  km

Find the attenuation in an optical fiber of length 500m,when a light signal of power 100mW
5. emerges out of the fiber with a power 90mW. [VTU –Aug/Sep 2020/ 4M.Dec23/Jan 24-4M]

 ?
Solution: L= 500m-0.5km, Pin=100mW, Pout=90mW
10  Po  10  90 X 103 
  log     log    0.915 dB
3  Km
L  in 
P 0.5  100 X 10 

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11. Find the attenuation co-efficient of the given fiber of length 1500 m given the input and output
power 100mW and 70mW. [VTU-MQP-1]
Solution:
L= 1500m=1.5km, Pin=100mW, Pout=70mW
10  Po  10  70 X 103 
  log     log    1.032 dB
3  Km
L  Pin  1.5  100 X 10 
12. An optical fiber of length 2 km has input power of 200 mw which emerges out with power of 160 mW.
Calculate the attenuation co-efficient of the fiber. [Make up Exam Nov/Dec2023-5M]
Solution:
L= 2000m=2km, Pin=200mW, Pout=160mW
10  Po  10  160 X 10 3 
  log     log    0.48 dB
3  Km
L  Pin  2  200 X 10 
13. For a 30 cm long fiber attenuation 0.8 dB/km, find the output power if a 200 micro-Watt power is
launched? [June/July 2024-5m]
Solution:
L= 30cm=30x10-5km, Pin=200 micro-W, Pout=?
10 P 
  5
log  o 
30 x10  Pin 
 p 
0.8  33333x log  o 
 200 
 p 
2.4 x10 5  log  0 
 200 
taking antilog on BS
PO 5
 10 2.4 X 10
200
P0
 0.999
200
PO  200 X 0.999  199.8W
14.The attenuation in an optical fiber is 3.6 dB/km.What fraction of its intial intensity remains
after i] 1 Km, ii] after 3km.
Solution:
  3.6dB / km
i] After L=1 km,
Pout
?
Pin

10  Po 
  log  
L  Pin 

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10  Po 
3.6   log  
1  Pin 
P  3.6
log  o     0.36
 Pin  10

 Po 
   10 0.36  0.436
 Pin 
ii] After L=3 km,
Pout
?
Pin

10  Po 
  log  
L  Pin 
10  Po 
3.6   log  
3  Pin 
P  3.6 x3 10.8
log  o      1.08
 Pin  10 10

 Po 
   101.08  0.0832
 Pin 
15. In a diffraction grating Experiment the laser light undergoes a second order diffraction for diffracting
angle 1.48,the grating constant is is 5.08x10-5 m and the distance between the grating and the source is
80cm. Find the wave length of the laser light. [Jan/Feb 2023-5M]
Solution
Laser diffraction Experiment problem
  1.48.
-5
d= 5.05x10 m, m=2 D=0.8m [not required]
m  d sin 
d sin  5.08 x105 x sin 1.480 
   6.5603x107 m
m 2

16. In a optical fiber experiment, , the distance between the fiber and the screen is
45 mm and radius of the spot is 6mm.Calculate angle of acceptance and numerical aperture of an
optical fiber. [Based Optic fiber expt.BPHYE102–Jan/Feb 2023-----5M]

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Solution: Given L=45mm, r=6mm

 D/2  r 
Tan     
 L   L

r  6 x103 
  Tan 1    Tan 1    7.590
3 
 L  45 x10 
NA=Sin(7.59)=0.132
17. In diffraction grating Experiment the LASER light undergoes a first order diffraction for diffracting angle
23.86o, the grating constant is 1.66x10-6m and the distance between the grating and the source is 80cm. Calculate the
wave length of the laser source. [Make up Exam Nov/Dec2023-5M]
Solution :
[Refer above diagram---Diagram not required]
d= 1.66x10-6m, m=1 D=0.6m [not required]
  23.860. m  d sin 
d sin  1.66 x10 x sin 23.860 
6
   6.574 x10 7 m
m 1
18.In a diffraction grating Experiment the laser light undergoes a second order diffraction for diffracting
angle 1.48,the grating constant d= 5.08x10-5 m and the distance between the grating and the source is
0.6m. Find the wave length of the laser light. Ans=652 nm. [Dec 23/Jan 2024-5M]
Solution:
[Refer above diagram---Diagram not required]
  1.480.
d= 5.05x10-5 m, m=2 D=0.6m [not required]
m  d sin 
d sin  5.08 x105 x sin 1.480 
   6.5603x107 m
m 2
19. In an optical fiber experiment the Laser light propagating through optical fiber cable of 1.5 m, made a
Spot diameter of 8 mm on the screen. The distance between the end of the optical fiber cable and the
screen is 0.031 m. Calculate angle of contact and N.A of given optical fiber. [Dec 2024/Jan 2025-5M]
Solution: [Refer above diagram---Diagram not required]
D=8mm; hence r=4mm, L=0.031M  0  ? and NA=?
 D/2  r 
Tan      
 L   L

1  6 x10 
3
  Tan 1 
r
   Tan   
3 
 L  45 x10 

  7.590
NA  Sin  Sin 7.59   0.132
0
0

============================================================================

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VTU Questions / QUESTION BANK

VTU Model Question paper-1 with effect from 2022-23(CBCS Scheme) for BPHYS 22 SCHEME

1. a] Define LASER and discuss the interaction of radiation with matter. [7M]
b] Define acceptance angle and numerical aperture and hence derive an expression for NA in terms of
refractive indices of core, cladding and surrounding. [8M]
-3
c] A laser source has a power output of 10 W. Calculate the number of photons emitted per second given
the wavelength of laser 692.8 nanometer. [5 M]
OR
2. a] Illustrate the construction and working of Semi conductor laser with a neat sketch and energy level
diagram also mention its applications. [9M]
b] Discuss the types of optical fibers based on modes of Propagation and RI Profile. [6M]
c] Find the attenuation co-efficient of the given fiber of length 1500 m given the input and output
power 100mW and 70mW. [5M]

VTU Model Question paper-2 with effect from 2022-23(CBCS Scheme) for BPHYS 22 SCHEME
1. a] Obtain the expression for energy density using Einstein’s A and B coefficients and thus conclude
B12=B21 [8M]
b] Describe attenuation and explain the various fiber losses. [7M]
c] Given the numerical aperture 0.3 and RI of core 1.49 Calculate the critical angle for core- cladding
interface. [5M]
OR
2. a] Describe the applications of LASER in bar-code scanner and LASER cooling. [9M]
b] Discuss point to point communication using optical fibers. [6M]
c] Calculate the ratio of population of for a given pair of energy levels corresponding to emission of
radiation 694.3 nm at a temperature of 300 K. [5M]

3. Jan/Feb 2023 BPHYS102 VTU EXAM QP

1. a] Explain construction and working of Semiconductor laser with the help of energy level diagram. [8M]
b] What is refractive index profile? Discuss three different types of optical fibers based on modes of
Propagation and RI Profile. [7M]
c] The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 300 when kept in air. Find the angle of acceptance
when it is in a medium of refractive index 1.33.
OR
2. a] Define acceptance angle and numerical aperture. Derive an expression for numerical aperture in terms of
refractive indices of core, cladding and surrounding. [8M]
b] Derive the expression for energy density for a system in thermal equilibrium in terms of Einstein’s
coefficients. [8M]
c] In a diffraction grating Experiment the laser light undergoes a second order diffraction for diffracting angle
1.48,the grating constant is 5.08x10-5m and the distance between the grating and the source is 80cm. Find the wave
length of the laser light. [Lab problem-BPHYS102] [5M]

4. June/July 2023 BPHYS102 VTU EXAM QP

1. a] Derive an expression for energy density in terms of Einstein’s coefficients in laser action. [10M]
b] Explain types of optical fibers. [6M]

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c] The ratio of population of two energy levels, out of which upper one corresponds to a metastable state, is
1.059x10-30.Find the wavelength of light emitted at 330K. [4M]
OR
2. a] Derive expression for Numerical aperture in an optical fiber. [8M]
b] Discuss construction and working of Semiconductor laser with energy level diagram [8M]
c] The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 300 when kept in air. Find the angle of acceptance
when it is in a medium of refractive index 1.33. [4M]

5. MAKE-UP EXAM Nov/Dec 2023 BPHYS102

1. a] Obtain the an expression for energy density of radiation under thermal equilibrium condition in terms
of Einstein’s coefficients. [9M]
b] Explain the different types of optical fibers with suitable diagrams. [6M]
c] An optical fiber of length 2 km has input power of 200 mw which emerges out with power of 160
mW. Calculate the attenuation co-efficient of the fiber. [5M]
OR
2. a] Describe the construction, principle and working of Semiconductor laser with neat diagrams . [7M]
b] Define numerical aperture and acceptance angle. Obtain an expression for numerical aperture in terms
of refractive indices of core and cladding and surrounding medium. [8M]
c] In diffraction grating Experiment the LASER light undergoes a first order diffraction for diffracting angle
23.86o,the grating constant is 1.66x10-6m and the distance between the grating and the source is 80cm. Calculate the
wave length of the laser source. [5M]

5. Dec 2023/Jan 2024 BPHYS102 VTU EXAM QP

1. a] Define LASER and explain the interaction of radiation with matter for the induced absorption,
Spontaneous emission and stimulated emission. [7M]
b] Discuss different types of optical fibers based on modes of propagation and refractive index profile. [9M]
c] Find attenuation in an optical fiber of length 500m, when a light signal of power 100 mW emerges out
of fiber with a power 90mW. [4M]
OR
2. a] Obtain the expression for energy density of radiation using Einstein’s A and B coefficients and thus
conclude B12=B21. [9 M]
b] Discuss point to point communication using optic fibres. [6M]
c] In a diffraction grating Experiment the LASER light undergoes a second order diffraction for diffracting angle
1.48. The grating constant d= 5.08x10-5m and the distance between the grating and the source is 0.60 m. Find the
wave length of the laser source. [5M]

June/July 2024 BPHYS102

1.a] Obtain the expression for energy density of radiation using Einstein’s coefficients of absorption
and emission. [8M]
b] Define angle of Acceptance. Explain the types of optic fibers with neat ray diagram and refractive
indexprofile. [7M]
c] Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a He-Ne laser that produces a light of wavelength
6328 A0 at 270C
OR
2.a] Derive the expression for numerical aperture of an optical fiber in terms of fraction of RI. [8M]
b] What is active medium? Explain construction and working of Semiconductor laser. [7M]
c] For a 30 cm long fiber attenuation 0.8 dB/km,find the output power if a 20 micro-Watt power is
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launched? [5M]

6. Dec 2024/Jan 2025 BPHYS102

1. a] Obtain the expression for energy density of radiation using Einstein’s coefficients at thermal
Equilibrium. [9M]
b] Discuss the types of optical fibers based on modes of Propagation and refractive index profile. [6M]
c] Given the numerical aperture 0.30 and refractive of core 1.49.Calculate the critical angle for the core-
Cladding interface. [5M]
OR
2.a] Illustrate the construction and working of Semiconductor laser with a neat sketch with energy level diagram.[8M]
b] Define numerical aperture and acceptance angle and hence derive an expression for numerical aperture
in terms of refractive indices of core and cladding and surrounding. [7M]
c] In an optical fiber experiment the Laser light propagating through optical fiber cable of 1.5, made a spot
diameter of 8 mm on the screen.The distance between the end of the optical fiber cable and the screen is
0.031 m. Calculate angle of contact and N.A of given optical fiber. [5M]

QUESTION BANK
1. Explain 3 types of basic interaction of light with matter. OR Explain (a) Induced absorption
(b) Stimulated emission [c]spontaneous emission. [6M]
2. Define the terms population inversion and Meta stable state. OR What is laser action and explain the
Conditions for laser action. [4M]
3. Obtain the expression for energy density of radiation using Einstein’s coefficients at thermal [8M]
Equilibrium.
4. Explain the construction and working of Semiconductor laser with energy level diagram. [8M]
5. Derive the expression for numerical aperture of an optical fiber. Write the conditions for ray
propagation. Mention any two merits and demerits of optical communication. [10M]
6. Discuss the attenuation and various losses in optical fibers. [7M]
7. Explain attenuation in an optical fiber. Discuss any three factors contributing to the fiber loss. [Feb 2021/4 M]

8. Define V-Number and fractional index change. With neat diagrams, explain different types of fibers [8M]
9. Arrive at the condition for ray propagation in an optical fibers. [6M]
10. Explain the applications of lasers in a] Laser Printer b] Laser Cooling and c] Bar code scanner. [Each 4 M]

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