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(Surface Production Operations)
DISCLAIMER
Ken Arnold
Maurice Stewart
SECOND EDITION
iv
Contents
Acknowledgments xi
Preface xiii
CHAPTER 1
The Production Facility • 1
Introduction, 1
Making the Equipment Work, 16
Facility Types, 18
CHAPTER 2
Choosing a Process 26
Introduction, 26
Controlling the Process, 26
Operation of a Control Valve 26, Pressure Control 29,
Level Control 30, Temperature Control 30, Flow Control 31
Basic System Configuration, 31
Wellhead and Manifold 31, Separation 31, Oil Treating 38,
Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) 40, Pumps 42,
Water Treating 43, Compressors 43, Gas Dehydrators 46
Well Testing, 48
Gas Lift, 51
Offshore Platform Considerations, 54
Overview 54, Modular Construction 55,
Equipment Arrangement 55
CHAPTER 3
Fluid Properties 58
Introduction, 58
Basic Principles, 58
Specific Gravity and Density 58, Viscosity 64
v
Flash Calculations, 69
Characterizing the Flow Stream, 87
Molecular Weight of Gas 87, Gas Flow Rate 88,
Liquid Molecular Weight 89, Specific Gravity of
Liquid 90, Liquid Flow Rate 92, The Flow Stream 92
Approximate Flash Calculations, 93
Other Properties, 95
CHAPTER 4
Two-Phase Oil and Gas Separation 101
Introduction, 101
Factors Affecting Separation, 102
Equipment Description, 102
Horizontal Separators 102, Vertical Separators 104,
Spherical Separators 104, Other Configurations 105,
Scrubbers 107
Horizontal vs. Vertical Vessel Selection, 108
Vessel Internals, 109
Inlet Diverters 109, Wave Breakers 111, Defoaming Plates 111,
Vortex Breaker 112, Mist Extractor 112
Potential Operating Problems, 115
Foamy Crudes 115, Paraffin 116, Sand 117,
Liquid Carryover and Gas Blowby 117
Theory, 117
Settling 117, Drop Size 121, Retention Time 122,
Re-entrainment 122
Separator Sizing, 122
Horizontal Separators 122, Procedure for Sizing Horizontal
Separators 126, Vertical Separators 126
Examples, 129
Sizing a Vertical Separator 129,
Sizing a Horizontal Separator 133
References, 134
CHAPTER 5
Oil and Water Separation 135
Introduction, 135
Equipment Description, 136
Horizontal Separators 136, Vertical Separators 140,
Horizontal vs. Vertical Selection 142
vi
Vessel Internals, 143
Coalescing Plates 143, Sand Jets and Drains 143
Emulsions, 144
Theory, 144
Gas Separation 144, Oil/Water Settling 144,
Water Droplet Size in Oil 144, Oil Droplet Size in Water 145,
Retention Time 145
Separator Sizing, 145
Horizontal Separators 146, Settling Equation 148,
Vertical Separators 151
Examples, 154
Sizing a Vertical Three-Phase Separator 154,
Sizing a Horizontal Three-Phase Separator 156
CHAPTER 6
Crude Oil Treating Systems 160
Introduction, 160
Emulsion Treating Theory, 161
Forming Emulsions 161, Emulsifying Agent 164,
Demulsifiers 165
Gravity Separation, 167
Coalescence 168, Viscosity 169, Temperature Effects 170,
Heat Input Equations 174, Water Droplet Size and Retention
Time 175, Coalescing Media 175, Electrostatic Coalescers 176
Treating Equipment, 177
Vertical Treaters 177, Horizontal Treaters 180,
Electrostatic Treaters 181
Equipment Sizing and Theory, 182
Settling Equations 182, Retention Time Equations 184,
Water Droplet Size 185
Design Procedure, 188
Examples, 189
Sizing a Horizontal Treater 189, Sizing a Vertical Treater 191
References, 192
CHAPTER 7
Produced-Water Treating Systems 194
Introduction, 194
System Description, 195
vii
Theory, 197
Gravity Separation 197, Dispersion 198, Coalescence 198,
Flotation 199
Treating Equipment, 199
Settling Tanks and Skimmer Vessels 199,
Skimmer Sizing Equations 202, Plate Coalescers 207,
Skimmer/Coalescers 214, Precipitators/Coalescing Filters 215,
Free-Flow Turbulent Coalescers (SP Packs) 215,
Flotation Units 218, Hydrocyclones 223, Disposal Piles 225,
Skim Pile 228
Drain Systems, 230
Information Required for Design, 230
Influent Water Quality, 231
Produced Water 231, Soluble Oil 232, Deck Drainage 233
Equipment Selection Procedure, 233
Equipment Specification, 236
Example: Design the Produced-Water Treating System for the
Data Given, 237
CHAPTER 8
Pressure Drop in Piping 244
Introduction, 244
Basic Principles, 245
Reynolds Number 245, Flow Regimes 247,
Bernoulli's Theorem 247, Darcy's Equation 248,
Moody Friction Factor 249
Fluid Flow Equations, 251
Liquid Flow 251, Gas Flow 254, Two-Phase Flow 263
Head Loss in Valves and Pipe Fittings, 273
Resistance Coefficients 274, Flow Coefficient 274,
Equivalent Length 277, Laminar Flow Coefficient 278
Example Pressure Drop Calculations, 278
Pressure Drop in Liquid Line 278,
Pressure Drop in Gas Line 281,
Pressure Drop in Two-Phase Line 284
CHAPTER 9
Choosing a Line Size and Wall Thickness 285
Introduction, 285
viii
Line Size Criteria, 286
Erosional Flow 286, Liquid Lines 289, Gas Lines 291,
Two-Phase Flow 295
Wall Thickness Criteria, 299
Standards and Requirements 299, General Hoop Stress
Formula for Thin Wall Cylinders 300
Pressure Rating Classes, 313
Industry Standards 313, API 6A 314,
Pipe, Valve, and Fitting Specifications 314
Examples, 324
Liquid Line 324, Gas Line 329, Two-Phase Line 330
References, 332
CHAPTER 1O
Pumps 333
Introduction, 333
Pump Classification, 333
Centrifugal Pumps, 334
Reciprocating Pumps, 339
Diaphragm Pumps, 344
Rotary Pumps, 345
Multiphase Pumps, 347
Basic Principles, 347
Head 347, Horsepower 349,
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 350
Basic Selection Criteria, 352
CHAPTER 11
Centrifugal Pumps 355
Introduction, 355
Multiple Pump Installations, 356
Pump Specific Speed, 358
Codes and Standards, 358
Generic Types of Centrifugal Pumps, 359
ANSI Pump 359, Single-Stage API Pump 361,
Vertical In-Line Pump 362, API Multistage Split
Case Pump 364, API Barrel Pumps 364, Sump Pump 365,
ix
API Vertical Turbine or Can Pump 366,
Submersible Pump 367
Bearings, Seals, and Wear Rings, 368
Bearings 368, Seals 369, Wear Rings 372
Installation Considerations, 373
CHAPTER 12
Reciprocating Pumps 376
Introduction, 376
Controlling Pulsating Flow, 377
Suction and Discharge Piping 377, Pulsation Dampeners 377,
Pipe Vibrations 384
Bearings, Valves, and Packing, 387
Codes and Standards, 387
Piping Hookup, 391
Operation, 392
Bypass Valve 392, Variable-Speed Motors and Drivers 392
CHAPTER 13
Organizing the Project 394
Introduction, 394
Project Steps, 395
Project Initiation 395, Conceptual Study 395,
Project Definition 399, Design Engineering 406,
Detailed Engineering 409, Procurement 412,
Inspection and Expediting 417, Startup 418, Dossier 419
Project Control and Execution Format, 419
Project Control, 419
Engineering Control 419, Project Cost Control 426,
Project Timing Control 427
Project Execution Format, 428
Turnkey 428, Negotiated Turnkey 429,
Modified Turnkey 430, Cost-Pius 431,
Comparison of Formats 432
APPENDIX A
Sample Project Assignment 434
Index 437
x
Acknowledgments
It was Maurice Stewart's idea to take the lecture notes that I had devel-
oped for my course at the University of Houston, add some material he
developed for his lecture notes at Tulane University, and write this book.
In addition, Maurice was responsible for first drafts of several chapters,
editorial review, and comment on the finished work, and he aided greatly
in developing many of the illustrations.
There are two core themes to my lecture notes and this book: (1) engi-
neers must be aware of the first principle basis for their design proce-
dures if they are to exercise the correct judgment in choosing between
alternatives, and (2) the mystery of process vessel design can be removed
and design equations unified using a drop size distribution and analysis
technique that others have developed before me and I merely extended to
other situations.
I am indebted to professors Robert McGuire and Richard White of
Cornell University for convincing an impressionable undergraduate of
the importance of the first theme. With this understanding I have spent
much of my working life trying to explain observed phenomena and pub-
lished answers in the field of production facility design. In this effort I
have been fortunate to have worked for two of the best companies in their
respective industries, Shell Oil Company and Paragon Engineering Ser-
vices, Inc. Both have given me the opportunity and resources to continue
to pursue this goal and apply the ideas and concepts presented in this
book to real situations.
I am indebted to several colleagues within both Paragon and Shell who
have aided, instructed, critiqued, and provided me with hours of argument.
For the second edition, I would like to thank the following Paragon
engineers who each revised a chapter: Eric Barron, Jim Cullen, Fernando
De La Fuente, Robert Ferguson, Mike Hale, Sandeep Khurana, Kevin
xi
Mara, Matt McKinstry, Carl Sikes, Mary Thro, Kirk Trascher, and Mike
Whitworth. I would also like to thank David Arnold for pulling it all
together at the end.
Ken Arnold, RE.
Houston, Texas
xii
Preface
xiii
information in the form of laboratory studies or field experience exists.
These points are clearly stated in the text. It is hoped that by publishing
these thoughts we will stimulate others to publish their experiences and
rules of thumb, and help stimulate some much-needed research.
Some of our students have no background in production facility design
other than what they have learned in the introductory petroleum engi-
neering courses. For this reason, we have found by trial and error that it
is best to start with an overview explaining the goals of the facility with
pictures of the equipment. We then discuss how the equipment is put
together into a process system before explaining process calculations and
equipment designing procedures. We have experimented with discussing
the process system at the end of the course, but have found that the inter-
relationship of the various pieces of equipment confuses the student.
Therefore, while there is some repetition caused by the order of the chap-
ters, experience shows us that, in the final analysis, the present order pro-
vides the student with a clearer understanding of the concepts.
The order chosen for the book has the side benefit of allowing the
instructor to assign a project at the start of the course and have the stu-
dent take it another step forward as each segment is completed. An exam-
ple project is included in Appendix A. As there are many correct answers
in facility process and equipment design, no two projects will be identi-
cal, but the student should be able to defend his selection. One of us ends
the semester by having each student defend his project in an oral presen-
tation.
The more experienced design engineer may wish to just skim the first
three chapters. We have tried to make this an easier reference book to use
by visually separating the derivations from the rest of the text so that the
design equations and important assumptions stand out more clearly.
Where needed, we have summarized each section with a design proce-
dure or an example calculation.
This volume focuses on areas that primarily concern oil-handling facil-
ities. These topics are not adequately addressed in the literature, and han-
dling oil and water is much more of an art and less of a science than han-
dling gas. The book does not cover gas dehydration and treating, gas
compression, electric generators and distribution, material selection and
corrosion control, chemical treatment, welding, water purification and
steam generation equipment, instrument specification and system design,
xiv
foundations, platforms, buildings, and many other topics that fall under
the responsibility of a surface facility or construction engineer.
The final chapter on project management may appear a little out of
place. However, it is our experience that a large part of the production
facility engineer's job is project management. It would be a shame if the
students taking our course eventually became managers of production
facility engineers and were never exposed to the concepts contained in
this chapter. One of the most common comments we hear from engineers
in this field is that the petroleum engineers who supervise them have no
concept of the problems associated with managing one of these projects.
Throughout the book we have attempted to concentrate on what we
perceive to be modern and common practices. Although we have either
personally been involved in the design of facilities all over the world or
have people in our organizations who have done so, undoubtedly we are
influenced by our own experience and prejudices. We apologize if we
have left something out or have expressed opinions on equipment types
that differ from your experiences. We have learned much from our stu-
dents' comments on such matters and would appreciate receiving yours
for future revisions/editions.
Ken Arnold, RE.
Houston, Texas
Maurice I. Stewart, Ph.D., RE.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
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(Surface Production Operations)
This page intentionally left blank
CHAPTER
The Production
Facility
INTRODUCTION
The job of a production facility is to separate the well stream into three
components, typically called "phases" (oil, gas, and water), and process
these phases into some marketable product(s) or dispose of them in an envi-
ronmentally acceptable manner. In mechanical devices called "separators"
gas is flashed from the liquids and "free water" is separated from the oil.
These steps remove enough light hydrocarbons to produce a stable crude oil
with the volatility (vapor pressure) to meet sales criteria. Figures 1-1 and 1-
2 show typical separators used to separate gas from liquid or water from oil.
Separators can be either horizontal or vertical in configuration.
The gas that is separated must be compressed and treated for sales.
Compression is typically done by engine-driven reciprocating compres-
sors, Figure 1-3. In large facilities or in booster service, turbine-driven
centrifugal compressors, such as that shown in Figure 1-4, are used.
Large integral reciprocating compressors are also used, Figure 1-5.
Usually, the separated gas is saturated with water vapor and must be
dehydrated to an acceptable level (normally less than 7 Ib/MMscf). Usu-
ally this is done in a glycol dehydrator, such as that shown in Figure 1-6.
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