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 Full-verb Inversion in
Written and Spoken English
Linguistic Insights
Studies in Language and Communication

Edited by Maurizio Gotti,

University of Bergamo

Volume 127

Advisory Board
Vijay Bhatia (Hong Kong)
Christopher Candlin (Sydney)
David Crystal (Bangor)
Konrad Ehlich (Berlin / München)
Jan Engberg (Aarhus)
Norman Fairclough (Lancaster)
John Flowerdew (Leeds)
Ken Hyland (Hong Kong)
Roger Lass (Cape Town)
Matti Rissanen (Helsinki)
Françoise Salager-Meyer (Mérida, Venezuela)
Srikant Sarangi (Cardiff)
^
Susan Šarcević (Rijeka)
Lawrence Solan (New York)
Peter M. Tiersma (Los Angeles)

PETER LANG
Bern • Berlin • Bruxelles • Frankfurt am Main • New York • Oxford • Wien
 Carlos Prado-Alonso

Full-verb Inversion in
Written and Spoken English

Norms and Practices in Genre

PETER LANG
Bern • Berlin • Bruxelles • Frankfurt am Main • New York • Oxford • Wien
Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek
Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche National-
bibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet
at ‹http://dnb.d-nb.de›.

British Library and Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data:

A catalogue record for this book is available from The British Library,
Great Britain.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Prado-Alonso, Carlos.
Full-verb inversion in written and spoken English / Carlos Prado-Alonso.
p. cm. – (Linguistic insights: studies in language and communication; v. 127)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-3-0343-0535-8 (alk. paper)
1. Grammar, Comparative and general–Verb phrase. 2. Grammar, Comparative
and general–Syntax.
P281.P73 2011
415‘.0182–dc22
2011016039

Published with a grant from Università degli Studi di Bergamo (Italy):

Dipartimento di Lingue, Letterature e Culture Comparate.

ISSN 1424-8689
E-ISBN
ISBN 978-3-0343-0535-8US-ISBN 978-3-0351-0252-9
0-8204-8382-6

© Peter Lang AG, International Academic Publishers, Bern 2011

Hochfeldstrasse 32, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
[email protected], www.peterlang.com, www.peterlang.net

All rights reserved.

All parts of this publication are protected by copyright.
Any utilisation outside the strict limits of the copyright law, without
the permission of the publisher, is forbidden and liable to prosecution.
This applies in particular to reproductions, translations, microfilming,
and storage and processing in electronic retrieval systems.

Printed in Switzerland
To my family
6
Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ........................................................................ 11
Introduction ....................................................................................13

1. Full-verb Inversion in Present-day English:

A Preliminary Account ............................................................17
1.1 Definition ................................................................................18
1.2 Types of inversion excluded from the analysis ......................19
1.2.1 Subject-operator inversion .............................................19
1.2.2 Inversion in conditional clauses and
formulaic expressions ...................................................21
1.2.3 Inversion in interrogative and exclamative clauses .......22
1.2.4 Additional types of inversion excluded .........................23
1.2.5 Quotation or journalistic style inversion .......................23
1.3 A classification of full inversion based on
formal criteria .........................................................................25
1.4 Some structural patterns related to full inversion ...................34
1.4.1 Existential-‘there’ ..........................................................35
1.4.2 Preposing .......................................................................39
1.4.3 Left-dislocation .............................................................41
1.4.4 Equatives .......................................................................43

2. Research on Full Inversion .....................................................47

2.1 Syntactic accounts ...................................................................49
2.2 Functional accounts ................................................................52
2.2.1 The textual or discourse-related account ......................53
2.2.2 The information-packaging account .............................61
2.3 Point of view and focus management:
Dorgeloh (1997) ......................................................................70

7
2.4 Syntactic complexity and information status:
Kreyer (2006) ..........................................................................76
2.5 Full inversion as a ground-before-figure construction:
Chen (2003) ............................................................................90
2.6 Summary and conclusions ....................................................104

3. Survey of the Corpora ...........................................................109

3.1 The written corpora: FLOB and FROWN ............................109
3.2 The spoken corpora: ICE-GB and CSPAE ........................... 114
3.3 Database design: sampling the corpus ..................................120
3.3.1 Sampling the written data ...........................................121
3.3.2 Sampling the spoken data ...........................................128
3.4 Methodology: manual vs. automated searching systems .....130
3.4.1 Automated search strategies: ICE-GB
and ICECUP 3.0 .........................................................131
3.4.2 The retrieval of full inversions on the basis
of a parsed corpus .......................................................132

4. Full-verb Inversion in Present-day Written

and Spoken English ...............................................................135
4.1 Full inversion in present-day written English:
obligatory and non-obligatory uses ......................................135
4.1.1 Obligatory full inversion in fiction and non-fiction .....143
4.1.2 Non-obligatory full inversion in fiction
and non-fiction ............................................................152
4.1.2.1 Prepositional phrase, adverb phrase and
verb phrase inversions in fiction and
non-fiction: spatial experiential iconic
markers and text-structuring devices .............157
4.1.2.2 Noun phrase, adjective phrase, and
subordinator inversions in fiction and
non-fiction: text-structuring devices ..............171
4.1.3 Summary and conclusions ..........................................182
4.2 Full inversion in present-day spoken English:
obligatory and non-obligatory uses ......................................186

8
 4.2.1 Obligatory full inversion in spoken English...............189
4.2.2 Non-obligatory full inversion in spoken English .......198
4.2.2.1 Prepositional phrase, adverb phrase and
verb phrase inversions in spoken English:
spatial experiential iconic markers
and text-structuring devices ...........................200
4.2.2.2 Noun phrase, adjective phrase, and
subordinator inversions in spoken English:
text-structuring devices ..................................203
4.2.3 Summary and conclusions ..........................................205
4.3 Prospects for future research: full inversions
as constructions .....................................................................207

5. Summary and Conclusions ...................................................219

Appendix I: The corpora ..............................................................231

Appendix II: Texts selected from the corpora ..............................239

References ....................................................................................243
Index .............................................................................................259

9
10
Acknowledgements

In undertaking research of this nature, one naturally seeks out the

intellectual and personal support of a great many people, perhaps
more people than it would be possible to mention. Nevertheless, I
will attempt here to express my gratitude to most of them.
Firstly, I would like to thank Teresa Fanego and Carlos Acuña.
This book has benefited from their keen intellectual judgement and
from their advice in numerous ways. Other scholars who helped me
out and whom I feel very grateful to are Betty Birner and Gregory
Ward, and especially Rolf Kreyer who was kind enough to allow me
access to his (then) unpublished work. Likewise, I feel greatly in-
debted to Christopher Butler, Antonio Barcelona, Javier Pérez-Guerra,
Liesbet Heyvaert and Cristina Suárez-Gómez, who greatly inspired
my work through stimulating discussions and comments on earlier
versions of this book.
The research reported here is part of a larger project – Varia-
tion, Linguistic Change, and Grammaticalisation – sponsored by the
Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation and European Regional
Development Fund (grant no. HUM2007-60706/FILO), the Autono-
mous Government of Galicia (Directorate General of Scientific and
Technological Promotion, grant no. 2006/14-0; Directorate General
for Research, Development and Innovation, INCITE grant no.
08PXIB204016PR), and the European Regional Development Fund.
The support of these institutions, as well as the positive feedback of
the members of the research group throughout the course of this in-
vestigation, is hereby also gratefully acknowledged.
None of this would have been possible without the constant help
and encouragement of my parents and, especially, of my brother. This
book is dedicated to them. Finally, a very special thank goes to my
partner, Ana, for her unconditional support and love during these years
and for encouraging me when the going got especially tough. Without
her care and unyielding faith this work would have been harder.

11
12
Introduction

Over the past few years, full-verb inversion, as one instantiation of

a large variety of noncanonical word-order phenomena, has been a
favourite topic of research in English linguistics from a functional
perspective (cf. Birner 1996; Dorgeloh 1997; Chen 2003; Kreyer
2006 among others). This study is a further contribution to this line
of research and attempts to present a comprehensive corpus-based
analysis of full-verb inversion in written and spoken Present-day
English texts.
Despite the above-mentioned body of research on inversion,
there are still aspects which either call for further clarification or
have been utterly neglected. For instance, in recent work on inver-
sion, there is not complete agreement as regards the distribution of
full inversion in written fictional and non-fictional texts. On the one
hand, works such as Green (1982), Denison (1998) or Biber et al.
(1999) suggest that the construction is more frequent in fictional
texts. On the other hand, studies such as Kreyer (2006) claim the
opposite, that is, that full inversion is more common in non-fictional
texts. The first aim of this study is to clarify this point. It will be
demonstrated that fictional and non-fictional written English texts
do not differ in the overall distribution of the construction, but rather
in the different types of full inversions used, and the different func-
tions that these inversions serve in both genres.
A second aspect which will be examined in the study is full
inversion in the spoken language. Surprisingly enough, inversion in
this mode of communication has not yet received the attention it de-
serves, since most work on the topic has been restricted to the writ-
ten language. It has often been claimed (cf. Green 1982; Dorgeloh
1997; Chen 2003; Kreyer 2006) that full inversion occurs mainly in
written discourse, but these claims have not yet been backed up by
a detailed corpus-based analysis. The in-depth analysis of full in-
version in the spoken language provided in this study will demon-
strate that full inversion also occurs in the spoken language, and that

13
speech and writing do not differ greatly in the amount of full inver-
sions used, but rather in the different types of full inversions occur-
ring in each of those media and in the functions full inversion serves.
The corpora used to analyse the behaviour and distribution of
full inversion in written and spoken texts were the Freiburg-Lancas-
ter-Oslo-Bergen Corpus of British English (FLOB; compilation date:
1991), the Freiburg-Brown Corpus of American English (FROWN;
compilation date: 1992), the International Corpus of English: the
British Component (ICE-GB; compilation date: 1990-1993), and the
Corpus of Spoken Professional American English (CSPAE; compila-
tion date: 1994-1998). The analysis of the corpora has been performed
manually in some cases, and with automated searching systems in
other cases.
The study is organised as follows. Chapter 1 contains some
theoretical preliminaries. Section 1.1 provides a definition of the term
‘full-verb inversion’, section 1.2 offers an account of inversion types
excluded from the analysis, section 1.3 presents a classification of
the construction based on formal criteria, and section 1.4 examines
several constructions which exhibit similarities to full-verb inver-
sion, but fall nevertheless beyond the scope of the analysis.
Chapter 2 reviews the literature on English full-verb inversion
and outlines the motivations for the present study. Though the re-
view covers generative accounts of inversion (cf. 2.1), the main fo-
cus is on analyses carried out within a functional framework (cf. 2.2).
Among these, special attention is paid to Dorgeloh (1997), Chen
(2003), and Kreyer (2006), which are analysed in 2.3, 2.4, and 2.5
respectively as they are the most comprehensive studies of full in-
version to date.
Chapter 3 is devoted to the corpus-based analysis. It first pro-
vides a general description of the corpora (cf. 3.1 and 3.2), the sam-
pling techniques (cf. 3.3), and the methodology used (cf. 3.4).
After these preliminaries, the core of the analysis is developed
in chapter 4, which offers an in-depth analysis of the distribution
and behaviour of full-verb inversion in written and spoken Present-
day English. Section 4.1 concentrates on the analysis of the data re-
trieved from the written corpora, whereas 4.2 discusses the results
retrieved from the spoken corpora.

14
 Chapter 5 contains a summary and the main conclusions
reached in this investigation.
Finally, Appendices I and II contain a more detailed descrip-
tion of the samples analysed in the computerised corpora.

15
16
1. Full-verb Inversion in Present-day English:
A Preliminary Account

The term inversion has been used to refer to different, although re-
lated, constructions in the literature on the topic. As a consequence,
inversion has been understood very broadly. Green (1982: 120), for
instance, defines inversions as “those declarative constructions where
the subject follows part or all of its verb phrase”.1 As will be pointed
out in section 1.1, this study concerns itself with a more restricted
view of inversion; in particular, the focus will be on a specific type of
inversion, namely so-called full-verb inversion. Section 1.2 offers an
account of inversions which have been excluded from the present
analysis, for reasons which will become clear later. After these pre-
liminaries, 1.3 provides a formal classification of full-verb inversion
types. Finally, section 1.4 briefly examines constructions such as ex-
istential-‘there’, left-dislocation, preposing, and equative structures,
which are close to full-verb inversion from a syntactic and pragmatic
point of view, but nevertheless differ sufficiently as to be beyond the
scope of this research.

1 There is no complete agreement among scholars as to what exactly is understood

by verb phrase. According to Huddleston/Pullum (2002: 22), the term ‘verb
phrase’ refers to “a verb group and its various complements”. By contrast,
Quirk et al. (1985: 62) consider that “verb phrases consist of a main verb which
either stands alone as the entire verb phrase, or is preceded by up to four verbs
in an auxiliary function”. It is this last sense that is adopted in this study, whereas
the term predicate will refer to the main verb plus accompanying elements.
For details, see Biber et al. (1999: 99).

17
1.1 Definition

As will become clear in chapter 2, there is an abundant literature on the

topic of inversion. In the case of English in particular, different taxono-
mies have been proposed for the construction. According to the surface
structure of the verb phrase, most studies on English inverted construc-
tions base their classifications on the preliminary distinction between
two main types of inversion: full-verb inversion (cf. Birner 1996; Chen
2003; Kreyer 2006) and subject-operator inversion (cf. Quirk et al.
1985; König 1988). Both categories have received a host of different
names. Thus, Huddleston/Pullum (2002) rename full-verb inversion as
subject-dependent inversion, whereas Quirk et al. (1985) and Biber et
al. (1999) label it subject-verb inversion, and Green (1985) and Stein
(1995) speak of inversion-over-verb and Type-A inversion, respec-
tively. Likewise, Huddleston/Pullum (2002) speak of subject-auxil-
iary inversion or partial inversion instead of subject-operator in-
version, while Green (1985) refers to inversion-over-auxiliary and Stein
(1995) to Type-B inversion. This heterogeneity is indicative of the numer-
ous ways of classifying inversion in research on Present-day English.
Full-verb inversion, henceforth full inversion, which is the con-
cern of this study, occurs when the grammatical subject follows the
entire verb phrase, in other words, “the subject occurs in postposed
position while some other dependent of the verb is preposed”
(Huddleston/Pullum 2002: 1385), as illustrated in (1).2 It is therefore
distinguished from subject-operator inversion, which refers to those
syntactic structures in which “the subject is preceded by the operator
rather than by the main verb or a full verb phrase” (Biber et al. 1999:
911), as shown in (2).
(1) Beside him was a table crammed with refreshments and medicaments.
(FLOB, press reportage. A26)

(2) Nor does he enjoy the arduous process of learning complex new words.
(FLOB, press reportage. A26)

2 For reasons of clarity, the preposed constituent will be underlined in the different
full inversion instances provided in this study. The inverted clause will also be
italicised when it is quoted as part of a sentence or a text.

18
1.2 Types of inversion excluded from the analysis

For methodological reasons, inversions which do not meet the defi-

nition given in the previous section have been excluded from the
analysis. The scope of this research is the analysis of verb-second
constructions, that is, inversions in which the verb is placed in sec-
ond position within the clause and is followed by the subject (cf. 3).
Hence, cases of verb-first constructions, that is, inversions in which
the verb is the first syntactic constituent in the clause (cf. 4), have
been left out.

(3) Among his patients was Mrs Ann Thwaytes, who had inherited pounds 500,000
on her husband’s death.
(FLOB, belles-lettres, biographies, essays. G01)

(4) Were it not for my help, they would not have made it.
(FLOB, belles-lettres, biographies, essays. G01)

The rest of this section gives an account of the major types of inver-
sion excluded from the corpus results, namely subject-operator in-
version (cf. 1.2.1), inversion in conditional clauses and in formulaic
expressions (cf. 1.2.2), inversion in exclamative and interrogative
clauses (cf. 1.2.3), inversion after a negated verb, inversion with tem-
poral phrases, inversion in appended clauses (cf. 1.2.4), and quota-
tion inversion (cf. 1.2.5).3

1.2.1 Subject-operator inversion

As has already been mentioned, the term ‘subject-operator inversion’

denotes those constructions in which the subject follows the operator
of the verb phrase. In particular, it includes inversions in which the

3 The term ‘appended clause’ is taken from Erdmann (1990) and refers to clauses
which are linked to a nearby clause through an inverted construction, as in
sequences such as they want to vote, do my neighbours. Appended inversion is
also labelled postponed-identification apposition (cf. Quirk et al. 1985: 1310).

19
clause-initial constituent is a pro-form (5), a correlative construction
(6), an additive adverb (7),4 or a negative or restrictive adverb (8).5
(5) All went well while the price of land went up, but when the world changed and
the price of land went down, so did the price of the pictures change.
(FROWN, press reportage. A26)

(6) Nehru also harboured a protectionist obsession even more paranoically than
does the troubling new woman prime minister of France.
(FLOB, press editorial. B12)

(7) Peggy, I soon discovered, did not have much energy; she was having an affair
with a labor writer named Ben Stolberg, and both of them would lie on a sofa
or daybed in her living-room, too tired to do anything, apparently too tired to
go to bed and make love. Nor can I remember her ever cooking a meal.
(FROWN, belles-lettres, biographies, essays. G51)

(8) Not until April 29 did Wilson consult his Inner Cabinet for their opinions.
(FLOB, press editorial. B05)

It could be argued that the use of syntactic criteria is not particularly

relevant for the distinction of full and subject-operator inversion given
that both constructions share an important feature: the verb phrase or
some part of it is preceded by some element other than the subject in
clause-initial position. Nevertheless, from a syntactic perspective, there
are also important differences between both types of inversion. Firstly,
as already stated, the position of the subject relative to the verb phrase
differs in full and subject-operator inversion. Secondly, full inversion
takes place with copular verb be or with lexical verbs which are most
often intransitive (cf. 9). By contrast, subject-operator inversion can
occur with both transitive and intransitive verbs (cf. 8).
(9) Down will come the barriers, the customs posts which, to those in our islands
have been a curiosity.
(FLOB, press editorial. B26)

4 The additive adverb is said to have a linking function, but at the same time it
introduces additional information into the discourse. See Dorgeloh (1997: 26-
28) for details.
5 As will be noted in due course (cf. 1.3), pro-forms, correlative elements, and
additive, negative or restrictive adverbs, when occurring in clause-initial position,
may also co-occur with full inversion. Such instances will not be excluded.

20
Finally, the kinds of opening elements occurring in full inversion are
much more diverse than those in subject-operator inversion, which is
syntactically obligatory when certain elements occur in clause-initial
position. Full and subject-operator inversion are considered marked
constructions in Present-day English and are alternatives to the basic
SVO word-order, but the way in which they behave syntactically dif-
fers substantially and syntax is, therefore, an appropriate criterion
for keeping them apart.

1.2.2 Inversion in conditional clauses and formulaic expressions

In relatively formal style or expository registers, conditional clauses

may be coded by the inversion of verb and subject, without using the
subordinator if. Inversion in this kind of clauses most commonly oc-
curs with the operator had (10), although it may also occur with sub-
junctive were (4), with should (11), and more rarely with could or
might (12). Inverted conditionals have been declining in frequency
for some time, and are almost wholly restricted to formal literary
English (cf. Denison 1998: 3.6.6.3).

(10) People seek these meetings because they need them, and had I not stumbled
into mine in Colorado, I would have been a lesser man.
(FROWN, belles-lettres, biographies, essays. G39)

(11) Should there be any opposition, they would not go ahead with the plan.
(quoted from Huddleston/Pullum 2002: 921)

(12) Might / Could I see my native land, I would die a happy man.
(FROWN, belles-lettres, biographies, essays. G39)

Inversion in conditional clauses has some points in common with

inverted constructions with the auxiliary may. These structures are
also typically found in formal or archaic contexts, as illustrated in
(13)-(15), where may is placed in clause-initial position in order to
express a series of wishes.

(13) May the road rise to meet you.

21
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