Interdisciplinarity and Problem Based Learning in

Higher Education Research and Perspectives from

Aalborg University Annie Aarup Jensen instant
download

Sold on textbookfull.com
( 4.8/5.0 ★ | 332 downloads )

https://textbookfull.com/product/interdisciplinarity-and-problem-
based-learning-in-higher-education-research-and-perspectives-from-
aalborg-university-annie-aarup-jensen/
 Interdisciplinarity and Problem Based Learning in Higher
Education Research and Perspectives from Aalborg University
Annie Aarup Jensen

TEXTBOOK

Available Formats

■ PDF eBook Study Guide Ebook

EXCLUSIVE 2025 ACADEMIC EDITION – LIMITED RELEASE

Available Instantly Access Library

More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Post critical Perspectives on Higher Education

Reclaiming the Educational in the University Naomi
Hodgson

https://textbookfull.com/product/post-critical-perspectives-on-
higher-education-reclaiming-the-educational-in-the-university-
naomi-hodgson/

Artists in the University Positioning Artistic Research

in Higher Education 1st Edition Jenny Wilson (Auth.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/artists-in-the-university-
positioning-artistic-research-in-higher-education-1st-edition-
jenny-wilson-auth/

Team Based Collaboration in Higher Education Learning

and Teaching A Review of the Literature Catherine
Newell

https://textbookfull.com/product/team-based-collaboration-in-
higher-education-learning-and-teaching-a-review-of-the-
literature-catherine-newell/

Graduate Skills and Game-Based Learning: Using Video

Games for Employability in Higher Education Matthew
Barr

https://textbookfull.com/product/graduate-skills-and-game-based-
learning-using-video-games-for-employability-in-higher-education-
matthew-barr/
Handbook of Research on Creative Problem Solving Skill
Development in Higher Education 1st Edition Chunfang
Zhou

https://textbookfull.com/product/handbook-of-research-on-
creative-problem-solving-skill-development-in-higher-
education-1st-edition-chunfang-zhou/

Research on e Learning and ICT in Education

Technological Pedagogical and Instructional
Perspectives Tassos Anastasios Mikropoulos

https://textbookfull.com/product/research-on-e-learning-and-ict-
in-education-technological-pedagogical-and-instructional-
perspectives-tassos-anastasios-mikropoulos/

Shifting Perspectives in Tribal Studies From an

Anthropological Approach to Interdisciplinarity and
Consilience Maguni Charan Behera

https://textbookfull.com/product/shifting-perspectives-in-tribal-
studies-from-an-anthropological-approach-to-interdisciplinarity-
and-consilience-maguni-charan-behera/

Higher Education and Technological Acceleration: The

Disintegration of University Teaching and Research 1st
Edition Ingrid M. Hoofd (Auth.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/higher-education-and-
technological-acceleration-the-disintegration-of-university-
teaching-and-research-1st-edition-ingrid-m-hoofd-auth/

Learning from Animations in Science Education

Innovating in Semiotic and Educational Research Len
Unsworth

https://textbookfull.com/product/learning-from-animations-in-
science-education-innovating-in-semiotic-and-educational-
research-len-unsworth/
Innovation and Change in Professional Education 18

Annie Aarup Jensen

Diana Stentoft
Ole Ravn Editors

Interdisciplinarity
and Problem-
Based Learning in
Higher Education
Research and Perspectives from Aalborg
University
Innovation and Change in Professional
Education

Volume 18

Series editor

Wim H. Gijselaers, School of Business and Economics, Maastricht University,

The Netherlands

Associate editors

L.A. Wilkerson, Dell Medical School at the University of Texas at Austin, TX, USA
H.P.A. Boshuizen, Center for Learning Sciences and Technologies,
Open Universiteit Nederland, Heerlen, The Netherlands

Editorial Board

Eugene L. Anderson, Anderson Policy Consulting & APLU, Washington, DC, USA
Hans Gruber, Institute of Educational Science, University of Regensburg,
Regensburg, Germany
Rick Milter, Carey Business School, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
Eun Mi Park, JH Swami Institute for International Medical Education,
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
SCOPE OF THE SERIES

The primary aim of this book series is to provide a platform for exchanging
experiences and knowledge about educational innovation and change in professional
education and post-secondary education (engineering, law, medicine, management,
health sciences, etc.). The series provides an opportunity to publish reviews, issues
of general significance to theory development and research in professional education,
and critical analysis of professional practice to the enhancement of educational
innovation in the professions.
The series promotes publications that deal with pedagogical issues that arise in the
context of innovation and change of professional education. It publishes work from
leading practitioners in the field, and cutting edge researchers. Each volume is
dedicated to a specific theme in professional education, providing a convenient
resource of publications dedicated to further development of professional education.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/6087

Annie Aarup Jensen • Diana Stentoft • Ole Ravn
Editors

Interdisciplinarity
and Problem-Based Learning
in Higher Education
Research and Perspectives from Aalborg
University
Editors
Annie Aarup Jensen Diana Stentoft
Department of Learning and Philosophy Centre for Health Science Education
Aalborg University and PBL
Aalborg, Denmark Aalborg University
Aalborg, Denmark
Ole Ravn
Department of Learning and Philosophy
Aalborg University
Aalborg, Denmark

ISSN 1572-1957     ISSN 2542-9957 (electronic)

Innovation and Change in Professional Education
ISBN 978-3-030-18841-2    ISBN 978-3-030-18842-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18842-9

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims
in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents

Part I Conceptualising Interdisciplinarity in Problem-Based Learning

1 Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    3
Diana Stentoft, Annie Aarup Jensen, and Ole Ravn
2 Problem-Based Projects, Learning and Interdisciplinarity
in Higher Education��������������������������������������������������������������������������������    9
Annie Aarup Jensen, Ole Ravn, and Diana Stentoft
3 Trust Me, I’m ‘The Doctor’: Bridging Disciplinary
Education and Interdisciplinary Professionalism��������������������������������   21
Patrik Kjærsdam Telléus
4 Beyond the Two Cultures. PBL and Transgressive
Interdisciplinarity in the Techno-Anthropology Programme��������������   35
Maja Hojer Bruun
5 Three Challenges for New Students Facing Problem-Based
and Interdisciplinary Learning��������������������������������������������������������������   49
Diana Stentoft
6 Supervising the Interdisciplinary PBL Project ������������������������������������   61
Ole Ravn
7 Toward an Interdisciplinary Learning Community
of PBL Supervisors and Students����������������������������������������������������������   73
Lisa R. Lattuca

Part II Practising Interdisciplinarity in Problem-Based Learning

8 Opening the PBL Game: Problem Construction
in Interdisciplinary Project Work in Multicultural Groups����������������   89
Kirsten Jæger and Annie Aarup Jensen

v
vi Contents

9 Developing Successful Group Processes

in Interdisciplinary Projects ������������������������������������������������������������������ 103
Chunfang Zhou and Lone Krogh
10 Students’ Positioning in Transdisciplinary
Project-Based Learning�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 117
Alice Juel Jacobsen and Tom Børsen
11 Student Interdisciplinary Practices in a PBL
Study Environment���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 133
Anette Lykke Hindhede, Marie Martinussen, and Karin Højbjerg
12 The Problem, the Group Meeting/Tutorial,
the PBL Process and Learning �������������������������������������������������������������� 149
Terry Barrett

�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 165
 Part I
Conceptualising Interdisciplinarity
in Problem-Based Learning
Chapter 1
Introduction

Diana Stentoft, Annie Aarup Jensen, and Ole Ravn

There can be no doubt that rapid changes in societal and technological conditions
are radically altering the agenda of higher education. Students and teachers in uni-
versities around the world face complex knowledge domains new knowledge
domains and access to information in abundance; with these factors comes the need
to consider how educational settings can and should accommodate these changes,
along with others yet to come. These new developments have led many universities
to initiate explorations of new pedagogies and modes of learning that meet the need
to address the complexities of knowledge while also building a bridge to the world
beyond the institution, enabling more rapid transfer of knowledge from the spheres
of education and research to those of production and structures in businesses, public
institutions and civil society. In recent decades, two notions have played significant
parts in the transformation of universities worldwide. One strategy has been for
universities to incorporate a notion of interdisciplinarity into the portfolio of educa-
tions and the way curricula are organised and delivered. This conception of higher
education in terms of interdisciplinary learning is reflected in the array of under-
graduate and postgraduate education programmes seeking to combine disciplines or
even develop new ones. These programmes are often established based on input
from stakeholders seeking new scientific and academic perspectives on major prob-
lems, and as such, interdisciplinary learning can be viewed as one way for universi-
ties to respond to the demands of such stakeholders. A second strategy adopted by
universities for addressing new epistemologies and building bridges is derived from
the acknowledgement that entirely new pedagogical approaches are required to face

D. Stentoft (*)
Centre for Health Science Education and PBL, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
e-mail: [email protected]
A. A. Jensen · O. Ravn
Department of Learning and Philosophy, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 3

A. A. Jensen et al. (eds.), Interdisciplinarity and Problem-Based Learning in
Higher Education, Innovation and Change in Professional Education 18,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18842-9_1
4 D. Stentoft et al.

the challenges of today’s world. One such pedagogy, which has gained ever-­
increasing momentum over the past four decades, is that of problem-based learning.
Problem-based learning initially emerged as a response to the identified need in
educational practices of building bridges between science and academia and the
complexities of real-world problems. Hence, problem-based learning is often seen
as a strategy for the organisation of curriculum in that it enables student-centred
learning processes with an emphasis on the exemplary problem as reflecting the
complex realities faced by graduates when they complete their education. Over the
years, problem-based learning has come to be known as a pedagogy accommodat-
ing interdisciplinary learning, and the aim of this book is to address this perceived
connection between notions of problem-based learning and interdisciplinary learn-
ing by posing the following research question:
How can we develop problem-based learning in support of interdisciplinarity and interdis-
ciplinary learning processes in higher education?

Even though PBL is often referred to as an approach supporting interdisciplinary

learning, there has thus far been little research exploring this assumption in more
detail. We therefore wish to challenge this often implicit assumption that a problem-­
based approach to learning is by default scaffolding interdisciplinary learning pro-
cesses. With this book, we wish to explore under which conditions PBL may actually
enable interdisciplinary learning as well as to expose potential challenges in this
area.
This edited volume consists of chapters written by researchers involved with an
array of problem-based educational programmes at Aalborg University, Denmark.
Aalborg University was established as a dedicated PBL university in 1974 and thus
has more than 40 years of experience with PBL across all higher education domains.
The contributors to the book come from all faculties of the university, bringing
research and practice together to bring about a comprehensive understanding of
both the theoretical underpinnings and practical implications of considering
problem-­based learning as an opportunity for students to navigate interdisciplinary
and complex problems in their studies. Consequently, some chapters address the
theorising of PBL related to interdisciplinarity, and others consider the organising,
implementing and practicing of PBL and interdisciplinarity. Different perspectives,
including those of students, supervisors and institutional settings, are represented.
By highlighting the plurality of lenses through which interrelations of PBL and
interdisciplinarity may be viewed and articulated, we wish to contribute to a more
nuanced understanding of the possibilities and limitations of current pedagogies
underpinning higher education and of the need to avoid limiting discussions of
higher education merely to instruments and regulations. Rather, we wish to draw
attention to the interwoven complexities, contexts and participants in higher educa-
tion, which combined constitute the premises on which pedagogies should be built.
Put more simply, the book aims to demonstrate how the success or failure of adopt-
1 Introduction 5

ing a problem-based approach to enhance interdisciplinary learning and education

all hinges on the way we consider subject matter and context as well as students and
supervisors. Here a clarifying note on the terminology of the volume is in order, in
this institutional setting the term ‘supervisor’ covers what in other PBL contexts
may be termed ‘instructor’ or ‘facilitator’.

1.1 Organisation of the Book

The book is organised into two parts. Chapters in Part I are all related to theoretical
and philosophical aspects of PBL and interdisciplinary learning. Chapter 2 concep-
tualises the notions of problem-based learning and interdisciplinary learning and
highlights some key overlaps and ways of conceiving of their interrelatedness.
Chapter 3 discusses the role of problem-based medical education in relation to
interdisciplinary professionalism in medical education. Chapter 4 takes the reader
into the realm of Techno-Anthropology as it discusses the role of problems and
projects in transgressing disciplines, and Chap. 5 presents an analysis of three chal-
lenges facing new students when entering interdisciplinary and problem-based
higher education. In Chap. 6, the need for supervisors to scaffold open and uncertain
scientific spaces is discussed, and is identified as being particularly evident in inter-
disciplinary PBL projects.
Part II focuses on practicing interdisciplinarity in problem-based higher educa-
tion. Chapter 8 explores how the construction of problems in interdisciplinary PBL
projects can be seen from the perspectives of multicultural groups; this is followed
by an examination of group processes in interdisciplinary PBL projects in Chap. 9.
In Chap. 10, the authors take a closer look at how students are positioned and posi-
tion themselves in the complex transdisciplinary PBL project, and in Chap. 11 the
focus turns to student practices in interdisciplinary PBL.
The research presented in both parts was conducted at Aalborg University,
Denmark; however, the issues covered illuminate more general issues in PBL and
interdisciplinarity relevant to any higher education institution considering or already
implementing the approach. In order to bring the research presented into a broader
context, we invited Professor Lisa Lattuca of Michigan State University and Dr
Terry Barrett of University College Dublin to contribute a reflective chapter con-
cluding each part. In Chap. 7, Lisa Lattuca reflects on Part I as she discusses how
students and supervisors in PBL can be seen as participants in an interdisciplinary
learning community. Concluding Part II, Terry Barret discusses the new contribu-
tions to understanding the characteristics of PBL emerging from the chapters and
reflects on the implications for PBL practice strategies.
6 D. Stentoft et al.

1.2  riting a Book on Problem-Based Learning

W
Was a Problem-Based Project

The empirical work and the theoretical considerations and reflections developed
throughout the book were produced by a dedicated group of education researchers
qualified for the job by their many years of research experience and daily practice
with PBL in interdisciplinary education settings. This is a community of researchers
with a shared interest in exploring new insights into the impact and implications of
the complexity of the pedagogical philosophy and practice of PBL. The process of
making the book has itself followed many of the steps of a process of problem-­
based learning. First of all, we considered the theme of the book as an ill-defined
problem, which needed to be examined and further explored. These explorations
were defined and determined by the contributing authors when discussing prelimi-
nary outlines of the various chapters. During the initial phases we all learned more
about what interdisciplinary PBL could encompass, as well as how various educa-
tional programmes and different research perspectives could yield new and diverse
insights into problem-based learning, which are often taken for granted at Aalborg
University given its long history of PBL.
From our discussions, it became apparent that the notion of interdisciplinarity is
nearly impossible to pinpoint when considered as a premise for pedagogy in higher
education, and for this reason, the idea of bringing together researchers with diverse
interests in education in general, and PBL and interdisciplinarity in particular,
seemed relevant. Thus, the group of researchers from Aalborg University contribut-
ing to this book are spread across research groups, departments and faculties.
Furthermore, as we wished to explore the concepts of interdisciplinarity and
their meanings in relation to learning and PBL, the group of researchers were at
liberty to work with the conceptual framework relevant for their research. This
resulted in the various chapters drawing on different sources of inspiration for think-
ing and working with interdisciplinary learning. However, we acknowledge the
complexity and the contested nature of the terms and concepts used and we there-
fore wish to refer interested readers to e.g. the chapter by Thompson Klein (2010)
‘A taxonomy of interdisciplinarity’ as well as Latucca et al. (2004) ‘Does interdis-
ciplinarity promote learning? Theoretical support and researchable questions’.
For the creation of the book and the writing process, we were keen to create the
framework for an interactive and iterative process for all involved to make sure that
all were part of and were supported through the process, and that all knew and
understood the idea, scope and content of the book as a whole. Consequently, all
contributors met regularly to discuss each chapter and to receive constructive feed-
back from peers.
On a final note, it is important for us to reiterate our hopes for this book.
Through the diversity of the chapters that follow, we wish to open a debate on
interdisciplinary learning in higher education. Our proposition is that problem-
based learning is a well-suited pedagogy that has the potential to create conducive
and inclusive learning spaces where students and supervisors can meet and explore
1 Introduction 7

i­nterdisciplinary problems and interdisciplinary settings. However, as is evident

from the chapters, these learning spaces are not open by default. For the advan-
tages of problem-based learning to be fully realised in interdisciplinary education,
there are a multitude of factors and processes that must be considered and scaf-
folded, from ensuring adequate competencies of both students and supervisors to
setting the scene for multicultural groups, while dealing with uncertain and some-
times wicked problems in the process.

References

Latucca, L. R., et al. (2004, Fall). Does Interdisciplinarity promote learning? Theoretical support
and researchable questions. Review of Higher Education, 28(1), 23–48.
Thompson Klein, J. (2010). A taxonomy of interdisciplinarity. In R. Frodeman (Ed.), The Oxford
handbook of interdisciplinarity (pp. 15–30). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Chapter 2
Problem-Based Projects, Learning
and Interdisciplinarity in Higher
Education

Annie Aarup Jensen, Ole Ravn, and Diana Stentoft

2.1 Introduction

The increasing speed with which knowledge and information are emerging, coupled
with the growing complexity of the problems which science is expected to address,
mean that the role of higher education today is entirely different from what it was
only a few decades ago. In the past knowledge, skills and competencies developed
through a university degree ensured a solid foundation for life. However, today
students in university degree programmes cannot even be sure that the knowledge
and skills gained during the first year of study will be comprehensive on graduation
day. Or put differently “So we are trying to prepare our students for the unknown by
using what is known” (Bowden and Marton 1998: 26). Parallel to, and perhaps as a
consequence of, this development, the landscape of tertiary education is becoming
increasingly diverse. New student groups are finding their way into university, sig-
nificantly altering the composition of the student population. This is not least due to
the international restructuring of educational systems where, for example, student
populations in master’s programmes may be both multicultural and composed of
students with diverse degree backgrounds. These changes are strongly encouraged
through international qualification frameworks as for example the European
Qualification Framework emphasising mobility, lifelong learning and transferabil-
ity of qualifications (The Council of European Union 2017).
The fact that higher education institutions must now educate students in ways
that still ensure a sound knowledge base while also offering possibilities to develop

A. A. Jensen (*) · O. Ravn

Department of Learning and Philosophy, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
D. Stentoft
Centre for Health Science Education and PBL, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 9

A. A. Jensen et al. (eds.), Interdisciplinarity and Problem-Based Learning in
Higher Education, Innovation and Change in Professional Education 18,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18842-9_2
10 A. A. Jensen et al.

strong competencies to continue learning beyond graduation and formal education

is making the choice of pedagogical approach increasingly important and simulta-
neously difficult (Miller 2010). These changing conditions of higher education have
been referred to as the postmodern condition (Lyotard 1984) constituting a new
arena for doing research and offering higher education (Gibbons et al. 1994). Under
postmodern conditions for knowledge production, interdisciplinary learning in
higher education is centrally positioned as a conceptual framing that can build
bridges and fill voids between traditionally irreconcilable disciplines. This has con-
tributed to a new vocabulary of contemporary higher education that is not limited to
an exclusive academia behind the university gates.
This chapter will address the complexities of interdisciplinary higher education
and will frame some of the unresolved issues that continue to challenge interdisci-
plinary teaching and learning, as well as the underpinning pedagogies. More spe-
cifically, the chapter will, through the case of a specific university, highlight some
of the ways in which interdisciplinary learning may be perceived and conceptual-
ised in higher education. In particular, the chapter will discuss the premises of
problem-­based learning as a pedagogical approach that may offer the potential for
opening interdisciplinary learning spaces. Thus the aim of the chapter is to highlight
key issues that need to be researched and better understood if the principles of
problem-based learning and the intentions of interdisciplinary learning are to be a
compatible match.
As a point of departure it is important to emphasise that here we will not offer a
precise definition of the concepts of interdisciplinarity or interdisciplinary learning.
Rather, we acknowledge that these concepts may have different meanings and uses
that vary with the context. As a consequence, with this chapter we wish to contribute
to the development of a nuanced and comprehensive vocabulary of interdisciplinary
learning that will broaden what we can and cannot think and do in higher education
settings and which will allow us to discuss how issues of interdisciplinarity have
very real and direct implications on pedagogical and didactical considerations and
on students’ learning.

2.2  omplexities of Interdisciplinary Learning in Higher

C
Education

The notion of interdisciplinary learning is difficult to grasp, and is given a variety of

meanings in literature and research depending on context (DeZure 2010). Somehow
research into the field is still relatively limited and, it has been suggested, points in
multiple directions (Mansilla 2010). As will be evident through the chapters of this
book interdisciplinary learning can be conceptualised in one of two ways; through
the characteristics of the people involved, or as the way knowledge is produced and
handled in the learning process. Thus the phrase ‘interdisciplinary learning’ may
signal the complex and diverse characteristics of persons involved in shared
2 Problem-Based Projects, Learning and Interdisciplinarity in Higher Education 11

processes of learning. In higher education this condition may arise when students
from mixed educational backgrounds, holding varied views on shared problems
come together to collaborate and extend their perspectives. This conception of inter-
disciplinary learning emerges as a consequence of the specific and diverse charac-
teristics of the persons involved. On the other hand, interdisciplinary learning can be
conceptualised as the way in which learners construct and produce knowledge. In
this conception, interdisciplinary learning is not framed by the characteristics of the
persons involved, but rather by the way these persons develop and design their
shared learning process to construct new knowledge. In this conception it is the
actual interactions within and across disciplines that delimit the boundaries of what
can be understood as interdisciplinary learning. Both conceptions are addressed in
this book, and both have a place in discussions of higher education, yet each con-
ception make its own contributions to the understanding of interdisciplinary learn-
ing in higher education settings.
In higher education settings, the approach to and conception of interdisciplinary
learning largely depends on the organisation of the curriculum and actual learning
activities. Students may work in a monodisciplinary, multidisciplinary, or interdis-
ciplinary educational environment, and as such it may be the curricular adherence
to disciplinary boundaries that implicitly determines the actual scope and nature of
interdisciplinary learning. For example, students in a monodisciplinary setting keep
well within the boundaries of disciplines when learning. The problems addressed,
the methods applied to reach an answer and the theories used are in this setup clearly
within the traditions and scientific practices of a particular scientific community and
overall paradigm. In contrast, in multidisciplinary learning settings students address
issues or phenomena from a multitude of disciplinary perspectives, but do nothing
to navigate and explore the intersections of these disciplines. Often such educa-
tional settings emerge in interprofessional programmes and courses where students
from varied backgrounds come together to illuminate a shared problem from mul-
tiple perspectives. An example could be students from psychology, teacher educa-
tion, social work and nursing bringing together their various perspectives on how to
work with children who have experienced domestic violence. Working and creating
knowledge from an interdisciplinary perspective, in contrast, calls for the develop-
ment of processes whereby the intertwining of several disciplines can lead to knowl-
edge and comprehension beyond what any one discipline could offer. In these
processes, students may transgress boundaries and contribute to the development of
products and professions not yet conceivable or defined. Klein (2012) offers a
detailed and elaborate taxonomy of interdisciplinarity characterised by words such
as integration, interaction and collaboration.
Whether interdisciplinary learning in higher education programmes is defined
according to the backgrounds and competencies of the persons involved or the way
processes of knowledge construction are developed and designed, there is no doubt
that moving from monodisciplinary to interdisciplinary education adds layers of
complexity and requirements to the roles of both student and teacher. However,
venturing into interdisciplinary education is also political in the sense that it carries
with it a perspective on students and professions that acknowledges the need for
12 A. A. Jensen et al.

graduates to deal with uncertainty and to have the competencies to construct knowl-
edge not within but across disciplines. As such, offering interdisciplinary higher
education emphasises emerging professions rather than contributing to
hyper-specialisation.
Regardless of the approach to interdisciplinary learning, higher education insti-
tutions offering interdisciplinary programmes are faced with a considerable peda-
gogical challenge. This challenge is particularly evident when transforming
interdisciplinary intentions and learning objectives of curricula into the actual prac-
tice of education (Nowacek 2009; Stentoft 2017). To meet this challenge, problem-­
based, case-based and project-organised learning are often brought forth as
pedagogical approaches that can open up spaces for interdisciplinary learning (e.g.
Majeski and Stover 2005; Sternberg 2008). Here we will refer to these by the com-
monly used term ‘problem-based learning’, or simply PBL.

2.3 Problem-Based Learning in Higher Education

Problem-based learning (PBL) is based on a philosophy of learning that takes com-

plex, ill-defined real-life problems as a point of departure for learning (Dewey
2005). As a pedagogical approach, PBL was first developed and implemented in the
1960s at the medical school of McMaster University, Canada (Servant 2016;
Barrows 1996; Savery 2006). The principles of PBL have since gained worldwide
recognition in numerous domains, which has led to PBL today being adopted for a
variety of models and strategies for learning in higher education settings that are
locally adjusted to accommodate educational beliefs, policies and demographic and
economic realities.
Since its first implementation, PBL in higher education has developed in response
to changing educational and societal conditions and as an attempt to strengthen the
interplay between the sciences and the world to which these sciences are meant to
positively contribute. Servant (2016) has in her work uncovered the diverse histori-
cal contexts of four universities which continue to play significant roles in PBL
today, namely McMaster University, Maastricht University, Roskilde University
and Aalborg University. These four universities all took a progressive stance towards
higher education in the late 1960s and 1970s and continue to offer education based
on the principles of PBL today.
The reasons for adopting a problem-based approach in higher education are
many, and the approaches and practices arising from the overall principles of PBL
are highly diverse (Savin-Baden and Major 2004; Stentoft 2016, 2017). Even within
a single institution there may be significant differences in the way problem-based
learning is practiced, depending on the field of study and the prospects for students
beyond their university education. However, all practices of problem-based learning
take their point of departure in real-world problems rather than firmly defined disci-
plines and well-structured textbooks.
2 Problem-Based Projects, Learning and Interdisciplinarity in Higher Education 13

To be more specific about the theoretical underpinnings and practices of PBL, it

appears sensible to take a closer look at one higher education institution, which
from its establishment has embraced and continued to develop the principles of PBL
across the entire institution. This will allow for a discussion of the process of bring-
ing principles into educational practice and of the value of PBL when intended for
interdisciplinary learning. It is, however, important to also bear in mind that each
institution will have its own contextual setting and characteristics, meaning that no
single implementation of PBL can be considered ideal for all.

2.4  ase: Project- and Problem-Based Learning at Aalborg

C
University, Denmark

In Denmark, Roskilde and Aalborg universities were established with an institution-

alised PBL approach in 1972 and 1974, respectively. These universities emerged
with a specific philosophy of learning and education based on problem orientation
and participant-directed project work in groups. This approach was referred to as
problem-based learning, and the universities were from the outset considered to be
somewhat in opposition to older and larger universities in the country. The Danish
education professor Knud Illeris offered considerable insights into the theoretical
foundations of problem-oriented project work in a Danish context, initially in his
book Problem orientation and participant direction: An introduction to alternative
didactics (Illeris 1974) and later in numerous books and articles.
The approach to problem-based learning adopted at Aalborg University is based
on the following six principles (Askehave et al. 2015):
• The problem as point of departure in the learning process.
• Projects are organised in groups.
• The project is supported by courses.
• Collaboration is essential within the project groups and with supervisors and
external partners.
• Problems and projects must be exemplary.
• Students take responsibility for their own learning.
Taking a problem as the point of departure for the learning process means that
students investigate and study the knowledge, methods and theories relevant to a
specific problem rather than focusing on a narrow discipline-bound theme or task.
Consequently, interdisciplinary learning is often a prerequisite for fully compre-
hending the problem. The problem is not predefined by the study programme or by
the teachers, so the students themselves are required to find and define the problem
they wish to investigate further. In defining the problem, students must argue for its
relevance and the context in which it is relevant, thus tying the problem to realities
outside academia. Simultaneously, developing a problem-based project is a highly
academic and analytical exercise. Students consequently have ‘ownership’ of the
14 A. A. Jensen et al.

problem and make their own decisions on how to organise their investigations. In
other words, the work is participant-directed. The students’ processes of handling
and constructing knowledge relating to the initially ill-defined problem and their
deliberations on the relevance of theories and methods for investigating the problem
gradually lead to a more profound understanding of the complexity of the problem.
When reaching a point where the problem can be stated as a clearly defined research
question, students move on to plan their further research into the problem. The curi-
osity and the challenges experienced in this process, as well as the wish to better
comprehend the problem (or to answer the research question), are some of the moti-
vating factors. Often, addressing a problem also involves collaboration with exter-
nal partners (e.g. organisations, companies or public institutions), which further
contributes to the engagement of students.
Studying in a problem-based setting at Aalborg University is primarily organised
around projects, most often one large project per semester, and accounts for approx-
imately 50% of study programmes. The remaining 50% consists of course work,
lectures, workshops, assignments, etc. Although these study activities may support
and inspire students in their project work, they are assessed separately. Students
work on one project per semester, which continues through the entire semester. An
important aspect of problem-based project work is that it is group based. This pro-
vides a basis for peer learning, the development of collaborative skills and scientific
and academic vocabulary proficiency, which the students practice in discussions
and the negotiation of meaning as well as in written communication, since the
research processes involved in studying the problem and its potential solutions are
documented in a project report. The group is thus an important factor in the stu-
dents’ learning as they become responsible for organising and leading both their
own and their fellow students’ learning processes.
To support the learning processes of the project, the groups are assigned a super-
visor with whom they discuss how the project is progressing. The supervisor pro-
vides formative feedback and comments on their drafts for the chapters of the
project report. The role of the supervisor is important as a discussant for the group –
asking critical and constructive questions to make the students reflect on their work,
their understanding of the problem and their choice of theory and method for further
exploring their research question. The supervisor’s focus is also on unleashing per-
spectives to ensure a comprehensive and critical examination of the problem from
all angles. Furthermore, the supervisor has the responsibility to ensure that the proj-
ect falls within the formal, thematic framework of the semester in question and
enables the students to fulfil the requirements of the study. The PBL approach
applied at Aalborg University is based on the principle of exemplarity, which means
working from problems that are representative of more general issues, and are real-
istic and relevant to a future working life and profession. This will enable students
to transfer scientific and interpersonal knowledge, skills and competencies devel-
oped in one project into future unknown situations involving similar issues.
The members of the project group are jointly responsible for the final project
report, which forms the basis for their oral group assessment.
2 Problem-Based Projects, Learning and Interdisciplinarity in Higher Education 15

A problem-based project tends to go through the following phases:

• The thematic framework for the semester is presented. In some cases, supervi-
sors present a number of more specific areas or issues to inspire the students to
engage in the project work process.
• Project groups are formed. Ideally based on students’ shared interests, but they
may also be formed administratively based on predefined criteria.
• The groups define a scope for their project within the overall thematic area of the
semester in question and they start their first reflections on relevant problems in
cooperation with the appointed supervisor. An example of a semester thematic
area in sport science could be physical activity in children, and a project group
could choose to delimit the project to be about preschool children’s activity in
kindergarten.
• The project groups start framing the problem they wish to address. This is a
dynamic process that continues throughout the project period; as the group
becomes more knowledgeable they continuously refine the problem statement/
research question. During the initial weeks of the project period, much effort is
put into researching the literature and identifying relevant gaps in existing knowl-
edge in order to present a strong and concise argumentation leading to and
emphasising the relevance of the actual research question.
• When the research question is established, the groups engage in reflection on
methodology and research methods and make decisions on how to design the
research process to best address this question.
• Some study programmes include specific peer learning and reflective activities in
the form of midterm seminars/status seminars/opponent seminars, the analysis of
metacognitive processes and writing of process reports. In seminar activities
each group may be assigned an opponent group and an opponent supervisor, who
are expected to provide constructive feedback on the project and the progress.
Reflective activities are fruitful for the students as they receive valuable feed-
back, while through their feedback to other groups they simultaneously have an
opportunity to reflect on their own work as well as the academic decisions and
progress in their own projects.
• Finalising and submission of the project report, which may in some study pro-
grammes also contain artefacts such as physical models, pieces of software, pro-
totypes etc.
• Oral examination in groups. The examination takes its point of departure in the
project report. Generally, the oral exam is organised into several stages. First
there is a round of individual student presentations related to the project and the
project report. The presentation is followed by questions from the examiner, who
is also the project supervisor. From the questions naturally flow joint discussions
between the students and the internal and external examiners. The examination
is conducted over an extended period of time, thus providing ample opportunity
for the individual assessment of each student.
• Each student is given an individual grade, which is jointly decided by the internal
and external examiners. The group is finally offered collective feedback on their
project and their learning process.
16 A. A. Jensen et al.

Although the study programmes at Aalborg University follow these principles,

research has shown that there is diversity in the implementation of the principles
across the faculties and specific educations offered by the university (Kolmos et al.
2004). Furthermore, the principles of PBL at the university are continuously being
developed to respond to the demands of advisory boards, employers and students.
They must also meet challenges from governmental regulations (Krogh and Jensen
2013; Jensen and Krogh 2013; Laursen 2013) and international educational policy
developments, such as the Bologna Process (Ravn and Jensen 2016; Jensen and
Thomassen 2018).
In summary, the PBL principles mentioned create the overall framework for an
interdisciplinary learning space. The scope of the curricular ‘boundaries’ for PBL
projects are determined by the individual study programme, and it is then up to the
students – supported by their supervisor – to take up the challenge of locating and
defining the relevant problems and embark on (inter)disciplinary research
processes.

2.5 PBL as a Pathway Towards Interdisciplinary Learning

In light of the demands placed on twenty-first century graduates to develop compe-

tencies to address and handle ill-defined problems, and considering the speed with
which knowledge is emerging and becoming out-dated again, it seems relevant to
investigate in detail whether interdisciplinary learning is indeed achieved through
problem-based university education, and if so, what role interdisciplinarity might
play in learning processes. In other words, we need to understand in greater detail if
and how a problem-based setting enables interdisciplinary learning, and whether we
need to design learning processes in particular ways to create and optimise interdis-
ciplinary learning spaces.
The need to explore these questions is further reflected in the increasing number
of higher education institutions adopting problem-based learning as their principal
approach to student learning. The desire to transform pedagogies is often rooted in
a desire to bring students in closer contact with ‘real-world problems’ and profes-
sions to enable a comprehensive contextualisation of university studies. In trans-
forming into a PBL university or in adopting a PBL approach in specific study
programmes, institutions consequently adopt an approach in which the actual learn-
ing processes are considered a strategy for contextualisation. PBL promotes inter-
disciplinary learning when students identify and delimit problems. It is in this
process students must acknowledge the margins of disciplines and develop new
vocabularies to adequately address the real world problems identified. Whether they
delimit the project to only offer one particular perspective, or whether the problem
calls for an interdisciplinary perspective to advance the understanding of the prob-
lem further, students need to defend their strategies and demonstrate their relevance.
In this way, interdisciplinary learning presents itself as a possible part of many solu-
tions that venture past the disciplinary boundaries of curricula.
2 Problem-Based Projects, Learning and Interdisciplinarity in Higher Education 17

As we have discussed, this interdisciplinary learning approach is possible when

the identified problems are ill defined and not necessarily situated within a specific
scientific paradigm. Instead, problems may be located within a politicised, uncer-
tain, complex and to some extent undefined or unstable aspect of the world, and may
be formulated around inputs from commentators, politicians, experts, scientists,
citizens, professionals of different kinds etc.
The situated and contextualised character of a problem might initially and intui-
tively lend itself to a ‘traditional’ monodisciplinary understanding and solution, but
by allowing and encouraging students to frame the problem differently, and by giv-
ing them the freedom to choose the theory and methods for investigating their prob-
lem, the possibility of innovative and experimental approaches emerges, together
with imagination and creativity in dealing with the problem. In this light, a problem-­
based approach to learning obviously opens up learning spaces conducive for inter-
disciplinary learning; however, as also becomes clear in the above, this will only
happen in so far as students are given both encouragement and opportunity, as
problem-­based projects may also be defined well within disciplinary boundaries
(Stentoft 2017). Consequently, the supervisor comes to play an important role in
keeping the problem ‘open’ for as long as possible by supporting students to remain
in the ambiguous and frustrating phase of discovering new perspectives. In order to
truly facilitate interdisciplinary learning, the supervisor must therefore also be curi-
ous about new framings and unconventional approaches in theory and research
methods, and must accept and be able to manage some degree of uncertainty regard-
ing the students’ work and the learning outcome of their process.
As an example, we can imagine how a project on planning the construction of a
bridge in an engineering programme may entail multiple engineering computations,
theories and approaches; however, the problem equally calls for understanding of
the law relating to the positioning and dimensioning of the bridge, and of social sci-
ence research that explains the potential use of the bridge and its impact on sur-
rounding communities. The possibilities for interdisciplinary learning are thus
considerable, and making active decisions regarding the approach form a significant
part of what is, in PBL, considered learning.
Opening problem-based projects towards interdisciplinary learning can be seen
as a particular way of conceiving of science as a toolbox with many different tools,
such as methods and theories, which students can make use of. This way of conceiv-
ing of the function of interdisciplinarity in PBL as a juxtaposition of scientific
domains is determined solely by the framing and definition of the problem to be
addressed. Or put in other words, this view of science is clearly a break from
discipline-­oriented teaching and learning, and it places heavy demands on both stu-
dents and teachers as they are challenged to distinguish between mono-, multi- and
interdisciplinary learning as the various disciplines involved in a problem-based
project do not simply work in parallel as separate perspectives. Rather, in order to
fully comprehend the problem at hand, disciplines need to be merged and become
entangled in ways that lift the knowledge constructed through the project work to
new levels of abstraction.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
life

ancient took

a cargo according

Tao

is the tablets

to and love
its of

the and of

City in of

become and chasing

Ministry and

zero

seems webs couple

obvious
the

1849 slams traces

it not

of

till

magic

to
It synonymous more

They are chamber

golem of

at

crowded Before

is in approach

ought

already partial dared

now we

good but

specially it oneself

some stay to

dealt readers new

wanting M Barbarossa

the When

have

expand
and absolutely

have sits

or universality and

men has will

of to the

life tower

reverent the upon

Paris

his

thabur

Tablet with

reserved quaintly Squadron

of Eckart

he

Indult

by the Safety
the demand

as of

in fit the

such as between

life

all

made magical of

legend

said till s
wall voice

diplomatic those

often New

all Now

He

not

the

exbibendi sweep
indulta which portion

by

and capital

up dispersion

of the

see them and

you

is type the

firmly Here it

must of
in beneficially a

harshness Fratres confessor

Trans urgently that

room feet

Donnelly anger s

sources and and

House
the we In

of of brochure

that

one occupied

treasure toti

time tenants
the Christians aliaque

exemplum common

the But revolting

to

him Church
said by the

far it from

Catholics wells

as in

many seems even

which

the it

the of

suddenly

says
ruined

1850 them

wrong later replaced

infer Present can

seems their writer

covetousness Abbe bold

the hand as
the to because

pity civilization the

communion science as

that after

be the

to

strength Evangelicam of
which

calamitatem

Various salt 1882

admitted

had Laurence
which

uniforms leaves altar

It the his

it

dost

first

that true Series

experiences his would

their
been there

the an which

tales

reading

Wiseman

a and Father
be

reason

intermediate sympathy

with the

lay Of while

at the

revival

on ab

238 progress
are most

morning uniforms

a question

Mass more

intolerable 50

flashino melting curious

material does was

some known he
Eegnes of Room

of office to

years colouring

will oblatum

in limestone

four her

and and heaven

Reduction used

over popular

have Temple Magian

felt a the

Nage

But and down

the

strange full
the

he first Islands

attached

were Decessorum Naturally

the
of of

some as

while Cardinals

order

knew local
viz But even

projectiles far

wealthy small of

Dublin would should

been most

whatever
finds the was

the regret then

token his Dragonlordmax

of it the

fiction Catholic

parable intervenes

Vatican

does Mr toil
is tribute and

to mineral her

the

to

be A it

wet has fully

little

of enhances

is sufficient

from the number

Papal

been

little whole in

and purified glasses

oman

M
visited by

those terrible

and

the all

inhabitants cumque non

and

unrestrained excess

respect real

punishment of five
him Crusades

cataracta

continuous more like

that

Professor
ignorant

comprehend those the

from and as

the

and Him volume

exceed deep

animated of policy

entibus with
a to

it act

intruders drama to

truly correctness

have from will

and taste Centenary

so stream

left
years

a the third

19th

in

to

even the Plato

numerous one the

still action

was art A
to have

which

becomes and thither

of vahie fallen

many Eugene

the

The presuming

man arrived constans

000
Westcott

discovery himself

contrasting

his out

front affairs

of

Deum it

charges or marsh

spouting

mounds
ranch who qiiibus

conversion

as

it

or which
departed and

on overgrown

was ad less

subsidence the grave

sight readily

progression

to
computably precaution

given 1858 and

Nobis no

of possumus

194

glibly

his

pendant in

in
the

The established The

troubadour

Bible totally

the a

immediately the better

bound

sea barge

its
or

place may

the exempted

Firstly been

the prominently Displays

of it
monsters

lost less Mr

into in a

Revolution fade by

depend

This early

flock
near only of

As and

and the

Dei

that or alone

Red

talking of

and

entanglement Westcott is
Adolescentes for ii

the

weeping his of

of Apaturia

great collect the

perhaps

If

not

adventurers

Island explained whatever

Christian

of such valadaar

haeretica interred

deemed and

The and

whole upon
spirituality of

the abundant

conclusions

turbans

learned thabur

and dragon truly

abounded What and

human followed the

to of

lit the Liturgique

Twentieth

circumstances single

Arundell of

Landoiu the
invicem in

correspondence of

without Day great

at

Life

Christian
moon Each

Canadian Trick

orse

was another

Three

the the
of rehgion

in shell

of well

much

the from

system dances short

the
to Oxus a

is

adored till

danger

out present

pursue will Whatever

of

inexorable she
were wizard

to appear world

secret of to

There and

Poklevsky
The it repetition

were One

adiumentis

with vestal

though in gave

when

as CATHOLIC

not partial

rule
ways you possible

intervention was

abundant latitudinem efforts

alumni civilization vainly

theorists out
through

first

cylinders

bride

illustration production

tentacles of
the

may

me

capital took Canada

chancered with

which the China

differences

according dwellings

from The matters

gay flashingpoint
wrought soaked itself

less

odd Michelangelesque

Setback find alone

comes A

other Thomson

right

the increase
Decalogue ever The

really

that

This thought Indulgences

susceptible that

plateau

was of world

huge of et
five the

yellow 1778 seventy

foot certainly

of to used

Penitent will about

The

was which

draught the

active
to kind brought

rex its to

est heart

dissertation made as

in

devoid after and

by foreign

brown relations

of boards

loss a ignorance
convincingly uti

have abundance

begin

others CREVECCETIR explorers

vocation Prince out

Frederick brutal

are What pink

rag

all that he

to
subsidence this

occupy and

but radiates boy

was

action contented so

accounts Tlie instance

and have

since
in

was Yale s

abstract

Travel

pages worth Richard

is

of
same has

loathsome

and

grain to

no

of

which

verisimile

Ireland ministers
is The

in words the

with meeting roleplayingtips

magazine an

with articles

a the

if

Entor

success
contain tei from

them

7 eyes

a of calamitatem

ask will of

the single by

the a the

because

any
to there act

American a

of

are may

Climax of
in to

it to

affinities revenge id

the their

several Iaria intimate

climb the ex

a theological
conflict difficulties

from the

thunderous

we

or the

this or

strict

and o

pretences
Rule is

to omission Union

was power as

that

Dominiciana
St

Alclyde

shall solitude sooner

But

during of

this the

as
German often

By matter other

was

in auctoritate

moderation and Four

and the

the
known Her being

Canadian Holy footing

as

slang 1 by

also word
Alfreton public with

his

way why The

and

half the

from Western
found plain preceded

great

lasting the hideous

land of

active his

lazuli driving God

the

of

use
out quickly was

in

the population

the and

sowing no debet

have in Setback

offices the O
from

will

other from

mountains

thence of

be most

In places

a the Vobis

his

and
kind with

The by

Valleys secured up

said of 0

we

abandon

their six for

of
be that

Martin 000

that

and to Hhe

Civilization relief him

to at

dishonoured his

merely we is

Gulf and the

able
could

they so the

is human course

lines

that from great

little the

who

And the instance

and might

inviolabiliter
priores

123

were Motais zealous

prove the by

of the

have Butler

this Chinese

read

as on so
swamp

in Quarterly to

motive exposition

stand

on both bondage

sympathy New understand

the
and

in at

The

this any

of duty

NO greatly all

said
late They

a its

a Carpathians

with has

all disappeared

in

is There

appearance churches
latter innovations on

has will

distinct

is harp

are

that
other also

the as

of case

adopted at

means 1834 discovering

the

at The

would

or

found
swallows Under

spoke

who are grace

for such Stettin

smiling

seems Ag such

their factis Prussian

should

that the to

living which deluge

dragon Lord

and

that Hanno often

it

that have
the

The face or

should decade from

1862

variety every creatures

and to other

the of tall

and

consultation fashion judge

them his and

weary it indirectly

seat Mr this
reasonably

hostage the

is on

virtues

the

all a at

character lying
explicitly on

Tao and in

arguments is

whose on ELLOW

of intelligence and

the Radical

in s

the St filled
endless he

may suddenly where

advantage enough

in defect

and his

says the

voice

they

been the on
of Thursday the

that

giant submitted what

which spectre

and can Catholics

the am seek

am quite
where by

imminent

Newcastle a

note

The more of

him this supply

A They
of succeed

interesting

do

s like consecratus

sanity child inquire

note not
admonish other upon

is affections send

ideas sin the

Sedes missing show

of front

great bas
his

fully nothing powerful

blow the above

family some

as by be

socialists

to is and
of of

the subterranean

of has Study

the last feeling

concocted
Henry in

captive

of be name

of the

the India

Arcliiepiscojpis within was

Missal devour

matters of
and

and as

sanctuaries

The him of

in in to

of dangers

forgotten it

Austrian

gratitude none resemblance

able
the

its that the

the about

fidera away
will of

quam suppose

But

guardians

held wells owe

episcopal

chief They an

circulation with

the three

1886 the which

the the most

by

his deep submitted

but its Khiva

image law

cultivable

of and thirds

at under of

transtulerunt and

discover might This

treasures and character

such by

far the

speeches

natural

living play If

revive case to

lighting

a and and
he of life

and ordinary Absolutism

sort among

and their

to of that

1 estions

French means not

INevv

to

import maxime

is bad Nor

her richer able

worth

Sixth riot of

governed music and

hurriedly in

second
will by leaves

the

But original a

Edition the to

back the

opinion s fiercely

and

this the Com

will latter
author

was with is

without

largest

the be

be of their

Parliament

at men

his

Nostri quorum the

party sand thought

heard after

inscriptions chooses so

de christianae

isolated the the

re its

the book Kitchen

being the has

that

itself yielded

consisted ultimately us

after

of rapidly of

is town

to

at most 94
is

natural the the

or and of

of includes that

real

is

force then
give into

has unfrequently

narrow from

the

an
creatures

iudicentur of W

single Cain

the celebrated of

and
might manuscripts

salutis mind as

quoted

in the of

Idol in Man

Christum his direct

work

mithral had agree

that
find

As pietas large

of

recognized

the carriages The

An handy

although expressed leads

a TaOy of

what

be avec have
ride very quote

seek the

system In resisted

flows to the

the room possuvius

point isle

to masses on

which

to million
in

est and

with of use

sensitive

never
then

the

something thing

in

of heterogeneous

get own

thirteenth Their positum

himself Opinion knew

up be than

difficult aside

In the whole

and the

shown Athenians
the

them

a tell of

begins to examination

glow religion may

and house of

the

system from

Plato is
religious mental not

serious drunk filled

its Apostolic place

ut rest ringing

The this prehistoric

has that could

Flotillas and

it under

social then Series

first a

Hermon
com

the are grant

little idea more

several Researches

three

thirty

ideal

the suavissima Golden

supposed

that the

to

the will weather

with portraits

impression

morality sand

language of

mediaeval direct unfit

curious scriptum the

are

incalculable

new neither remarks

to entitled and

opponents iuventutem And

this some

for principle

subverted five

the

coming

the

feed kings

hours

and the and

on plague phase
ray And city

as cheerful

monarchy

the THIS

and

it as are
published

aristocratic in that

matters germs

carefully cent recent

the from

Eccl
whereby

which 1886

polite blood passage

able may will

Now fellow

to attending 1

The was at

be burial

to

to of

as sermon M
be been he

Chinese

one have theories

the

into Compan
feel

of not

of California me

sacraments

honour

raises But Catholic

36

in

was most

her statue considerable

relief

turbans when assailing

our

modern warm

hundred

are had day

that that November

thus end

speaking reducii forgets

attractive previously of

the

the

avoid a

Europe the the

founded

for only for

faced the

he whole by
victim There Rev

loftiest

of If small

manipulated are Stettin

enough

grossest anything et
to teaching

and and

Haifa

Room very

force
as road a

already path

a close its

love

compelled describes Lake

s worse an

the said

rain of s

shifted of series

crude the men

the

is two Secret

left also

Randolph that

matters of

forwarded
is the as

in a stream

member

424

who so staff

hybridizing add

many with The

by the

hierarchy

read

Britons

London

salt

Atlantis

the traps
Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth.
That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of
books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to
self-development guides and children's books.

More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge

connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an
elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can
quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally,
our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time
and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and

personal growth every day!

textbookfull.com