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Handbook of Research
on E-Planning:
ICTs for Urban Development
and Monitoring

Carlos Nunes Silva

Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning
University of Lisbon, Portugal

InformatIon scIence reference

Hershey • New York
Director of Editorial Content: Kristin Klinger
Director of Book Publications: Julia Mosemann
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any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher.
Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Handbook of research on e-planning : ICTs for urban development and monitoring / Carlos Nunes Silva, editor.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Summary: "This book provides relevant theoretical perspectives on the use of ICT in Urban Planning as well as an updated
account of the most recent developments in the practice of e-planning in different regions of the world"- -Provided by publisher.
ISBN 978-1-61520-929-3 (hbk.) -- ISBN 978-1-61520-930-9 (ebook) 1. City planning--Information technology. 2. City
planning--Geographic information systems. 3. City planning--Citizen participation. I. Silva, Carlos Nunes.
HT166.H362 2010
307.1'216--dc22
2009040554

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the
authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
Editorial Advisory Board
Ari-Veikko Anttiroiko, University of Tampere, Finland
Roger Caves, San Diego State University, USA
Soon Ae Chun, City University of New York, USA
Morten Falch, University of Aalborg, Denmark
Lech J. Janczewski, The University of Auckland, New Zealand

List of Reviewers
Ian Bishop, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Angus Whyte, University of Edinburgh, UK
Richard E. Klosterman, University of Akron, USA
Tomas Ohlin, Linkoping University, Sweden
Richard Heeks, University of Manchester, UK
Shirin Madon, London School of Economics and Political Science, UK
Zorica Nedovic-Budic, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA
Rina Ghose, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, USA
Edward J. Malecki, The Ohio State University, USA
Hendrick Wagenaar, Leiden Universiteit, Netherlands
Anni Dugdale, University of Canberra, Australia
Clay Wescott, Asia Pacific Governance Institute, USA
Ramona McNeal, University of Northern Iowa, USA
James Stewart, University of Edinburgh, UK
Gabriel Dupuy, Université Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne, Paris
Gregory G. Curtin, University of Southern California, USA
Richard M. Levy, University of Calgary, Canada
Michael McCall, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico
Scott McQuire, University of Melbourne, Australia
Teal Triggs, University of the Arts London, UK
Rana Tassabehji, University of Bradford, UK
Ralf Klischewski, German University in Cairo - GUC, Egypt
Michael Flamm, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland
Bauke de Vries, Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands
Sarah Elwood, University of Washington, USA
Georg Aichholzer, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Austria
List of Contributors

Abdullah, Alias / International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia........................................... 435

Abdullah, Muhammad Faris / International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia .................... 435
Aikins, Stephen Kwamena / University of South Florida, USA ....................................................... 404
Al-Kodmany, Kheir / University of Illinois at Chicago, USA .......................................................... 143
Arnberger, Arne / University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Austria.................. 103
Åström, Joachim / Örebro University, Sweden ................................................................................. 237
Baum, Scott / Griffith University, Australia ...................................................................................... 324
Bolay, Jean-Claude / Ecole polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne EPFL, Switzerland ..................... 306
Borning, Alan / University of Washington, USA.................................................................................. 36
Bourdakis, Vassilis / University of Thessaly, Greece ........................................................................ 268
Camarda, Domenico / Technical University of Bari, Italy ............................................................... 195
Caperna, Antonio / Università degli Studi Roma Tre, Italy .............................................................. 340
Chen, Yun / University of Salford, UK................................................................................................. 36
Conroy, Maria Manta / The Ohio State University, USA ................................................................. 218
Deffner, Alex / University of Thessaly, Greece .................................................................................. 268
Döllner, Jürgen / Hasso-Plattner-Institute at University of Potsdam, Germany .............................. 120
Evans-Cowley, Jennifer / The Ohio State University, USA .............................................................. 218
Granberg, Mikael / Örebro University, Sweden ............................................................................... 237
Hamilton, Andy / University of Salford, UK ....................................................................................... 36
Horelli, Liisa / Helsinki University of Technology, Finland ................................................................ 58
Howell, Angela / Department of Defense, USA ................................................................................. 388
Jobst, Markus / Hasso-Plattner-Institute at University of Potsdam, Germany ................................ 120
Klessmann, Jens / Fraunhofer Institute for Open Communication Systems (FOKUS), Germany ... 252
Kubicek, Herbert / University of Bremen, Germany ........................................................................ 168
Lubanski, Olaf / Jobstmedia Präsentation Verlag, Austria............................................................... 120
Mahizhnan, Arun / National University of Singapore, Singapore.................................................... 324
Morgan-Morris, Vanessa / Constellation Energy and Community College
of Baltimore County, USA .............................................................................................................. 388
Nummi, Pilvi / Helsinki University of Technology, Finland ................................................................ 80
Pang, Les / University of Maryland University College, USA ........................................................... 388
Rantanen, Heli / Helsinki University of Technology, Finland ............................................................. 80
Reed, Darren J. / University of York, UK .......................................................................................... 365
Reichhart, Thomas / University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Austria ............. 103
Repetti, Alexandre / Ecole polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne EPFL, Switzerland ...................... 306
Silva, Carlos Nunes / Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning, University of Lisbon, Portugal ......1
Staffans, Aija / Helsinki University of Technology, Finland ............................................................... 80
Velibeyoglu, Koray / Izmir Institute of Technology, Turkey .............................................................. 420
Wallin, Sirkku / Helsinki University of Technology, Finland ............................................................. 58
Webster, Andrew / University of York, UK........................................................................................ 365
Wessels, Bridgette / University of Sheffield, UK ............................................................................... 286
Yigitcanlar, Tan / Queensland University of Technology, Australia ................................................... 15
Zahari, Rustam Khairi / International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia.............................. 435
Table of Contents

Preface . ................................................................................................................................................ xx

Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................ xxv

Section 1
Theory and Methods in E-Planning

Chapter 1
The E-Planning Paradigm-Theory, Methods and Tools: An Overview................................................... 1
Carlos Nunes Silva, Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning, University of Lisbon, Portugal

Chapter 2
Planning Online: A Community-Based Interactive Decision-Making Model....................................... 15
Tan Yigitcanlar, Queensland University of Technology, Australia

Chapter 3
Modelling & Matching and Value Sensitive Design: Two Methodologies for E-Planning
Systems Development............................................................................................................................ 36
Yun Chen, University of Salford, UK
Andy Hamilton, University of Salford, UK
Alan Borning, University of Washington, USA

Chapter 4
The Future-Making Assessment Approach as a Tool for E-Planning and Community
Development: The Case of Ubiquitous Helsinki................................................................................... 58
Liisa Horelli, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland
Sirkku Wallin, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland

Chapter 5
Local Internet Forums: Interactive Land Use Planning and Urban Development
in Neighbourhoods................................................................................................................................. 80
Aija Staffans, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland
Heli Rantanen, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland
Pilvi Nummi, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland
Chapter 6
Does Computer Game Experience Influence Visual Scenario Assessment of Urban
Recreational Paths? A Case Study Using 3-D Computer Animation .................................................. 103
Arne Arnberger, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Austria
Thomas Reichhart, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Austria

Chapter 7
Communicating Geoinformation Effectively with Virtual 3D City Models....................................... 120
Markus Jobst, Hasso-Plattner-Institute at University of Potsdam, Germany
Jürgen Döllner, Hasso-Plattner-Institute at University of Potsdam, Germany
Olaf Lubanski, Jobstmedia Präsentation Verlag, Austria

Chapter 8
Political Power, Governance, and E-Planning .................................................................................... 143
Kheir Al-Kodmany, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA

Section 2
Citizen Participation in E-Planning

Chapter 9
The Potential of E-Participation in Urban Planning: A European Perspective ................................... 168
Herbert Kubicek, University of Bremen, Germany

Chapter 10
Beyond Citizen Participation in Planning: Multi-Agent Systems for Complex
Decision-Making................................................................................................................................. 195
Domenico Camarda, Technical University of Bari, Italy

Chapter 11
The E-Citizen in Planning: U.S. Municipalities’ Views of Who Participates Online ......................... 218
Maria Manta Conroy, The Ohio State University, USA
Jennifer Evans-Cowley, The Ohio State University, USA

Chapter 12
Planners Support of E-Participation in the Field of Urban Planning .................................................. 237
Mikael Granberg, Örebro University, Sweden
Joachim Åström, Örebro University, Sweden

Chapter 13
Portals as a Tool for Public Participation in Urban Planning ............................................................. 252
Jens Klessmann, Fraunhofer Institute for Open Communication Systems (FOKUS), Germany
Chapter 14
Can Urban Planning, Participation and ICT Co-Exist? Developing a Curriculum and an
Interactive Virtual Reality Tool for Agia Varvara, Athens, Greece..................................................... 268
Vassilis Bourdakis, University of Thessaly, Greece
Alex Deffner, University of Thessaly, Greece

Chapter 15
The Role of Local Agencies in Developing Community Participation in E-Government
and E-Public Services ......................................................................................................................... 286
Bridgette Wessels, University of Sheffield, UK

Chapter 16
ICTs and Participation in Developing Cities ...................................................................................... 306
Alexandre Repetti, Ecole polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne EPFL, Switzerland
Jean-Claude Bolay, Ecole polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne EPFL, Switzerland

Chapter 17
Public Participation in E-Government: Some Questions about Social Inclusion
in the Singapore Model ....................................................................................................................... 324
Scott Baum, Griffith University, Australia
Arun Mahizhnan, National University of Singapore, Singapore

Section 3
Innovations and Challenges in Urban Management

Chapter 18
Integrating ICT into Sustainable Local Policies ................................................................................. 340
Antonio Caperna, Università degli Studi Roma Tre, Italy

Chapter 19
Architectures of Motility: ICT Systems, Transport and Planning for Complex Urban Spaces .......... 365
Darren J. Reed, University of York, UK
Andrew Webster, University of York, UK

Chapter 20
RFID in Urban Planning ..................................................................................................................... 388
Les Pang, University of Maryland University College, USA
Vanessa Morgan-Morris, Constellation Energy and Community College of Baltimore County, USA
Angela Howell, Department of Defense, USA

Chapter 21
E-Planning: Information Security Risks and Management Implications ........................................... 404
Stephen Kwamena Aikins, University of South Florida, USA
Chapter 22
E-Planning Applications in Turkish Local Governments ................................................................... 420
Koray Velibeyoglu, Izmir Institute of Technology, Turkey

Chapter 23
GIS Implementation in Malaysian Statutory Development Plan System ........................................... 435
Muhammad Faris Abdullah, International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia
Alias Abdullah, International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia
Rustam Khairi Zahari, International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia

Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 455

About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 503

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 512

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface . ................................................................................................................................................ xx

Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................ xxv

Section 1
Theory and Methods in E-Planning

Chapter 1
The E-Planning Paradigm-Theory, Methods and Tools: An Overview................................................... 1
Carlos Nunes Silva, Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning, University of Lisbon, Portugal

The chapter discusses the relationships between planning theory and the use of information and com-
munication technologies in urban planning. It explores how recent organizational transformations in
urban planning, associated with the widespread use of information and communication technologies, are
incorporated by different planning theories. It is argued that the way information and communication
technologies tools are considered or included by the different planning perspectives is in part responsible
for the various forms of e-planning.

Chapter 2
Planning Online: A Community-Based Interactive Decision-Making Model....................................... 15
Tan Yigitcanlar, Queensland University of Technology, Australia

The first use of computing technologies and the development of land use models in order to support
decision-making processes in urban planning date back to as early as mid 20th century. The main thrust
of computing applications in urban planning is their contribution to sound decision-making and plan-
ning practices. During the last couple of decades many new computing tools and technologies, including
geospatial technologies, are designed to enhance planners’ capability in dealing with complex urban
environments and planning for prosperous and healthy communities. This chapter, therefore, examines
the role of information technologies, particularly internet-based geographic information systems, as
decision support systems to aid public participatory planning. The chapter discusses challenges and op-
portunities for the use of internet-based mapping application and tools in collaborative decision-making,
and introduces a prototype internet-based geographic information system that is developed to integrate
public-oriented interactive decision mechanisms into urban planning practice. This system, referred as
the ‘Community-based Internet GIS’ model, incorporates advanced information technologies, distance
learning, sustainable urban development principles and community involvement techniques in decision-
making processes, and piloted in Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan.

Chapter 3
Modelling & Matching and Value Sensitive Design: Two Methodologies for E-Planning
Systems Development........................................................................................................................... 36
Yun Chen, University of Salford, UK
Andy Hamilton, University of Salford, UK
Alan Borning, University of Washington, USA

In this chapter the authors present two methodologies: Modelling & Matching methodology (M&M)
and Value Sensitive Design (VSD), which can help address the knowledge gap in the methodologies for
designing e-Planning systems. Designed to address the requirements of diverse user groups and multi-
disciplinary cooperation for systems development, these two methodologies offer operational guidance
to e-Planning systems developers. After the background introduction on e-Planning systems, these two
methodologies are described, along with their application in two projects, namely VEPs and UrbanSim.
This is followed by suggestions for the further work and conclusions.

Chapter 4
The Future-Making Assessment Approach as a Tool for E-Planning and Community
Development: The Case of Ubiquitous Helsinki .................................................................................. 58
Liisa Horelli, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland
Sirkku Wallin, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland

As e-planning takes place in a complex and dynamic context, consisting of many stakeholders with a
diversity of interests, it benefits from an evaluation approach that assists in the monitoring, supporting
and provision of feedback. For this purpose, the authors have created a new approach to e-planning,
called the Future-making assessment. It comprises a framework and a set of tools for the contextual
analysis, mobilisation and nurturing of partnerships for collective action, in addition to an on-going
monitoring and evaluation system. The aim of this chapter is to present and discuss the methodology
of the Future-making assessment-approach (FMA) and its application in a case study on e-planning of
services in the context of community development, in a Helsinki neighbourhood.

Chapter 5
Local Internet Forums: Interactive Land Use Planning and Urban Development
in Neighbourhoods ................................................................................................................................ 80
Aija Staffans, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland
Heli Rantanen, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland
Pilvi Nummi, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland

The Internet is shaking up the expertise and production of knowledge in the planning institution. Digital
citizens are searching for information from different places, combining formal and informal sources
without apology, and are debating and speaking out on matters. Public planning organisations will be
fully stretched to adapt their practices and services to meet these demands. This chapter will present the
research results of a project that embarked on gathering and combining local information and knowledge
on urban planning on Internet forums. Interactive applications were also developed for these forums
to support public participation in ongoing land use planning and development projects in the City of
Espoo, Finland. The research results demonstrate how fragmented local, place-based knowledge is,
how difficult it is to combine informal and formal information in urban planning, and how inaccessible
public data systems still are.

Chapter 6
Does Computer Game Experience Influence Visual Scenario Assessment of Urban
Recreational Paths? A Case Study Using 3-D Computer Animation .................................................. 103
Arne Arnberger, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Austria
Thomas Reichhart, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Austria

During the past decades, computer visualizations have been frequently used in urban e-Planning and
research. The question arises of whether the degree of experience with the computer during leisure time
can have an influence on the assessment of computer-visualized outdoor environment scenarios using
visualizations comparable to computer games. The authors used a computer-animated choice model to
investigate the influence of computer game experience on respondents’ preferences for an urban rec-
reational trail. Static and animated representations of use scenarios were produced with 3-D computer
animation techniques. Three social factors were investigated: number of trail users, user composition,
and direction of movement: The scenarios were presented to respondents (N = 149), segmented into
groups with different computer game experience. The results indicate that the individual experience with
computer gaming and the presentation mode influences the evaluation of trail scenarios. Animated trail
scenarios seem to be more useful than static ones.

Chapter 7
Communicating Geoinformation Effectively with Virtual 3D City Models....................................... 120
Markus Jobst, Hasso-Plattner-Institute at University of Potsdam, Germany
Jürgen Döllner, Hasso-Plattner-Institute at University of Potsdam, Germany
Olaf Lubanski, Jobstmedia Präsentation Verlag, Austria

Planning situations are commonly managed by intensive discussions between all stakeholders. Virtual
3D city models enhance these communication procedures with additional visualization possibilities
(in opposite to physical models), which support spatial knowledge structuring and human learning
mechanisms. This chapter discusses key aspects of virtual 3D city creation, main components of virtual
environments and the framework for an efficient communication. It also explores future research for the
creation of virtual 3D environments.

Chapter 8
Political Power, Governance, and E-Planning .................................................................................... 143
Kheir Al-Kodmany, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA
Spatial information is a crucial cornerstone of e-planning. This chapter explains the process of construct-
ing a mega geospatial database for the Hajj, the annual Muslim Pilgrimage to Makkah, Saudi Arabia. It
discusses the complex process and influence of top-down political power on the comprehensive plan-
ning process for the Hajj. It specifically examines how the process led by a politically powerful agency
impacted the creation and adoption of a mega geospatial database. The chapter provides transferable
and useful lessons on GIS misconceptions and solutions, as well as insight on how and when political
power may help in advancing the planning process.

Section 2
Citizen Participation in E-Planning

Chapter 9
The Potential of E-Participation in Urban Planning: A European Perspective ................................... 168
Herbert Kubicek, University of Bremen, Germany

Because urban planning affects the living conditions of its inhabitants, most countries, at least western
democracies, require some kind of citizen participation by law. The rise of the World Wide Web has led
to recommendations to offer participation via the Internet (eParticipation) in various forms. However,
many eParticipation applications are not well accepted and fall short of the expectations associated
with them. This chapter argues that the electronic mode of participation per se does not change much.
Rather, electronic forms of participation have to be embedded in the context of the respective planning
processes and participation procedures. If citizens are not interested in participating in an urban plan-
ning process, they will not do so just because they could do it via the Internet. Therefore, an analysis
of the barriers and deficits of eParticipation has to start with a critical review of traditional offers of
participation. Against this background, the forms and methods of electronic participation are described
and assessed in regard to expectations and barriers associated with them. It becomes apparent that
eParticipation research has still not provided solid knowledge about the reasons for low acceptance of
eParticipation tools. This research is largely based on case studies dealing with quite different subject
areas. There is also high agreement that electronic tools will not substitute traditional devices for a long
time. Instead, they will only complement them. Therefore, online and traditional forms of participation
have to be designed as a multi-channel communication system and need to be analyzed against each
context together. Accordingly, this chapter starts with summarizing both the institutional context of urban
planning and traditional modes of citizen participation and the development and use of technical tools
as two backgrounds. Recognizing a certain degree of disappointment with the low use of eParticipation,
future eParticipation research should focus on fitting electronic tools better into their context and apply
more comprehensive and rigorous evaluation.

Chapter 10
Beyond Citizen Participation in Planning: Multi-Agent Systems for Complex
Decision-Making................................................................................................................................. 195
Domenico Camarda, Technical University of Bari, Italy
The new complexity of planning knowledge implies innovation of planning methods, in both substance
and procedure. The development of multi-agent cognitive processes, particularly when the agents are
diverse and dynamically associated to their interaction arenas, may have manifold implications. In par-
ticular, interesting aspects are scale problems of distributed interaction, continuous feedback on problem
setting, language and representation (formal, informal, hybrid, etc.) differences among agents (Bousquet,
Le Page, 2004). In this respect, an increasing number of experiences on multi-agent interactions are
today located within the processes of spatial and environmental planning. Yet, the upcoming presence of
different human agents often acting au paire with artificial agents in a social physical environment (see,
e.g., with sensors or data-mining routines) often suggests the use of hybrid MAS-based approaches (Al-
Kodmany, 2002; Ron, 2005). In this framework, the chapter will scan experiences on the setting up of
cooperative multi-agent systems, in order to investigate the potentials of that approach on the interaction
of agents in planning processes, beyond participatory planning as such. This investigation will reflect
on agent roles, behaviours, actions in planning processes themselves. Also, an attempt will be carried
out to put down formal representation of supporting architectures for interaction and decision making.

Chapter 11
The E-Citizen in Planning: U.S. Municipalities’ Views of Who Participates Online ......................... 218
Maria Manta Conroy, The Ohio State University, USA
Jennifer Evans-Cowley, The Ohio State University, USA

Municipalities that plan have both a legal obligation and a professional directive to incorporate citizens
into the planning process, but garnering sufficient and diverse citizen participation is often a struggle.
Online participation tools as a component of e-government provide a potential venue for enhancing the
participation process. However, e-government participation raises challenges pertaining to trust, exclu-
sion, and responsiveness. This chapter contributes to our understanding of these issues by analyzing
how municipalities in the U.S. view the e-participant. The analysis is based on an ongoing longitudinal
study that examines planning department web sites for U.S. cities with 2000 census populations of
50,000 or more. The authors’ findings highlight respondents’ views of online tools as a means to further
efficiency and citizen satisfaction, rather than as a means by which to potentially enhance discussion
of community issues.

Chapter 12
Planners Support of E-Participation in the Field of Urban Planning .................................................. 237
Mikael Granberg, Örebro University, Sweden
Joachim Åström, Örebro University, Sweden

The chapter questions what planners really mean when they display positive attitudes toward increased
citizen participation via ICTs? Are they aiming for change or the reinforcement of existing values and
practices? What are the assumptions that underlie and condition the explicit support for e-participation?
In addressing these questions, this chapter draws upon a survey mapping the support for e-participation
in the field of urban planning, targeting the heads of the planning departments in all Swedish local
governments in 2006. The results show confusing or conflicting attitudes among planners towards par-
ticipation, supporting as well as challenging the classic normative theories of participatory democracy
and communicative planning.
Chapter 13
Portals as a Tool for Public Participation in Urban Planning ............................................................. 252
Jens Klessmann, Fraunhofer Institute for Open Communication Systems (FOKUS), Germany

In this chapter it will be shown how different general types of portals can be utilized to foster public
participation processes in urban and regional planning. First portals and the objectives of their use in
the public sector are explained. This happens before the background of different concepts of adminis-
trative reform and a transition of government to an electronic manner. Then public participation will be
described and different categories thereof are presented. This part forms the basis for the delineation of
electronic participation in urban planning. Finally the already introduced general portal types will be
applied to distinguish several kinds of participation portals.

Chapter 14
Can Urban Planning, Participation and ICT Co-Exist? Developing a Curriculum and an
Interactive Virtual Reality Tool for Agia Varvara, Athens, Greece..................................................... 268
Vassilis Bourdakis, University of Thessaly, Greece
Alex Deffner, University of Thessaly, Greece

One of the recent main problems in urban planning is to find ways in order to employ practical, very broad
and commonly used theoretical principles such as participation. An additional issue is the exploitation
of the possibilities of new technologies. The process of developing a flexible three-part (common core,
public and planners) curriculum in the case of Agia Varvara (Athens, Greece) in the framework of the
Leonardo project PICT (2002-2005) showed that ICT (Information Communication Technologies) can
help in participation, mainly because it constitutes a relatively simple method of recording the views of
both the public and the planners in a variety of subjects (both ‘open’ and ‘closed’).

Chapter 15
The Role of Local Agencies in Developing Community Participation in E-Government
and E-Public Services ......................................................................................................................... 286
Bridgette Wessels, University of Sheffield, UK

This chapter discusses the way in which understanding of participation in e-services has evolved through
a social learning process within planning and implementation processes. The chapter traces the develop-
ment of methodologies, partnerships and design constituencies in pilot projects that inform the devel-
opment of inclusive e-services. It draws on case studies of e-services between 1995 and 2009 to show
how planning processes become embedded in cycles of learning and development. E-services involve
change in services as well socio-technological change and relate to change in forms of participation.
This has led to the development of partnerships to plan and implement e-services and to the develop-
ment of research and design methodologies that foster participation in the design and use of e-services.

Chapter 16
ICTs and Participation in Developing Cities ...................................................................................... 306
Alexandre Repetti, Ecole polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne EPFL, Switzerland
Jean-Claude Bolay, Ecole polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne EPFL, Switzerland
Developing cities are experiencing substantial gaps in urban planning. They are due to approaches and
instruments that do not correspond to the realities of the developing city including the prevalence of
informal sector and slums, urban governance problem, and few resources. Information and communi-
cation technologies (ICTs) now offer enormous possibilities to use information flows, communication,
and land-use models better. ICTs offer solutions that take greater account of informal activities, enable
discussions with civil society and Internet forums to take place, etc. ICTs can enhance the planning of
developing cities, if conditions are right. The chapter provides a review of the situation in developing
cities. It analyses the challenges and potential of using ICTs to improve urban planning. Lastly, it puts
forward key conditions for the successful and relevant implementation of ICTs in order to create the
best conditions for real technological added value.

Chapter 17
Public Participation in E-Government: Some Questions about Social Inclusion
in the Singapore Model ....................................................................................................................... 324
Scott Baum, Griffith University, Australia
Arun Mahizhnan, National University of Singapore, Singapore

Singapore’s E-government model is considered to be among the best in the world. Over the past decade
the Singapore government has constantly developed and re-developed its on-line presence. International
comparisons have consistently rated Singapore as one of the most advanced E-government nations.
However, despite significant progress towards full E-government maturity, some issues of full public
participation remain. It is these issues which this chapter discusses. In particular, it will consider the
ways in which a digital divide within the Singapore model has emerged, despite specific policies to ad-
dress such a problem.

Section 3
Innovations and Challenges in Urban Management

Chapter 18
Integrating ICT into Sustainable Local Policies ................................................................................. 340
Antonio Caperna, Università degli Studi Roma Tre, Italy

This work analyses the Information and Communication Technologies’ (hereafter referred to as ICT)
phenomenon, the opportunities it offers, the potential problems, and the relationship with local policies.
It moves on the actions needed to develop, within the Agenda 21 process, a framework able to define
some fundamental features for a new spatial theory in the information age, which will eventually consider
Information and Communication Technology not just a simple tool, but a crucial aspect of a sustainable
policy, capable, if well addressed, to mitigate various current or emerging territorial challenges such
as literacy and education, public participation in the planning process, social and geographical divide,
institutional transparency, etc.. This chapter will illustrate a framework able to assist politicians and
planners in planning a sustainable development through ICT.
Chapter 19
Architectures of Motility: ICT Systems, Transport and Planning for Complex Urban Spaces .......... 365
Darren J. Reed, University of York, UK
Andrew Webster, University of York, UK

This chapter engages with contemporary approaches to urban planning by introducing an analytic strategy
rooted in the sociological approach of Science and Technology Studies. By demarcating a ‘social frame’
and comparing this to the established ‘engineering frame’ through different ‘architectures’, the chapter
reveals hitherto unrecognised features of the implementation of an intelligent transportation system called
BLISS (the Bus Location and Information SubSystem). Through the ‘mobilities’ conceptual approach,
the relationships between various aspects, including the urban space, the experience of passengers, driv-
ers and managers, and component technologies, are revealed as forming an ‘assemblage’ of conflicting
features, that at the same time move toward a form of ‘stabilization’. The underlying point, is that we need
to engage not only with the technical difficulties of technology implementation in the city, but also with
the contingent and experiential processes of those who use, and are affected by such implementations.

Chapter 20
RFID in Urban Planning ..................................................................................................................... 388
Les Pang, University of Maryland University College, USA
Vanessa Morgan-Morris, Constellation Energy and Community College of Baltimore County, USA
Angela Howell, Department of Defense, USA

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a significant emerging technology that enables the automation
of numerous applications globally. Professions, businesses and industries have integrated this technology
into their procedures and it has resulted in great advances in the accuracy of data, operational efficien-
cies, logistical enhancements and other process improvements. This chapter discusses the application
of RFID technology to support the needs and requirements within the realm of urban planning. First,
the historic and technical background behind RFID is reviewed. Illustrative examples of its use are
presented. Next, the technology’s potential is explored in terms of a practical tool for urban planners.
Consequently, issues and challenges associated with RFID are identified and considerations to be made
when applying the technology are offered. Finally, the outlook for RFID technology is examined as an
instrument in urban development and the expected exponential growth of the technology is discussed.

Chapter 21
E-Planning: Information Security Risks and Management Implications ........................................... 404
Stephen Kwamena Aikins, University of South Florida, USA

This chapter discusses the security risks and management implications for the use of information
technology to manage urban and regional planning and development processes. The advancement in
GIS technology and planning support systems has provided the opportunity for planning agencies to
adopt innovative processes to aid and improve decision-making. Although studies show that a number
of impediments to the widespread adoption these technologies exist, emerging trends point to oppor-
tunities for the integration of planning supporting systems with various models to help estimate urban
growth, environmental, economic and social impact, as well as to facilitate participatory planning. At
the same time, information security infrastructure of most public agencies is reactive-based approach,
and security preparedness lags behind vulnerabilities. Drawing on the literature on planning, e-planning
and information security, the author argues that the emergence of e-planning as an efficient approach to
urban planning and development also poses enormous security challenges that need to be managed to
ensure integrity, confidentiality and availability of critical planning information for decision-making.

Chapter 22
E-Planning Applications in Turkish Local Governments ................................................................... 420
Koray Velibeyoglu, Izmir Institute of Technology, Turkey

This chapter examines the pivotal relationship between e-planning applications and their organizational
context. It employs various evaluation frameworks by searching explicit and implicit structures behind
the implementation process. The study is largely based on the statement that ‘the organizational and
user dimension of implementation factors more than technical ones, constitute the main obstacles to the
improvement of e-planning tools in urban planning agencies’. The empirical part of the study scrutinizes
the personal and situational factors of users in the process of implementation, benefits and constraints
of an e-planning implementation and planning practitioners’ perception of new technologies on urban
planning practice and debate. Using a case study research in Turkish local governments, the findings of
this study reveal that the organizational and human aspects of high order information systems are still
the biggest obstacle in the implementation process.

Chapter 23
GIS Implementation in Malaysian Statutory Development Plan System ........................................... 435
Muhammad Faris Abdullah, International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia
Alias Abdullah, International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia
Rustam Khairi Zahari, International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia

The chapter presents the current state of GIS implementation in Malaysian development plan system.
It offers an overview of GIS implementation worldwide, touching briefly on the history of GIS, plan-
ners’ early acceptance of the system, factors that promote GIS implementation, level of usage among
planners, and factors that impede successful GIS implementation. At the end, the chapter provides a
comparison between the state of GIS implementation in Malaysian statutory development plan system
with the state of GIS implementation worldwide. The evidence was derived from three main sources:
literature, empirical observation of GIS implementation in Malaysia, and a survey conducted in 2008.

Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 455

About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 503

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 512

xx

Preface

Urban planning has experienced numerous changes in its long history but none seems so challenging,
for planners and other urban stakeholders, as the methodological revolution associated with the use of
information and communication technologies (ICT) in all stages of the planning process. E-Planning,
the name given to the new planning paradigm that is emerging in association with the extensive use of
information and communication technologies, especially the Internet, geographic information systems
and virtual reality technologies, entails a move from a paper based urban planning system, described
in this handbook as conventional urban planning, to one based primarily on the integration of various
new information and communication technologies and on the interaction of multiple urban stakeholders,
referred here as e-planning. Although this is perhaps the most visible difference between conventional
urban planning and e-planning, the new urban planning paradigm, this move away from a paper based
practice must be seen as more than a simple transfer to a computer system of the traditional paper based
routines, requiring also the re-engineering of procedures, the development of a full ICT integrated back
office and, most important of all, changes in the nature and purpose of urban planning.
The term e-planning is used here as synonymous of e-government or digital government applied to
the field of urban and regional planning. Like these others terms, e-planning is also employed in the
literature as a fairly broad multi-dimensional concept (digital terminology is still far from consensus and
other definitions of e-planning can be found in the literature). It refers to urban planning, either as part
of a hierarchical oriented form of urban government or as an activity co-initiated and co-coordinated
by citizens and other private and public stakeholders within the overall urban governance network. In
the literature the term e-planning is often employed to refer other more specific subcategories, such as
e-urban management, e-urban services, etc., or categories specified according to the dominant technol-
ogy used, as those associated with the concepts of ubiquitous government and mobile government. Like
conventional urban planning, e-planning is also regarded as an interdisciplinary research field.
Based on this broad and multidimensional concept of e-Planning, the purpose of this handbook is
to explore the nature and to examine the impacts of the transformations in the urban planning field that
result from the use of information and communication technologies in all phases of the urban planning
process and to raise new questions for further research. However, it is not intended to be an exhaustive
coverage of themes that make up the field of e-planning, since numerous other critical issues were not
included. For that reason readers will certainly find at the end that there is much ground yet to be explored
and researched on the theory, ethics, methodology and practice of e-planning.
Students, scholars, researchers and practitioners interested to become familiar with new concepts,
methods and technologies applied in e-planning, with innovative approaches to improve citizen participa-
tion through the Internet, as well as with ground-breaking planning e-tools, will find here an accessible,
updated, and research focused reference. Readers will find in these empirical studies practical guidance
 xxi

on how to do cutting edge research on e-planning and useful ideas for the design of new methods of
citizen e-participation in urban planning as well.
The handbook is divided into three interrelated sections. The first section deals with theories and
methods in e-Planning. The second is devoted to citizen participation in e-Planning. The last section
provides an overview of innovations in specific sectors within the urban planning field. It goes without
saying that some of the themes of these essays are interrelated and for that reason they could fall into
more than one of these three sections. The 23 chapters of this handbook cover a wide range of issues on
the theory, methods and tools of e-planning, which make it a useful source for different types of readers.
It brings together a collection of multidisciplinary studies, on the many faces of e-Planning, written by
41 distinguished scholars and researchers from leading universities, research institutions, or special-
ized institutions, from 14 countries, with different perspectives about what e-planning is, representing
to some extent the diversity of perspectives and methodologies that can be found in the e-planning field
around the world.
Each chapter is divided into six sections: (1) an introduction that provides a general perspective of
the chapter and of its main objectives; (2) a background providing broad definitions and discussions of
the topic, based on a literature review of the issues discussed, as well as the author’s perspective about
these issues, controversies, and problems. When appropriate, this section also includes a discussion of
solutions and recommendations of the problems presented by the author; (3) a section on future research
directions where future and emerging trends are discussed and when appropriate also suggestions for
future research within the topic discussed in the chapter; (4) a conclusion with a discussion of the over-
all coverage of the chapter and concluding remarks; (5) a reference and further readings section, and,
finally, (6) a list of terms and definitions applied in the chapter.
Section 1, titled “Theory and Methods in E-Planning,” begins with an overview of e-planning fol-
lowed by seven chapters. These chapters describe and discuss different planning methodologies, based
on the use of information and communication technologies in different planning contexts, exploring key
facets of the move towards a new paradigm of urban planning.
Chapter 1, “The E-Planning Paradigm-Theory, Methods and Tools: An Overview,” serves as the
introduction to the book and discusses the relationships between planning theories and the use of infor-
mation and communication technologies in urban planning. The way information and communication
technologies tools are incorporated by the different planning perspectives is considered to be in part
responsible for the different forms of contemporary urban planning.
The role of information technologies, particularly internet based geographic information systems, as
decision support systems to aid public participatory planning, is examined in the Chapter 2 “Planning
Online: A Community-Based Interactive Decision-Making Model”. Tan Yigitcanlar also discusses the
challenges and opportunities for the use of internet based mapping application and tools in collabora-
tive decision-making, introducing a prototype internet based geographic information system that was
developed to integrate public oriented interactive decision mechanisms into urban planning practice.
In “Modelling & Matching and Value Sensitive Design: Two Methodologies for E-Planning Systems
Development,” Yun Chen, Andy Hamilton, and Alan Borning explore two methodologies which can help
address the knowledge gap in the methodologies for designing e-Planning systems. Planned to address
the needs of diverse user groups and multi-disciplinary cooperation for systems development, these two
methodologies offer operational guidance to e-Planning systems developers.
In Chapter 4, “The Future-Making Assessment Approach as a Tool for E-Planning and Community
Development: The Case of Ubiquitous Helsinki,” Liisa Horelli and Sirkku Wallin, offer readers an in-dept
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