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\· .

Transport;ation
Engineering
and
Planning
Third Edition

C. S. Papacostas
P. D. Prevedouros
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Honolulu, Hawaii

·PHI Learning .[;lcrfmm08 ~oWJo088

New Delhi-11 0001
. 2009
This Indian Reprint-Rs. 395.00
(Original U.S. Edition-Rs. 3260.00)

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING AND PLANNING, 3rd ed.

by C.S. Papacostas and P.O. Prevedouros

Original edition, entitled Transportation Engineering and Planning, 3rd ed. by C.S. Papacostas and
P.O. Prevedouros, published by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice HaiL

Copyright© 2001 Pearson Education !nc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, U.S.A.

ISBN-978-81·203-2154-0

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced- or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information stor<;tge
re~ieval _system, without permission from Pearson Education, Inc.

'Indian edition published ·by PH! Learning Private Limited.

This edition is manufactured in India, ancj is authorized for sale in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka,
Bhutan, Bangladesh, Nepal and tile Maldives only.

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New DSihi-110001 and Printed by Jay Print Pack Private Limited, New Delhi-110015.
 To the memory of my father Symeon
C.S.P.

To my parents Dimitrios and Toula Prevedouros

F. D.P.
 About the Authors

Dr. Constantinos S. Papacostas is Professor of Civil Engineering and Director of the Hawaii
Local Technical Assistance Program at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, and is Technical
Director for Model Development for the Oahu MPO. He received his B.E. degree (magna
cum laude) from Youngstown State University and his M.S. and Ph.D. from Carnegie-
Mellon University. Dr. PaPacostas teaches undergraduate courses in traffic engineering and
urban and regional transportation planning, and graduate courses in applications of
advanced computer-based techniques to transportation planning and geographic informa-
tion systems. His research work includes transportation planning, air 'quality, bus opera-
tions., traffic safety, driver behavior, and population, energy, and infrastructure systems.
He was awarded d1e ASCE 1990 and 1998 Outstanding Faculty Award. He served as
President of the Hawaii Chapters of ASCE and ITE, and Civil Engineering Graduate Pro'
gram Chair. In addition to being an author of numer,ous articles published in professional
journals, Dr. Papacostas is a reViewer for the Transportation Research Rec;ord, Transporta-
tion Research, and Transportation Quarterly. He is a member of AAAS, ASCE, APA, ITE,
and TRB, and a member of Sigma Tau, Sigma Chi, and Phi Kappa Phi honor societies.
[www.eng.hawaii.edu/ -cspl)

Dr. Panos D. Prevedouros is Associate Professor of Civil Engineering and Graduate Pro-
gram Chair at the Univefsity of Hawaii at Manoa. He received his B.S. degree from Aris-
totle University, Greece, and his M.S. and Ph.D. from Northwestern University. He teaches
undergradu<;~.te courses in transportation and traffic engineering and graduate courses in
advanced demand modeling, transportation economic and operational efficiency, and intel-
ligent transport systems.
Dr. Prevedouros was awarded the ASCE 1996 Outstanding Faculty Award and the
1996 AIF04 Best Paper Award (with C. S. Papacostas). He is a principal investigator of
research projects in the areas of freeway management, traffic modeling, traffic software
evaluation, transportation noise, airport operations, ITS deployment, and traffic detector
testing. He publishes extensively in professional journals, and is a member of several TRB
committee-s and ASCE's committee on traffic operations. Also, Dr. Prevedouros is a
reviewet for ASCE Jomnals, the Transportation Research Record, a~d Transportation
Research, as well as a member of ASCE, ITE, and TRB. [www.eng.hawaii.edu/-panos/]

iv
 Contents

1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND f

1.1 The Transportation System
1. 1.1 Definition and Scope, 1
1.1 .2 Fixed Facilities, 1
1.1.3 Flow Entities and Technology, 2
1.1.4 Control System, 2
1.1.5 Transportation Demand, 2
1.1.6 Quantification versus Valuation, 3

1.2 Transportation System Classification 4

1.2.1 Classification Schemes, 4
1.2.2 Private and Public Transportation, 5

1.3 The Role of Government 5

1.3.1 Governmental Participation, 5
1.3.2 Instruments of Governmental Involvement, 6
1.3.3 Arguments for and against Governmental Intervention, 6

1.4 Tools and Applications 8

1.4.1 Background, 8
1.4.2 Mathematical Models, 8
1.4.3 Components of Mathematical Models, 10
1.4.4 Transportation Models, 11 ·

).5 Summary 12
References 12

v
 .vi Contents

Part 1: Design and Operation

2 . ROADWAY DESIGN
2.1 Introdm;tion 14
2.2 Equations of Motion 14
2.2.1 Rectilinenr Jr!.otio.n, 14
2.2.2 Braking Disranc~. 19
2.2.3 Curvilinear Motion, 22
2.2.4 Relative Motion, 26

2.3 Human Factors 29

2.3.1 Perception~Reaction,29
2.3.2 Dilemma Zones, 32
2.3.3 Visual Acuity, 39
2.3.4 Lateral Displacement, 41

2.4 Geometric Design of Highways 43

2.4.1 Background, 43
2.4.2 Functional Classification of Highways, 43
2.4.3 Cross-Section Design, 45
2.4.4 Horizontal Alignment, 46
2.4.5 Determination of Design Radius, 50
2.4.6 Superelevation Design, 51
2.4.7 Vertical Alignment, 54
2.4.8 Stopping and Passing Sight Distance, 58
2.4.9 Geometries of Sight Distance, 60
2.4.10 Discussion of Alignment Design, 62
2.4.11 DelineatiowofVehicular Paths, 65
2.4.12 Design Vehicles, 65
2.4.13 Channelization of At-Grade. Intersections, 67
2.4.14 Modem Roundabouts, 75
2.4.15 Traffic?Calming Devices, 78

2.5 Pavement Structures 82

2. 5.1 Background, 82
2.5.2 Pavement Materials and Types, 83
2.5.3 Pavement Structure, 85
2.5.4 Pavement Design, 88
2.5.5 Design Methods, 89
2.5.6 Life-Cycle Economic Analysis, 89
2.5. 7 Pavemeflt Management Systems, 90
2.5.8 High Peiformance Concrete, Superpave, and LTPP, 91

2.6 Summary 93
Exercises . 94
References 97
Col'}tents vii

3.1 Introdu9tion 100

3.2 . V~hicu.lar Stream Models • 100
3.:?.1 Vehicular Following, 100
3.2.2 Safety ConsiderationS, 102

3.3 Strea.m Variables 104

3.}.1 Spacing and Concentration, 104
3,3.2 Headway and Flow, 104
3.3,3 Average or Mean Speed, 104
3.3.4 Time-Distance Diagrams of Flow, 106

3.4 Vehicular Stream Equations and Diagrams 109

3.4.1 The Fundamental Equation ofa Vehicular Stream, 109
3.4.2 The Case of Uniform Flow, 109
3.4.3 The Case of Highway Traffic Flow, 114.

3.5 Stream Measurements: The Moving-Qbserver Method 117

3.5.1 Background, ll7
3.5.2 The Moving-Observer Method, 118

3.6 Shock Waves in Traffic 123

3.6.1 Background, 123
3.6.2 The Shock Wave Equation, 125

3.7 Summary 129

Exercises !29
References 131

4.1 Introduction 133

4.2 Pedestrian and Bicycle Facilities 134
4.2.1 Background, 134
4.2.2 Pedestrian-Flow Models, 134
4.2.3 Pedestrian Level of Service, 136
4.2.4 Bicycle Level of Service, 136
4.3 Transit Systems: Uninterrupted Flow 138
4.3.1 Background, 138
4.3.2 Uninterrupted Speed-Flow Rel(;ltionships, 139
4.3.3 Fleet Size, 141
4.3.4 Transit Network Fleet Size, 142
viii Contents

4.4 Transit Systems: Interrupted Flow. 144

4.4;] _Bf:!ckgroun{!, 144
4>j..2 Transii Stations, 145
4.4_.3 · Single-Platfonn Capacity, 145
4.4.4 Other Designs, 147

4.5 Highways: Uninterrupted Flow 147

4.5.1 Background, 147
4.5.2 Level of Service, 148
4.5.3 Freeway-Base Conditions, 150
4.5.4 Freeway Capacity and Level of Service, 152
4.5.5 Freeway Congestion Quantification, 155
4.5.6 Capacity Restrictions, 156

4.6 Highways: Interrupted Flow 157

4.6.1 Background, 157
4.6.2 Type.;·ofSignaL;·, 157
4.6.3 Signal Detectors and Controllers, !58
4.6.4 Signal Timings, 167
4.6.5 Time-Distance Diagram of Interrupted Flow, 175
4.6.6 Pretimed Signal CoNdination, 176
4.6.7 Actuated Signal Coordination, 179

4. 7 Capacity of Signalized Intersections 179

4.7. 1 Background, 179
4. 7.2 Capacity and Performance Analysis, 180
4. 7.3 Planning Analysis, 188
4.7.4 Case Studies, 189
4.7.4.1 Simple Signalized Intersection, 190
4.7.4.2 Complex Signalized Intersection. 193
4.7.4.3 Planning a Signalized Intersection, 197
4. 7.5 Arterial Street LOS and Congestion
Quantification, 200

4.8 Traffic Data Collection Methods 203

4.9 Capacity Analysis of Unsigna1ized Intersections 207
4.9.1 Background, 207
4.9.2 Two-Way Stop-Controlled Intersections, 208
4.9.3 All-Way Stop-Controlled Intersections, 212
4.9.4 Roundabouts, 216 ·
4.9.5 Signalization Warrants, 218

4.10 Summar}' 219

Exercises 220
,.
References 229
 Contents · ix

Pari 2: l'ra..sportation Systems 231

15 TIUIIIS!Pt»ln'ATION 111100/ES 232
5.1 . ·Introduction 232
5.2 · ·Modes 233
5.2.1 Motor Carriers, 235
5.2.2 Railroads, 237
5.2.3 Pipelines, 239
5.2.4 Water Transportation, 240
5.2.5 Air Carriers, 243
5.2.6 Express Package Carriers, 247

5.3 Intercity Passenger Travel 249

5.3.1 Major Modes, 249
5.3.2 Choice of Mode, 250
5.3.3 Emerging Intercity Modes, 253

5.4 Summary and Comparisons among Modes and Countries 255

Exercises 257
References 261

6.1 Introduction 263 ·

6.2 Development of Cities and Transportation Modes 263
6.3 Urban Transportation Modes 268
6.3.1 Roadway Modes, 268
6.3.2 Fixed Guideway Modes, 269
6.3.3 Demand~Responsive, Dual Mode, and Other Modes, 271

6.4 Urban Transportation Issues 272

6.4.1 "General, 272
6.4.2 Traffic Congestion, 273
6.4.2.1 Supply Strategies, 277
6.4.2.2 -Demand Strategies, 279

6.5 Intelligent Transportation Systems 281

6.5.1 User Services, 283
6.5.2 ArchiteCture Components and Standards, 288
6.5.3 ITS in Europe and Japan, 292
 x Contents

6.5.4. Mature./TS Applicatilms, 295

6.5.4.1 Detectors, 295
6.5.4.2 Traffic Signal Systems, 298
6.5.43 Freeway.Mqnagement, 301
- 6:5.4.4 Electronic Road 'Pricing and Automatic
· Vehicle Clqssification, 307
6.3.5 Safety and Liability, 310

6.6 Summary 311

Exercises 312
References 314

7.1 Introduction 318

7.2 Historical Development in the United States 320
7.2.1 Colonial Era, 320
7.2.2 Turnpikes and Canals, 320
7.2.3 Railroads, 321 .
7.2.4 Rural High':'ays, 323
72.5 Urban. and Regional Transportation Planning, 325

7.3 Development of a Formal Planning Process 327

7.3.1 Housing Policies, 327
7.3.2 The 3C Process, 328
7.3.3 Social Concerns, 329
7.3.4 National Environmental Legislation, 330
7.3.5 Toward Planning Coordination, 331
7.3.6 lntermodal Suiface Transportation Efficiency Act
of 1991, 333
7.3. 7 Transportation Equity Act for the Twenty-First Century, 334

7.4 Planning Studies and Methods 335

• 7.4.1 Background, 335
7.4.2 Antecedents to Planning Studies, 335
7.4.3 Planning for Future Needs, 336
7.4.4 Large·Scale Urban Travel Surveys, 336
7.4.5 Travel·Demand Forecasts, 336
7.5 Other Planning Issues 339
7.5.1 Background, 339
7.5.2 Tiansportation and Land Use, 339
7.5.3 Operational Land-Use Models, 341
7.5.4 Projec{, System, and Operational Planning. 343
7.5.5 Planning at the Statewide Level, 344
Contents xi
"I
7.6 Summary 344
Exercises 345
References 346

8.1 Introduction 348

8.2 Trip Generation 350
8.2.1 Background, 350
8.2.2 Trip Purpose, 351
8.2.3 Zone-based versus Household-Based Models, 351
8.2.4 Productions and Attractions, 353
8.2.5 Regression Models, 354
8.2.6 Trip-Rate Analysis, 355
8.2. 7 Cross-Classification Models, 356
8.2.8 The FHWA-Simplified Trip-Production frocedure, 358
8.2.9 SumnUiry, 36I

8.3 Trip Distribution 361

8.3.I Background, 36I
8.3.2 The Gravity Model, 362
8.3.3 Calibration of the Gravity Model, 369
8.3.4 Limitations of the Gravity Model, 376
8.3.5 The Fratar Model, 377
8.3.6 Limitations of the Fratar Model, 380
8.3.7 Summary, 38I

8.4 Mode Choice 381

8.4.1 Background, 38I
8.4.2 Utility and Disutility Functions, 382
8.4.3 The Multinomial Logit (MNL) Model, 385
8.4.4 , The Incremental (or Pivot-Point) Logit Model, 388
8.4.5 Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives (llA) Property, 389
8.4.6 The Nested Logit Model, 390
8.4.7 "Estimation of Logit Models, 398
8.4.8 Summary, 399

8.5 Trip Assignment 400

8.5.1 Background, 400
8.5.2 PerSon-Trips and Vehicle-Trips, 401
8.5.3 Diurnal (Time-of-Day) Patterns of Demand, 401
8.5.4 Trip Direction, 402
8.5.5 His~orical
Context, 402
8.5.6 Highway Network Description, 404
 xii Contents

8.5.7 Link Flows and:fntCrtonal Flows, 408

8.5.8 Route Choice Behavior, 409 ·
8.5.9 Minimum Path Algorithtils, 409
8.5.10 A MinimUm Tree~se·eki;l[;. Procedure, 410
85.11 Free!Al,l-or-Nothing Traffic.Assignment, 414
8.5.12 Free/Multipt;lth Traffic Assignment, 414
8.5.13 Capacity-Restrained Traffic Assignment, 416
8.5.14 Transit Assignm·ent, 420
8.5.15 Summary, 421

8.6 Transp7rt Behavior of Individuals and Households 422

8.6.1 Background, 422
8.6.2 Conceptual Models, 422
8.6.3 Demand Models with Behavioral Content, 425
8.6.4 Trip-, Journey-, and Tour-Based Models, 431

8.7 Other Demand-Forecasting Models 43?

8.7.1 Background, 433
8.7.2 Demand--Model Consistency, 433
8. 7.3 Simultaneous or Direct Demand Formulations, 433
8. 7.4 Combined Modeling Strategies, 435
8. 7.5 Models of Demand Elasticif)~ 436

8.8 Summary 441

Exercises 442
References 4 50

Part 3: Transportation Impacts 45!5

9 TMIFFIC 6/IIIIPACT AIIIID PIUIKIIIIG STU/DilES

9.I Introduction 456
9.2 Traffic Impact Studies 456 "-·
9.2.1 Background, 456
9.2.2 Basic Characteristics, 457
9.2.3 Oven•iew of Steps. 458
9.2.4 Major Components of Traffic Impact Studies, 459
9.2.5 Site and Nettvork Improvement Alternatives, 468
9.2.6 Comprehensive Example, 469

9.3 Parking Studies 479

9.3.1 Background, 479
9.3.2 Types of Parking, 480
9.3.3 Types of Parking Studies, 481
~·
9.3.4 Parking Measurements and Analysis, 486-
9.3.5 Desigll, Operation, and Other Considerations, 489
Co.ntents xiii

9.4 Summary 491

Exercises 492 · ·
References 497

10 · AIR OUAUTif, NOISIE, AND IENIEIRGY IMPACTS

I 0.1 Introduction 498
I 0.2 Air Pollution 499
10.2.1 Background, 499
10.2.2 Problem Dimensions, 500
10.2.3 Emission Levels, 501
10.2.4 Air Pollution Dispersion, 504
10.2.5 The Box Model, 504

10.3 Noise Generation 506

10.3.1 Background, 506
10.3.2 Noise Measurement, 507
10.3.3 Noise Propagation and Mitigation Strategies~ 509
10.3.4 Noise Measures, 509
10.3.5 Mathematical Models ofTransportation Noise, 512

10.4 Energy Consumption 515

10.4.1 Background, 515
10.4.2 National Response to the Energy Embargo, 516
10.4.3 Transportation· User Reactions, 516
10.4.4 Energy-Related Transportation Actions, 517
10.4.5 Vehicle·Propulsion Energy, 518
10.4.6 Indirect Energy Consumption, 523

I 0.5 Summary 523

Exercises 524
References 527

529
11.1 Introduction 5;?.9
11.2 Feasibility and Impact Enumeration 530
11.2.1 Measures of Feasibility, 530
11.2.2 Impact Trade-Offs, 531
11.2.3 Generalized Impact Matrices, 531

11.3 Engineering Economic Analysi~ 532

11.3.1 Background, 532
11.3.2 Project Evaluation. 532
 -xiv Contents

. 11.33 Independent ari4 Mutually Exclusive Alternatives, 538

1 I.3.4
Evaluation of Mutually Exclusive Alternatives, 540
11.3.5 Identification and Val(-lation of Benefits and Costs, 541
11.3.6 Lim~tations of Econm:nic Evaluation, 542

11.4 Effectiveness Analysis 543

ll.4.1 Background, 543
11.4.2 Cost~Effectiveliess,
543
1I.4.3 Ra11:k~OrderingTechniques, 545
11.4.4 Scoring Techniques, 550
11.4.5 Group Consensus, 553
11.5 Summary 553
Exercises 554
References 555

Part 4: Supporting Elements 5!57

f2 IEI.IEMIENTS 0/F IENGINIEIERING IECGNOIIIIV 558
12.1 Money and Its Time Value 558
12.2 Interest and Discount 559
12.3 Simple and Compound Interest 560
12.4 Nominal and Effective Interest Rates 562
12.5 Discrete and Continuous Compounding 562
12.6 Cash Flows 563
12.7 Equal Series of Payments 565
12.8 Superposition of Cash Flows 567
Exercises · 569

571
13.1 Introduction 571
13.2 Elements of Probability Theory 572
13.2.1 Background. 572
13.2.2 Definition of Probability, 572
13.2.3 Conditional Probability and Independence, 574
13.2.4 Discrete Distributions, 575
13.2.5 Some Comm::;n Discrete DistributionS, 578
Contents XV

13.2.6 ContinuOus Random Varlables, 583

13.2. 7 SoYne Co'n;mon Continuous Distributions, 584
13:3 Experimental Data and Model Parameters 588
13.4 Linear and Nonlinear Regression 589
13,4./ Simple Linear Regression, 589
JJ,4.2 Correlation, 594
1:}.4.3 Multiple Linear Regressior, 596
13,4,4 Direct Nonlinear Regression, 596
1J-,4,5 Linear Regression with Transformed
Variables, 598
13.4,6 Selection of Explanatory Variables, 599
1~,5 Hypothesis Testing and Model Evaluation 601
13,5,] Single-Parameter Test, 602
13.5.2 Test of a Linear Model, 603
13.5,3 Test of Equality of Segmented Linear Models, 604
13.5.4 Comprehensive· Judgement of a Linear Model, 605

13.6 Summary 607

Exercises 607
References 610

14.1 lntro<Juction 611

14.2 Queuing Models 612
14.2.1 Background, 612
14.2.2 Single-Sen>er FIFO Systems, 613
14.2.3 Multiserver FIFO Systems, 614
14.3 Computer Simulation 616
14.3.1 Background, 616 ·
14.3.2 Monte Carlo Simulation, 616
14.3.3 Simulation of the Outcomes of a Continuous Random
Variable, 619 .
14.3.4 Generation of Random Numbers, 620
14.3.5 The Sim<<iation MorJel, 621
14.4 Summary 624
Exercises 624
References 625
_xvi Contents

15.1 Introduction · 626

15.2 .Gebgraphic"Information Systems (GIS) 627
I5.2.I GIS Fundamentals, 627,
I5.2.2 GIS Products, 630
I5.2.3 GIS and GPS, 63I

15.3 Traffic Simulation Software 632

15.3.1 Traffic Simulation Model Characteristics, 632
15.3.2 Classification, 632
15.3.3 Traffic Simulation Models, 634
15.3.3.1 Urban Street Networks, 634
15.3.3.2 Freeways and Freeway Corridors, 640
I5.3.3.3 Mixed Networks, 642
15.3.4 Model Selection, Output Variability, -and Other
Limitations, 644

15.4 Capacity Software: HCS, SIDRA, and Others 646

15.5 Planning Software: EMME/2, QRS II, TRANPLAN,
MINUTP, TP+, TRANSCAD, TRANSIMS 646
References 560

APPIEIIIDIX A f 982 GUIDIELIIIIIES /F0/11 THE P!llitPAIRATIDIII

DF IEIIIIII/11011111/fEIIITIU. DOCUI/IIIEIIITS 653
IIIID!EJ( 679
 Preface

Great effort was devoted to enrich and update the third edition of this most successful trans-
portation engineering textbook. The book has been restructured to provide a better fit into
undergraduate curricula and a better progression between engineering and planning topics.
The entire book has been organized into four sections:

1. Design and operations

2. Transportation systems
3. Transportation impacts
4. Supporting elements

Several of the topics in Parts 2 and 3 are appropria~.:: for senior-level transportation-courses
and introductory graduate courses.
Some notable additions include congestion quantification and management strate-
gies, extensive coverage on intelligent transportation systems, random utility discrete
choice modeling, land-use modeling, an exclusive chapter on traffic software, and coverage
of HCM 2000, traffic calming, roundabouts, Superpave, TEA-21, and other contemporary
topics.
We are most appreciative of the many instructors and departments who have chosen
to use this textbook for their transportation classes making it one of the most popular text-
books worldwide. We believe that this edition will be even more helpful in providing com-
prehensive, unbiased, state-of-the-art knowledge of transportation engineering and
planning. We are looking forward to your continued support-and, as always, we welcome
your comments and suggestions for improvements.
C. S. Papacostas wishes to thank the Oahu Metropolitan Planning Organization
· (OivtPO) and its Executive Director, Gordon G. W. Lum. for the opportunity to serve as
technical director for OMPO's Jand~use and transportation model development during the
second half of the I 990s. The wide range of perspectives brought to the table by the pro-
ject's peer review' group (PRG), project consultants, and Joca!and state agency staff helped

xvii
 xviii Preface

ro. strike a reasonable balance in the prep"aration of the material dealing with land use, trans-
portation planning, and travel-demand m,o<!e'ting. His association with the Hawaii Local
Technical Assistance Program was helpful in the areas of transportation materials, ITS
. archi~ture and 'deployment, and other engineering topics covered in the book.
PaJ10S D. Prevedouros is indebted to the Development Programmes Department of
INTRACOM, S.A. for providing him with plentiful resources during his sabbatical there,
which permitted him to redo Chapter 6 essentially from scratch, draft the chapter on traffic
software, and work on other improvements and additions. The cooperation with
INTRACOM's Dr. N. Skayannis and Mr. Gabriel Hatoglou on ITS, electronic road pricing,
and automated vehicle classification was most beneficial. Dr. Kimon Proussaloglou (Cam-
bridge Systematics), Dr. Haitham Al-Deek (University of Central Florida), and Dr. Asad
Khattak (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) made valuable suggestions for
improvements. The late Dr. Eric Pas (Duke University) gave useful advise on improving the
sttucture of the book and enriching the urban systems section.
We must thank the Transportation Research Board for providing a spacious, multi-
faceted forum as well as wide accessibility to the ever-expanding and changing body of
transportation information and knowledge.
C. S. Papacostas
P. D. Prevedouros
Honolulu, Hawaii
 1
Introduction and
Background

1.1 THE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

1.1.1 Definition and Scope

A transportation system may be defined as consisting of the fixed facilities, the flow entities,
and the control system that penni! people and goods to overcome the friction of geograph-
ical space efficiently in order to participate in a timely manner in some desired activity.
At first glance this definition may apP,ear to be either trivial or pretentious. After all,
"overcoming the friction of geographic space"* is a very awkward way of saying "to move
from point A to point B"! However, this definition reveals the breadth of transportation engi-
neering and delineates the purpose and scope of this introductory text. It identifies the func-
tional components of a transportation system (i.e., the fixed facilities, the flow entities, and
the control system) and encapsulates the fact that transportation provides the connectivity
that facilitates other societal interactions·.
1, 1.2 Fixed Facilities

Fixed facilities are the physical components of the system that are fixed in space and con-
stitute the network of links (e.g., roadway segments, railway track, and pipes) and nodes
(e.g., intersections, interchanges, transit tenninals, harbors, and airports) of the transporta-
tion system. Their design, traditionally within the realm of civil engineering, includes soil
and foundation engineering, structural design, the design of drainage systems, and geo-
metric design, which is concerned with the physical proportioning of the elements of

*Australians r~fer to the "tyranny of distance" due to the large size and remoteness of their country and
continent.

\ -~
1
2 Introduction and Background Chap. 1

fixed facilities. Although related, geometric design is different from other aspects of design
-(~.g., Struttui~a·I ·ctesign, which is Concerne.dw'ith the strength of structures to withstand effi~
ciently the expe.cted forces or loads), ·\Yhich are covered elsewhere in the typical civil engi~
neering curricu-!lim ..

1.1.3. Flow Entities and Technology

Flow entities are the units that traverse the fixed facilities. They include vehicles, container
units, railroad cars, and so on. In the case of the highway system the fixed facilities are
expected 'to accommodate a wide variety of vehicle types, ranging from bicycles to large
tractor-trailer combinations. For the purposes of geometric design the American Associa-
tion of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) has specified a set of design
vehicles, each describing a typical class of highway vehicles [1.1 ].
In this book flow entities are considered only in terms of their generic characteristics,
such as size, weight, and acceleration and deceleration capabilities, rather than in terms of
their specific technological design, which is normally undertaken by mechanical and elec-
trical engi,n~rs. Thus vehicular motion and vehicle flow equations ·are expressed as general
relationships between the generic variables and can be applied to many vehicle technolo-
gies once their specific attributes are determined.

1.1.4 Control System

The control0ystem consists of vehicular control and flow control. Vehicular control refers to
the technological way in which individual vehicles are guided on the fixed facilities. Such
control can be manual or automated. The proper geometric design of the fixed facilities must
incorporate, in addition to the characteristics of the vehicle, the characteristics of the vehic-
ular control system. In the case of highway facilities, where the vehicles are manually con-
trolled, these include driver characteristics, such as the time a driver takes to perceive and
react to various stimuli; examples of such human factors are contained in this book. In the
case of automated systems similar but more precisely definable response times exist as well.
The flow control system consists of the means that permit the efficient and smooth
operation of streams of vehicles and the reduction of conflicts between vehicles. This
system includes various types of signing, marking, and signal systems and the underlying
rules of operation. Traffic signal control is discussed in Chapter 4 and advanced systems,
known as Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), are covered in Chapter 6.

1.1.5 Transportation Demand

The definition of a transportation system given earlier addresses another consideration that
is of concern to transportation ~specialists: Transportation systems are constructed aS-neither·
pure expre.ssi~ns of engineering ingenuity nor monuments of purely aesthetic quality. They
are built to serve people. in undertaking their economic, social, ai_ld cultural activities·. In the
jargon of the economist, the demand for transportation is derived, or indirect; that is, people
do not normally travel or move their possessions for the sake of movement but to fulfill cer-
tain needs, such as going to school, to work, to shop, or to visit with friends. By the same
token, workers do not place themselves in the middle of the.morning and evening rush hours
because they enjoy traffic congestion but because their work schedules require it. Trans-
portation engineers are among the professionals concerned with accommodating these
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