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EJTD
36,7 Reorienting self-directed learning
for the creative digital era
Fahri Karakas
712 Norwich Business School, University of East Anglia,
London, UK, and
Received 1 November 2011 Alperen Manisaligil
Revised 20 April 2012
Accepted 25 May 2012
Weatherhead School of Management, Case Western Reserve University,
Cleveland, Ohio, USA

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to identify the new role that human resource developers play
in the globally connected workplace. Towards that end, this paper explores the changing landscape of
self-directed learning (SDL) within the digital ecosystem based on the concept of World 2.0.
Design/methodology/approach – This paper reviews and builds on the literatures of self-directed
learning and Web 2.0 technologies to explore how self-directed learning is being transformed in the
creative digital era.
Findings – The paper outlines five transformations that change the landscape of workplace learning
in the creative digital era: virtual collaboration, technological convergence, global connectivity, online
communities, and digital creativity.
Practical implications – This paper gives extensive guidance on how HRD specialists and
practitioners can transform their strategies to adapt to the training needs of employees in the creative
digital era. The paper provides new ideas and vision for industrial trainers and human resource
development practitioners on self-directed learning.
Research limitations/implications – This article provides some future research areas and
limitations.
Originality/value – This paper opens up new possibilities for self-directed learning and discusses
how self-directed learning might be transformed in the light of technological and workplace changes.
In particular, self-directed learning might decrease the HRD/training costs significantly while
providing employees with just-in time training.
Keywords Self-directed learning, World 2.0, Web 2.0 technologies, Social networks,
Human resource development, Training, Digital ecosystem, Online communities, Digital creativity,
Virtual collaboration, Technological convergence, Global connectivity
Paper type Conceptual paper

Introduction
As the scale of current economic and social changes in Europe demand new
approaches to education and training, the significance and centrality of self-directed
learning in European workplaces is increasing (European Commission, 2009). The
European Journal of Training and purpose of this paper is to identify the new vision and roles that human resource
Development development practitioners need to have in relation to self-directed learning in the
Vol. 36 No. 7, 2012
pp. 712-731 globally connected workplace. Towards that end, this paper explores the changing
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
2046-9012
landscape of self-directed learning (SDL) within the digital ecosystem based on the
DOI 10.1108/03090591211255557 concept of World 2.0 (Karakas, 2009).
 This paper begins with a literature review on self-directed learning. Then it builds Reorienting self-
on the literatures of SDL and Web 2.0 technologies to explore how SDL is being directed learning
transformed in the creative digital era. The paper outlines five transformations that
change the landscape of employee learning and engagement in this era:
(1) virtual collaboration;
(2) technological convergence; 713
(3) global connectivity;
(4) online communities; and
(5) digital creativity.

Finally, the paper provides recommendations for human resource development (HRD)
practitioners to enable SDL in this changing landscape. The paper also discusses
limitations and implications for HRD research.

Literature review on self-directed learning

Self-directed learning (SDL) appeared within the discipline of adult education during
the 1960s (Hiemstra and Judd, 1978) and it has developed rapidly since then
(Guglielmino, 2008). There are various definitions of SDL in the literature. SDL has
been defined as “a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the
help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals,
identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing
appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes” (Knowles, 1975,
p. 18). It has also been defined as an independent pursuit involving a philosophy of
personal autonomy and self-management (Candy, 1991); learners’ psychological
processes that are purposefully directed to gain knowledge, solve problems, or develop
a skill (Long, 1994); self-directed study where an individual accepts responsibility for
designing and pursuing an educative activity (Houle, 1988, p. 92); a training design
where trainees master packages of material at their own pace without instructor’s aid
(Piskurich, 1993); and the most basic response to newness, problems, or challenges in
the environment (Guglielmino, 2008). In the SDL literature, self-directed learners are
characterised as individuals who undertake learning for personal growth (Merriam
and Caffarella, 1999); assume primary responsibility for planning, implementing, and
evaluating the learning process (Brockett and Hiemstra, 1991); diagnose their own
needs and formulate their own goals (Spencer and Jordan, 1999); identify, assess, and
select appropriate learning resources and strategies (Candy, 1991); and monitor and
evaluate their own progress (Candy, 1991; Lieberman and Linn, 1991).
Empirical research has demonstrated a number of positive effects of SDL in the
workplaces including increased performance (Artis and Harris, 2007), cost savings in
training and development programs (Durr, 1992; Guglielmino and Murdick, 1997),
increased ability for critical thinking and questioning (Candy, 1991), increased
confidence and problem solving capabilities (Durr, 1992), sharing knowledge and
building networks with others (Rowland and Volet, 1996), stronger affective
commitment (Cho and Kwon, 2005), and a sense of meaning at work (Kops, 1997).
EJTD Self-directed learning in the creative digital era
36,7 The dramatic shifts in technology and the workplaces are transforming the landscape
and dynamics of SDL. Some of the technological shifts include the popularisation of
online learning or web-based learning, digital tools, Web 2.0 technologies, social
networking tools, and social media (Song and Hill, 2007). The new learning
environments are convenient, versatile, enjoyable, non-linear, interactive, and
714 user-tailored (Fischer and Scharff, 1998; Candy, 2004). In this context, self-directed
learners’ responsibility, control, and effectiveness are higher than the past (Vonderwell
and Turner, 2005). Furthermore, with the help of these technologies self-directed
learners are constructing knowledge instead of recording or memorising it (Harel and
Papert, 1991). Some of the workplace changes affecting SDL include empowerment,
flexible work arrangements, telecommuting, digitalisation, and workforce mobility. In
addition, there is a shift from “mechanical to computerized, information based to
knowledge based, individualized to team based, and hands-on to minds-on”
workplaces (Benson et al., 2002, p. 392). These workplace changes require employees
to learn how to learn, solve problems, cope with uncertainty, and be creative
(Stansfield, 1997). Employees themselves – rather than their organisations or
managers – hold responsibility for their own learning and growth (Baskett, 1993). In a
similar vein, Hall’s (2002) concept of protean careers describes how individuals engage
in self-direction and take responsibility for continuous learning for their careers. Recent
HRD literature suggests that a key aspect of learning and development of individual
employees is self-directedness and self-regulation (Littlejohn et al., 2012; Nesbit, 2012;
Park, 2009; Smith et al., 2007).
Although the literature above provides information on the technological and
workplace factors influencing SDL, little research has been conducted on how the
nature of SDL is being transformed in the creative digital age. This paper builds on the
emerging concept of “World 2.0” (Karakas, 2009) to discuss and describe the
transformations affecting SDL. We define “World 2.0” as an interactive and immersive
digital ecosystem or mega-platform where employees create and share knowledge
(e.g. Wikipedia, del.ici.ous,), innovate and collaborate (e.g. InnoCentive), have fun and
entertainment (e.g. Facebook, Second Life), interact, network or connect with friends
(e.g. LinkedIn, Twitter), share their photos (e.g. Flickr), make creative films
(e.g. YouTube), and pursue self-directed learning.

The shift to World 2.0

Web 2.0 technologies (i.e. web-based interactive and connective read/write
technologies) are at the heart of this new digital ecosystem. The new generation
internet tools, so-called Web 2.0 technologies (O’Reilly, 2005) have fostered the growth
and popularisation of web-based communities, social networking sites, video sharing
sites, wikis, and blogs. Web 2.0 technologies have changed the digital ecosystem such
that information is constantly being generated, updated, and converged into new
patterns and forms expanding the utility and life of the original content. The vast
information accumulated in the digital ecosystem provides infinite opportunities for
companies if they support their employees in pursuing self-directed learning. These
opportunities include flexibility to access, just-in-time delivery, cost effectiveness,
knowledge sharing, and talent development (Garavan et al., 2012; Wang, 2011). Web
2.0 technologies have a significant positive impact on SDL; enabling professionals from
all over the world to collaborate, interact, participate, share, and give feedback in the Reorienting self-
process of learning and development. directed learning
World 2.0 reshapes the world in unprecedented ways and in a rapid pace: there are
184 million bloggers worldwide and 346 million people read these blogs (Winn, 2009)
and the numbers are growing. Universities (e.g. MIT, the Open University) and
non-profit organisations (e.g. TED Talks) offer high-quality online content for free,
while libraries make the majority of their archives and collections accessible. The 715
semantic web (Web 3.0) allows applications to understand sentences and natural
language. With one click, today’s learners have access to virtually unlimited
information and networks related to their needs and interests. In their everyday lives,
learners have become mobile data users – sending e-mails, sharing photos,
downloading songs, and using social networking sites. The learning platform even
extends to multiplayer online games: players feel themselves like they are part of a
simulated universe with the help of ever-improving 3D graphics, CAD software,
interactive player input, and realistic environmental effects (e.g. wind forcing and fog)
that complete the experience. In this way, players can learn many things by doing in
safe and comfortable places of their choice. These changes signal a new world – World
2.0 – that dramatically changes the nature of SDL.
Web 2.0 technologies build on the technologies of computer-based training and
e-learning and move them further. The challenge and pressure of “just-in-time”
training for HRD practitioners has been recognised for a while (Wagner and Flannery,
2004). As Web 2.0 provides innovative tools for self-directed learners, HRD developers
and industrial trainers need to understand how they can design strategies to facilitate
the use of Web 2.0 technologies within their organisations, increase the skill level of
employees, and give self-directed learning an even larger share in their training plans.
These strategies might be very beneficial for organisations given the technological
changes requiring fast adaptation and learning by employees as well as the financial
challenges posed by traditional training programs (Rainsford and Murphy, 2005).

Five transformations changing the landscape of learning in the creative

digital age
Next, we describe five transformations that characterise the changing landscape of
learning in the creative digital age:
(1) virtual collaboration;
(2) technological convergence;
(3) global connectivity;
(4) online communities; and
(5) digital creativity; which we will describe in terms of their implications for SDL
(see Figure 1).

Based on the implications of each shift, we come up with recommendations for HRD
practitioners.

Virtual collaboration
The first transformation is virtual collaboration, which is best described in the
path-breaking work of Tapscott and Williams (2006): “Wikinomics”. Wikinomics is
EJTD
36,7

716

Figure 1.
Five transformations
changing the landscape of
SDL

defined as the new art and science of collaboration (Tapscott and Williams, 2006)
where billions of connected people collaborate and participate in innovation, wealth
creation, and social development on the virtual global platform of the Internet. The
knowledge, brains, and resources of over one billion people online worldwide are
self-organising into a massive collective force; which is denoted as the “global brain”
(Tapscott and Williams, 2006). Members of the global brain collaborate in diverse ways
on joint projects as they use wikis or Google documents, update their status on
Facebook or Twitter, communicate with Skype, share files through Dropbox and
Sugarsync, and upload videos to YouTube. These tools have paved the way for easiest,
cheapest, and fastest forms of collaboration in history. Millions of connected
individuals can now actively participate in innovation to advance arts, culture, science,
and education. Virtual collaboration has been the cover story of Time Magazine, where
the person of the year has been announced as “you” – referring to the collaboration
revolution on the web and the new digital democracy and citizen activism enabled by
the small contributions of millions of people on the Net (Grossman, 2006). Virtual
collaboration is described in the book of Tapscott and Williams (2006) as follows:
Profound changes in the nature of technology, demographics, and the global economy are
giving rise to powerful new models of production based on community, collaboration, and
self-organization rather than on hierarchy and control. Masses of people can participate in the
economy like never before; creating TV news stories, sequencing the human genome,
remixing their favorite music, designing software, finding a cure for disease, editing school
texts, inventing new cosmetics, and even building motorcycles. Employees drive performance
 by collaborating with peers across organizational boundaries, creating what we call a “wiki Reorienting self-
workplace” (pp. 1-2).
directed learning
These trends have been changing the nature and the face of SDL. In the past,
self-directed learners pursued learning in relative isolation (listening to radio or TV,
receiving information by post, or using CDs). SDL now takes place in collaborative
virtual environments where users share knowledge, offer each other resources,
recommend learning tips, and exchange ideas with each other. With these collaboration 717
spaces, SDL is being transformed into a set of individualised learning solutions
designed through inquiry based, networked, digitally enabled collaborative
conversations. Virtual collaboration enables self-directed learners to:
.
access diverse learning networks that facilitate the joint production of
knowledge and innovation;
. use peer support and assistance and get feedback from peers; and
.
tap into the best ideas and innovations in the cyberspace.

The key change here is that the process of SDL becomes a much more social and
networked process as learners can collaborate with people worldwide.

Technological convergence
The second transformation entails the convergence of new technologies of information
and communications. Technological convergence is the principle that the various
media, such as radio, TV, newspapers, CD players, video recorders, telephones, mobile
devices, and the Internet, are all coming together to form one global information
channel. Professionals and managers all over the world encounter new challenges and
opportunities as the developments in telecommunications, the spread of wireless,
fibre-optic, and broadband technologies are abolishing distances. Moreover,
advancement in these technologies, so-called information and communication
technologies (ICTs), enables different media (e.g. mobile devices, satellite systems) to
transfer all kinds of information and services, such as images, sound, and data. One of
the implications of technological convergence is the shift from e-commerce to
m-commerce, illustrating the potential and power of the mobile Internet (Tan and Teo,
2002; Yen, 2009). Over 87 per cent of people in the world – 5.98 billion – are mobile
subscribers, and 1.2 billion people are mobile web users (International
Telecommunication Union, 2011). Global e-commerce revenue is growing around 19
per cent annually (J.P. Morgan report, 2011; cited in Rao, 2011). Tele-education and
tele-medicine are becoming free and universally available, whilst projects like MIT’s
“one laptop per child” combat the digital divide. It seems that both ICTs are becoming
varied and access to ICTs is becoming easier. For self-directed learners, technological
convergence means that computers, telecommunication devices, and networks are
allowing users to work together locally, regionally, and globally and exchange content.
The implication of technological convergence is that employees can use a variety of
digital tools and mobile devices available to them (including iPhone, iPad, Blackberry,
social networking sites, video sharing sites, wikis, and blogs) for continuous learning
in their lives. These tools offer employees multiple communication channels (phone,
voicemail, e-mail, and chat) and an unprecedented level of access to digital information
(text, presentations, audio, video, and photos). As a result, learners have convenient
EJTD and continuous access to learning resources in all aspects of their lives. Technological
36,7 convergence enables self-directed learners to:
.
use different sensory channels and adaptable tools according to their own
learning needs and preferences;
.
continue learning activities on multiple technological tools and platforms
without interruption; and
718 .
combine engaging tools and platforms flexibly based on own interests and
passions.

Therefore, learners are empowered to benefit from a cafeteria-style menu of diverse

learning options anchored in every aspect of their lives.

Global connectivity
The third transformation is global connectivity; which can be defined as the ability to
link or connect to the internet – the global brain – providing access to worldwide
online information resources just by sitting in front of and clicking on your computer,
laptop, or mobile device. Today’s internet is a larger ecosystem and with far more
brainpower and connectivity that any single organisation could ever hope to match.
Connecting to the wider global network and information society involves the
negotiation of many barriers, such as the digital divide (Crenshaw and Robison, 2006).
Telecommunications industry has experienced tremendous innovations in the last
decade that have boosted global connectivity; such as the huge increases in
transmission rates and supercomputer speed as well as radical innovations in wireless
communications devices, broadcast digital technologies, organic semiconductor
devices, and bio-computers. An infinite variety of new services and experiences are
introduced to enrich the lives and productivity of professionals via global connectivity.
Moreover, we are witnessing a blurring of the distinctions between learning, work, fun,
and leisure as mobile computing devices are ubiquitous, and an “always on” culture is
enabled by broadband connectivity. Many authors have written about connectivity in a
global world where people around the world share a common virtual technology and
knowledge platform (Stromquist, 2002; Anderson, 2001). The young members of this
global platform have been referred to as Net-Geners, Millennials, Generation Y, or
digital natives; who are characterised by having high digital literacy, having
multitasking capabilities, socialising and learning on the Net, consuming and
producing digital information, and imagining and visualising while communicating
online (Prensky, 2001; Tapscott, 1998; Twenge, 2007). Global connectivity has
far-reaching implications for individuals and their opportunities for learning.
One significant implication of global connectivity is that individuals act and feel as
global citizens of a hyper-connected knowledge platform. Individuals now have the
resources and opportunities to connect to this global shared platform. This global
connectivity enables employees to have a sense of global citizenship, to make more
informed choices, to develop a global mindset, and feel socially connected to a larger
community. Obviously, these capabilities also reflect the characteristics of self-directed
learners. There is a natural affinity and alignment between SDL and global
connectivity. As self-directed learners are embedded in a set of relationships and
networks within the digital ecosystem, they are well equipped to be active citizens and
informed decision makers in a hyper-connected society. Governments are aware of the
positive implications of self-directed learning for economic competitiveness, personal Reorienting self-
fulfilment and social inclusivity; and they are trying to enable global connectivity for directed learning
individuals, workplaces, and communities (Candy, 2004).

Online communities
The fourth transformation is the usage of internet platforms and new media for social
change and community benefits. The new media, also called “social media” has been 719
used extensively by social movements to educate, communicate, lobby, protest,
fundraise, democratise information and increase social awareness. These efforts can be
also called “online social activism”. One interesting trend related to the merging of
technology and social responsibility is the emergence and rise of innovative
pedagogies such as service-eLearning (Dailey-Hebert et al., 2008) and service learning
(McCarthy and Tucker, 2002). Service learning is defined as a form of experiential
education in which students participate in community service activities to apply course
concepts and to develop an enhanced sense of social responsibility (Bringle and
Hatcher, 1995). With the advancement of Web 2.0 tools, Service Learning 2.0 enables
professionals to pursue global social positive change (Karakas and Kavas, 2009).
Empirical research has demonstrated a number of positive effects of service learning
for individuals including a deeper understanding of civic engagement, social
responsibility, and ethical awareness (Salimbene et al., 2005).
Twenty-first century online communities are living experiments of compassionate
feeling, collective visioning, open innovating, and collaborative working. One typical
example of an online community is the “Free Hugs Campaign”, where blogs, online
videos, and social networks were widely used to organise a widespread grassroots
movement. One defining feature of such online movements is the formation of “virtual
communities” where widely dispersed but like-minded users come together in
cyberspace based on similar interests, transcending geographical and social
boundaries (Wang, 2010). Rheingold (2000) states that users in online communities
use words on screens to exchange pleasantries, engage in intellectual discussions,
conduct business, brainstorm, gossip, and even fall in love.
Online communities have implications for workplaces since they can be used as
platforms that are socially rich, communally innovative, egalitarian, user-centred, and
interactive. Online communities can be used by organisations to foster collective
decision-making and brainstorming. Digital brainstorming methods may include the
world café method, project wikis, idea contests, or a virtual town hall meeting. What is
important is the design of innovative governance models that give voice to employees
through the use of cutting edge technologies and advanced meeting tools. Srinivas
Kousnik, the CIO of the Nationwide Property and Casualty Company, started internal
management blogs and wikis to open two-way communications and collaborative
learning with 2,400 employees worldwide, who have shown great interest by reading
blog posts, adding comments, and creating projects together (Birkinshaw and Crainer,
2009). Such platforms create safe and fair spaces, foster authentic conversations,
provide employees dialogue opportunity with top managers, and build affective
commitment of employees.
Online communities are closely associated with the natural and powerful human
need to be in touch with other people and to feel the part of a larger community. What
is changing; however, is that many employees now want to be part of online
EJTD communities as they use Facebook, chatrooms, online forums, and peer-to-peer
36,7 networking. Social user activities include seeking companionship, sharing knowledge,
seeking advice or guidance, lobbying for particular causes, and pursuing social
agendas. In sum, online communities enable self-directed learners to:
.
pursue hobbies or share similar interests and passions with like-minded people;
.
expand their networks and meet new people;
720 .
post queries and learn from experts or peers;
.
engage in meaningful and lively conversations; and
.
engage in issue-oriented non-partisan social activism.

One significant implication is that the process of self-directed learning does not need to
be a lonely or isolated activity. On the contrary, SDL has a social and interpersonal
dimension and self-directed learners often form quite rich connections and high quality
relationships in digital ecosystems. Moreover, SDL literature proposes that
self-directed learners exhibit a strong sense of social responsibility and a desire to
contribute to the well-being of people around them and this underlying sense of
responsibility drives many of their self-directed learning efforts (Guglielmino et al.,
2009). Online communities present new opportunities for self-directed learners in
pursuing their efforts towards creating positive change and leaving community legacy.

Digital creativity
The final transformation is the increasing importance of creativity and innovativeness
in digital platforms and future business models. Creativity is becoming increasingly
significant to find new ways to bridge and resolve wider global issues, social divides,
and poverty gaps of the twenty-first century (Waddock, 2007). Creativity is also one of
the most crucial strategic items on the agendas of nations, regions, and cities. The
European Union designated 2009 as the European Year of Creativity and Innovation to
combat the economic downturn and to contribute to Europe’s economic and social
well-being (European Commission, 2009). Pink (2005) mentions a paradigm shift from
the information age built on logical, linear, analytical capabilities (the left hemisphere)
to the conceptual age built on inventive, empathic, intuitive, and big-picture
capabilities (the right hemisphere). Some business thinkers, such as Merritt and Lavelle
(2005) propose that tomorrow’s B-schools (business schools) might actually be
D-schools (design schools). Pink (2004) puts forward the idea that the MFA degree
(Master of Fine Arts) will be the new MBA (Master of Business Administration) of
tomorrow; as business is revolutionised by “design thinking” (Dunne and Martin,
2006). Companies have been launching creative ways of human resource development;
such as utilising swarm intelligence (Bonabeau and Meyer, 2001), social media (Tyagi
and Tyagi, 2012), open innovation (Huizingh, 2011), and talent development (Garavan
et al., 2012) in order to nurture creative competences of their employees. Pixar attracts
the best creative talent and utilises a peer-driven process for fostering “collective
creativity” to come up with artistic and technological breakthroughs in the computer
animation movies industry (Catmull, 2008). Employees working in tomorrow’s
organisations will need to develop a new set of competencies centred on digital
creativity. McGonigal (2008) proposes that these competencies may include
mobbability, cooperation radar, signal/noise management, protovation,
emergensight, open authorship, influency, multicapitalism, longbroading, and a high Reorienting self-
ping quotient. directed learning
There is widespread recognition that a creative workforce, an innovative culture,
and digital literacy are the ingredients for the competitiveness of organisations. The
implication of this transformation is that creativity is one of the most crucial
professional competencies of employees in today’s workplaces. Empirical studies show
that employees who have developed high self-directed learning skills performed better 721
in jobs requiring high degrees of creativity (Mitlacher et al., 2005). Therefore, to foster
creativity, organisations need to design campus-like flexible environments where
employees can pursue self-directed learning to innovate and come up with successful
ideas. Meyer (2010) argues that reclaiming play and creating “playspaces” for all
employees to develop their capacities for learning, innovating and change can be a
critical success factor for organisations. Workplaces can be transformed into
playspaces to enable employees to think creatively, learn and develop skills, question
old assumptions, and use the best of their talents. In playspaces, personal devices are
replacing the blackboard, lifelong learning skills are replacing memorisation, and
digital learning is replacing the traditional curriculum. In this new paradigm,
self-directed learners can:
.
customise and design their learning based on their unique needs, skills, and
interests;
.
build on their inner creative abilities and strengths; and
.
hold responsibility for planning, implementing and evaluating their own
learning processes (Brockett and Hiemstra, 1991; Park, 2009).

The organisational and technological changes we face today demand a different set of
learning skills than the traditional structured training and development programs that
were adequate in past eras. This paper introduced five transformations that have
implications for the changing nature of SDL in the workplaces. Being aware of these
transformations can help HRD practitioners and industrial trainers in providing new
spaces, tools, resources, and opportunities for their employees to pursue SDL.

Implications for HRD

Hamlin and Stewart’s (2011) extensive review on HRD both informs us on the debate
on the definition of the field and offers a comprehensive definition. Their definition,
which is meant to provoke thoughts rather than conclude the discussion, states that:
HRD encompasses planned activities, processes and/or interventions designed to have impact
upon and enhance organisational and individual learning, to develop human potential, to
improve or maximise effectiveness and performance at either the individual, group/team
and/or organisational level, and/or to bring about effective, beneficial personal or
organisational behaviour change and improvement within, across and/or beyond the
boundaries (or borders) of private sector (for profit), public sector/governmental, or
third/voluntary sector (not-for-profit) organisations, entities or any other type of
personal-based, work-based, community-based, society-based, culture-based, political-based
or nation-based host system (p. 213).
In line with this definition, the review underlines four core purposes of HRD::
EJTD . . . improving individual or group effectiveness and performance; improving organizational
effectiveness and performance; developing knowledge, skills, and competences; and
36,7 enhancing human potential and personal growth (Hamlin and Stewart, 2011, p. 213).
In this article, we provide recommendations to HRD practitioners from all these
aspects.
At the most basic level, we suggest that HRD practitioners need to adapt to the
722 dramatic shifts transforming the nature of workplace learning in the twenty-first
century. Workplace learning is becoming more on demand, flexible, continuous,
embedded, contextual, bit-sized, rapid, and modular (Armstrong and Sadler-Smith,
2008). Taylor and Sheehan (2010) identify eight trends that characterise the future of
workplace learning:
(1) supporting a demand for continuous learning;
(2) overcoming barriers to learning; such as lack of time and information overload;
(3) “just-in-time” learning in bite-size chunks to support work challenges;
(4) customisation and personalisation;
(5) identifying ways to do more with less, with a focus on maximising ROI on
learning;
(6) blending formal and informal learning;
(7) self managed development and individual responsibility for learning; and
(8) harnessing technology to empower the learner.

These trends signify SDL as a major critical success factor for HRD in organisations.
This paper suggests that HRD practitioners have major roles in designing workplaces
that encourage SDL. One of the most critical roles of HRD practitioners is to identify
each individual’s learning and development needs based on the individual’s job
definition, work context, and expertise. Creating the right blend of SDL experiences
and solutions for each individual requires HRD practitioners to know the individual
very closely; including learning styles, career goals, performance expectations, and
developmental needs. Learning about these would enable HRD practitioners to create a
wide range of SDL options that are flexible enough to respond everyone’s learning
preferences.
At a deeper level, this paper has several implications for HRD practitioners in
organisations (especially organisations operating in the industries of creative arts,
design, advertising, marketing, media, multimedia, animation, cinema, architecture,
computer graphics, industrial design, and information technology). First and foremost,
this paper underlines the importance of specific dimensions of corporate environments
– digital tools, empowerment, free spaces, adequate resources, and an open
organisational culture – that support the development of self-directed learning in
World 2.0. SDL literature has already mentioned several organisational characteristics
that promote SDL; including a participative management style (Foucher, 1996;
Confessore and Kops, 1998), a supportive environment with autonomy (Foucher, 1996),
support of experimentation and risk taking and tolerance for errors (Foucher, 1996;
Confessore and Kops, 1998), support for unplanned, non-sequential learning activities
(Foucher, 1996), and encouragement of open communication and of information
systems that provide support for collaboration and teamwork (Confessore and Kops,
1998). When organisations support a culture that invests in SDL, employees will feel Reorienting self-
that they are part of an extraordinary organisation that supports growth and creativity directed learning
of all employees. The result will be a vibrant organisation where well-informed
employees support each other and use SDL to come up with breakthrough innovations
to solve complex problems. Accordingly, the knowledge capabilities and
accomplishments of the organisation will attract even more talented and passionate
self-directed learners. 723
One of the major contributions of World 2.0 for training and development has been
the long-awaited transition from the robotic approach of computers to human-oriented
approach (Wagner and Flannery, 2004). Such a transition has occurred easily and fast,
because the participative environment of World 2.0 has empowered users to shape this
user-friendly landscape and improve it through feedback. Future research might
evaluate the perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of Web 2.0 technologies
according to Davis’s technology acceptance model (Davis, 1986; cited in Wagner and
Flannery, 2004). This line of research might make a significant contribution to our
understanding and test our arguments in this article if it compares technology
acceptance level between Web 2.0 technologies and disconnected but technology-based
methods such as computer-based training.

Recommendations for HRD practitioners and managers

In this section, in the light of each transformation affecting the landscape of workplace
learning, we provide practical suggestions for HRD practitioners and managers to
enable SDL in their organisations.
In line with the transformation of virtual collaboration, HRD practitioners need to
pay particular attention to strengthening collaborative capabilities outside their
organisations. Collaborative learning and innovation activities are more crucial than
ever – particularly beyond company walls. Since external collaboration is
indispensable and many ideas come from the outside, organisations need to move
from traditional management models to network orchestration and open innovation.
Virtual collaboration opens up a world of possibilities for how employees engage in
SDL and use it to create new ideas for innovation. To keep up with virtual
collaboration, managers need to:
.
find which barriers are preventing collaboration and question their legitimacy;
.
design and use virtual collaboration tools that bridge language, culture,
company, and department walls or barriers;
.
force an outside look every time and push the organisation to work with
outsiders more often;
.
make external collaboration an integral part of the organisational culture; and
.
utilise Office 2.0 collaborative tools and social networks to harness SDL beyond
corporate borders.

To harness technological convergence, HRD practitioners need to encourage

employees to be involved in continuous learning in multiple platforms using diverse
mobile and digital tools. Technological convergence provides employees the platform
and the tools to pursue SDL at work, in their homes, or while travelling. This implies
the opportunity for lifelong, continuous, and boundless learning in the digital
EJTD ecosystem. Organisations now have the technological resources and the infrastructure
36,7 to enable employees to engage in SDL in every part of their lives and develop digital
creative skills for the twenty-first century. To harness technological convergence,
managers can:
.
design seminars, webinars, e-learning modules to provide an array of learning
options that give employees the opportunity to customise their learning;
724 .
provide training for employees to use various social media, digital tools, and
Web 2.0 technologies; and
.
provide employees technological infrastructure and platforms to enable them to
engage in SDL.

To benefit from global connectivity, HRD practitioners and industrial trainers need to
expand the learning ecosystem outside the firm boundaries to tap into the global brain.
The process of SDL extends well beyond the company to the global world, as
employees can reach any information from different parts of the world at their
fingertips. Due to global connectivity; knowledge, ideas, and learning resources can
move instantly and ubiquitously around the planet. Friedman (2005) describes this
phenomenon as “globalisation 3.0”, the era of individual globalisation, where every
individual who can access to the digital world can become a desktop freelancer and
start an innovative start-up using a laptop. The members of the Net generation are
already well connected to this digital world and they expect an always-on learning
environment and culture from their workplaces. To foster such an environment,
managers can:
.
invite top professionals and best minds from all over the world to the company to
share global knowledge;
.
provide access to open educational resources that have creative commons license
(including MIT’s OpenCourseWare, the Open University’s OpenLearn, and TED
Conference videos at ted.com); and
.
give employees time, opportunity, and resources to learn on their own based on
their interests and passion.

To form online communities, HRD practitioners need to bring together best minds from
diverse disciplines and form cross-disciplinary virtual teams. Offering competitive
career opportunities and compensation packages, designing exciting and challenging
working environments, and providing advanced technology and career opportunities
can be effective ways to attract and retain highly qualified self-directed learners in the
company. Organisations can build and support online communities involving a large
number of people from diverse disciplines to learn and work together, to support each
other in SDL, and to solve cross-disciplinary problems. To make online communities
effective, managers can:
.
try to break down the walls between disciplines and try to maximise inadvertent
encounters or serendipities (online or offline);
.
try to bridge physical distances and psychological boundaries between
departments and disciplines;
 .
encourage employees to be engaged in blogging, networking, and learning in the Reorienting self-
digital ecosystem; and directed learning
.
support customers or users who are passionate and deeply engaged with the
company and seek their feedback and help for SDL.

To nurture digital creativity, HRD practitioners need to empower employees to be

engaged in SDL at the intersection of the creative arts and digital technologies. To this 725
end, employees should be provided adequate time, opportunities, incentives, flexibility,
and resources. For instance, Google requires technical employees and managers to
spend 20 percent of their time on new projects and innovations that they are passionate
about (Iyer and Davenport, 2008). Employees naturally spend a significant portion of
this time on SDL based on their own interests and passion. To develop digital creative
competences of employees, managers can:
.
provide support and recognition for SDL activities and innovation projects of
employees;
.
let employees build on their own passions and cultivate their strengths to use
new digital technologies in the creative process;
.
encourage employees to engage in design thinking, creative brainstorming,
visualisation, and non-linear hyper-text multimedia tools;
.
encourage employees to develop, experiment with, and use digital creative
competences (through digital portfolios, virtual design workshops, animation,
virtual reality, and computer graphics); and
.
encourage employees to engage in SDL to develop skills and knowledge to create
digital concepts, environments or worlds.

Limitations and challenges

HRD practitioners will play a major role in training employees to use Web 2.0
technologies effectively, but the effect of training programs on self-directed learning
might not be easy to assess. This is especially true considering the huge variety that
World 2.0 encompasses, which makes it difficult to understand how much learning
occurred with the help of the Web 2.0 technologies. We hereby concur with the warning
that solely assessing the impact of training techniques on the skill development would
blur the overall and long-term contribution to learners by human resource developers
(Wagner and Flannery, 2004). In particular, we think that HRD practitioners need to
train employees to pick the best World 2.0 tools that will serve their SDL needs. Efforts
to train employees on using specific websites, wikis, and social networks might be
disappointing; given the rapid emergence of alternative and better Web 2.0
technologies. In essence, it is critical to train how to learn using new technologies
and information and communications channels. Using a similar practice that
Telefonica pursued (Gascó et al., 2004) trainers can track the recent learning
opportunities and share a catalogue of recommended learning experiences. Trainers
can also invite self-directed learners to participate in and give feedback for the
preparation of this list.
Self-directed learners might get lost in the middle of the huge variety of tools. At
this point, HRD specialist can help learners. One of the major contributions would be
frequent communication on how the learning process goes for employees. This practice
EJTD would provide the organisation with several benefits. Firstly, self-directed learners will
36,7 keep themselves on track while HRD specialists become their trusted-other in the
learning process. Secondly, organisation can check whether employees learning efforts
are spent on relevant skills and knowledge development. Hence, the new role for HRD
practitioners would be a coach and pathfinder.
Finally, there are also other challenges that self-directed learners may face if they do
726 not receive help and guidance in their SDL journeys. SDL in the digital ecosystem
requires a wide range of skills for effective implementation; including digital literacy,
self-awareness, time management, self-evaluation of learning, the ability to work alone,
self-discipline, and learning independently. If the learner lacks these critical skills, the
process of SDL will not be effective. Therefore, HRD practitioners have the
responsibility to provide the necessary guidance, training, support, and structure for
individuals to scaffold their learning experiences. Second, self-directed learners may
face a number of challenges on the Internet; such as accepting partial, misleading, or
biased information; losing concentration and focus, relying too heavily on the
technology for information, lacking critical appraisal of the trustworthiness of
resources, feeling overwhelmed with information, or opting out for the easiest answer.
The role of organisational support and mentoring is critical to remedy these risks.

Conclusion
SDL builds on our humanistic ideals, such as openness, curiosity, accountability,
passion, and participation in the digital age. The internet is becoming an open,
innovative, boundaryless mega-platform (World 2.0) where people share inspirational,
interactive, immersive, and multimedia learning experiences with people from all over
the world. Technological and organisational opportunities are coming together to
overcome gaps of time and resources; bringing deliberation, flexibility, and choice to
employees’ learning activities at time and places they prefer. There are a new potential
and opportunities enabled by World 2.0 for employees to pursue SDL in and beyond
their workplaces. SDL enables employees from different backgrounds to collaborate
and have conversations in flexible virtual platforms. Accordingly, SDL can bridge
distance, language, and culture barriers and can be used to tap into the creative skills
and talents of employees. Being aware of the ever-increasing significance and
application of Web 2.0 technologies at work, HRD practitioners might benefit from
embracing the SDL opportunities that World 2.0 offers.
This paper has outlined five transformations that characterise World 2.0 (virtual
collaboration technological convergence, global connectivity, online communities, and
digital creativity). These transformations have significant implications for the future of
SDL. Further research is needed to empirically investigate how the nature of SDL is
changing in the digital ecosystem. This paper has explored the implications of these
transformations for SDL and provided suggestions for human resource development
practitioners and industrial trainers. These suggestions can enable twenty-first
century organisations to develop integral SDL approaches for employees. Building on
the transformations presented in this paper, human resource development
practitioners can empower employees to build the SDL capacities to envision and
design integral solutions to the technological and workplace challenges of the creative
digital era. SDL can be used as a vehicle to create a truly collaborative and innovative
company; ready to embrace World 2.0. SDL can be a transformative tool in preparing
employees for the new challenges of the digital ecosystem. A group of self-directed Reorienting self-
learners operating in a collaborative and well-connected synergistic environment can directed learning
create breakthrough innovation at the intersection of the creative arts and digital
technologies. Innovation projects take flight when self-directed learners with brightest
minds, creative skills, and passion meet in a positive creative atmosphere. This is the
right time for HRD practitioners to nurture SDL inside and beyond corporate borders.
727
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About the authors

Dr Fahri Karakas is Lecturer in Business and Leadership at Norwich Business School,
University of East Anglia. He got his PhD in Organisational Behaviour at the Desautels Faculty
of Management at McGill University. He has worked as an instructor at McGill University
(Montreal, Canada), Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey), and the University of East Anglia
(London, UK). Dr Karakas has taught courses on creativity, innovation, global leadership, and
organisational behaviour. Rather than lecturing, he strives to cultivate creative spaces in which
students can discover themselves and build on their strengths. His research interests include
design thinking, benevolent leadership, spirituality at work, and positive organisational
scholarship. Fahri Karakas is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
[email protected]
Alperen Manisaligil is a PhD student at Weatherhead School of Management, Case Western
Reserve University. Alperen is mainly interested in strength-based approaches. In particular,
Alperen focuses on exploring humane values such as compassion and benevolence and how
these values can be maintained in the workplace. Alperen also conducts research on creativity,
compassion fatigue, management education, self-directed learning, and benevolent leadership.
Alperen received an MBA degree from Sabanci University Sabanci School of Management.
While he was an MBA student, he won the Best Teaching Assistant Award of Sabanci
University. He also earned a BBA degree from Istanbul University School of Business.

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