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James Baldwin’s
Turkish Dec ade
ja m e s b a l dw in ’ s
tur k i s h de c ade
Erotics of Exile
m a g d a l e n a j. z a b o r o w s k a
of this book.
For Malınek
C o nten ts
List of Illustrations ix
Acknowledgments xxv
Notes 265
Bibliography 331
Index 359
List of I llustrati o n s
Maps
Turkey, 1961–81 xxx
James Baldwin’s Istanbul, 1961–71 xxxi
Figures
1. Architecture along the Bosphorus xvi
2. Sedat Pakay, From Another Place. James Baldwin in street, Istanbul xxxii
3. James Baldwin, Marlon Brando, David Baldwin, and David Leeming 9
4. Sedat Pakay, James Baldwin, Bertice Redding and her children, and
Beauford Delaney 10
5. Baldwin’s note to Salbaş 14
6. Avni Salbaş in Avni’s Pub, Istanbul, 2005 15
7. James Baldwin in a fish restaurant, Eminönü 30
8. Sedat Pakay, From Another Place. Baldwin’s hands with tespih 34
9. Sedat Pakay, From Another Place. James Baldwin with back turned in a
crowd 37
10. Sedat Pakay, From Another Place. James Baldwin in his studio 39
11. Sedat Pakay, From Another Place. James Baldwin and waiters in a
teahouse 40
12. Engin Cezzar as Giovanni 47
13. Engin Cezzar as Othello 60
14. Cezzar, Sururi, and Baldwin, Galata Bridge 63
15. Gülriz, Engin, and Jimmy with Beauford Delaney 76
16. Sedat Pakay, James Baldwin in bed 90
17. Sedat Pakay, From Another Place. James Baldwin at typewriter 94
18. Sedat Pakay, From Another Place. James Baldwin at a cafe 97
19. James Baldwin and shoeshine, Eminönü 100
20. James Baldwin and children, Taksim Square 101
21. James Baldwin’s silhouette at Cezzar-Sururi window 140
22. Zeynep Oral’s interview with Baldwin for Yeni Gazete 147
23. Sedat Pakay, James Baldwin and Cezzar backstage, Cezzar-Sururi
Theater 148
24. Book cover of Turkish edition of Düşenin Dostu 150
25. James Baldwin, Gülriz, Bülent, and Oktay at a party 156
26. James Baldwin and theater troupe at cocktails after the performance
of Düşenin Dostu 156
27. Zeki Müren with statue 158
28. Zeki Müren onstage 158
29. James Baldwin, Zeynep Oral, and the troupe at a party 162
30. Sketch and poem by Baldwin’s female admirer 166
31. Reading the play around the table 169
32. Baldwin, Oral, and cast of Düşenin Dostu 170
33. Cast of Düşenin Dostu behind bars 171
34. Smitty and Queenie in Düşenin Dostu: behind bars 171
35. Bülent Erbaşar as Mona/Jan 172
36. Baldwin’s text with photograph of Cezzar and Poyrazoğlu 176
37. Cherry, Baldwin, and Cezzar with a copy of Herbert’s play Fortune and
Men’s Eyes 179
38. Cherry, Baldwin, and Cezzar recording soundtrack to Düşenin Dostu 179
39. Düşenin Dostu, Cezzar as Smitty in monologue 182
40. Düşenin Dostu, Smitty (Cezzar) and Mona (Erbaşar) have a “talk” 182
41. Düşenin Dostu, Smitty and Rocky (Alkal) fight it out 182
42. Düşenin Dostu, Ali and Bülent in drag 184
43. James Baldwin, close-up with cigarette 193
44. James Baldwin and actors, with Zeynep Oral, in front of Cezzar-Sururi
Theater 194
45. James Baldwin at Kilyos, 1965 196
46. Sedat Pakay, “James Baldwin at Taksim Square, August 31, 1965” 204
47. Sedat Pakay and James Baldwin at Baldwin’s apartment while shooting
From Another Place 207
48. Brenda Rein mimicking Baldwin’s “thinking expression,” 2006 208
Illustrations
49. James Baldwin with Oktay Balamir and Mordo Dinar and his friends,
Istanbul 212
50. Sedat Pakay, “James Baldwin, Author, Istanbul, 1965” 248
51. Playbill for The Welcome Table 253
52. Walter Dallas in 2006 254
53. Sedat Pakay, From Another Place. James Baldwin in close-up talking 263
Illustrations xi
Pre fac e
Sightings
The African American writer and activist James Baldwin (1924–87) was born
in Harlem, thousands of miles and an ocean away from Orel, the birthplace
of Mikhail Bakhtin (1895–1975), the Russian philosopher and literary critic
who wrote the foregoing epigraph. Despite the linguistic, geographic, and
cultural distances between them, Baldwin and Bakhtin explored, each in his
own unique way, how the social environment shapes both the language and
the consciousness of groups and individuals, and espoused cross-cultural
dialogue based on the belief that the human desire for self-knowledge com-
pels reliance on others as interpreters of our identities.1 Surrounded by the
historical and social upheaval of the Soviet Revolution and its aftermath,
Bakhtin spent some time in political exile and later withdrew from public
life into linguistic and literary study. He is best known as a literary theorist
and as the author of numerous works of criticism, among them The Dialogic
Imagination (1975), a volume that made Bakhtin’s name, and that of his best-
known concept, famous in the United States.
A descendant of southern black migrants to the promised land of the
North, James Baldwin lived much of his adult life in France and Turkey
but often returned to the United States to participate in the Civil Rights
Movement, visit his family and friends, and confer with his editors and pub-
lishers.2 Influenced by his international sojourns, and especially the little-
known one in Istanbul, he wrote novels, plays, and essays that explored
Americanness as inflected by race, class, gender, sexuality, and nationhood,
within and outside U.S. borders. His world-famous two-essay volume The
Fire Next Time (1963) called on Whites and Blacks “to dare everything” to
“end the racial nightmare, and achieve our country, and change the his-
tory of the world” (141). It virtually prophesied the riots in American cities
in the late 1960s. His works resound with a powerful mix of voices, and
he commands complex sentences and emotions that make his style inimi-
table—from the intensely autobiographical tone of his first essay collec-
tion, Notes of a Native Son (1955), through the passionate intellectual and
prophetic argument of The Fire Next Time, to the confessional narrative per-
sona of his second novel, Giovanni’s Room (1956), the polyphonic storytelling
consciousness of his third, Another Country (1962), and a kaleidoscopic intra-
and international layering of scenes of black experience in the essay volume
No Name in the Street (1972), and his last novel, Just above My Head (1979).
Baldwin’s books and ideas influenced generations of black writers, from
Alice Walker, Maya Angelou, Audre Lorde, and Toni Morrison, through Su-
zan Lori-Parks, Edward P. Jones, and Hilton Als, to Essex Hemphill, Melvin
Dixon, and Randall Kenan.
Despite his extraordinary influence on American letters, however, Bald-
win’s death in France in 1987 followed years of relative obscurity in the
1970s and 1980s, years during which his later works were not well received
or widely read and when his name began disappearing from course sylla-
buses at American high schools and universities. The dimming of James
Baldwin’s literary star coincided with Mikhail Bakhtin’s rise to prominence
as one of the most popular international theorists embraced by literary and
cultural critics in the United States. In Dale E. Peterson’s words, Bakhtin
was “an exotic and somewhat rough-hewn Soviet import” (“Response and
Call,” 761). In the 1980s and 1990s, a wide spectrum of scholars embraced
Bakhtin’s dialogism, polyphony, and double voice, concepts that were espe-
xiv Preface
cially suited to the study of minority, multicultural, and marginalized tra-
ditions and authors. Not surprisingly, Bakhtin’s ideas soon found their way
into the groundbreaking works of African American critics, who explored
black expressive traditions, celebrated “a plurality of [gendered] voices,”3
and challenged racialized literary canons by means of creating “a new nar-
rative space for representing the . . . so-called black experience.”4
Baldwin may not be a dialogic writer in the classic Bakhtinian sense, but
his works lend themselves to rich dialogic interpretations. His little-known
extended visits in Turkey throughout the 1960s, the subject of this book,
compel a new narrative space, a new telling of his life and of his black ex-
perience, as well as new readings of his works. As a scholar trained in liter-
ary, American, and African American studies, I have embraced this project
because of its interdisciplinary and dialogic appeal. As an immigrant and
a feminist, I was also compelled by the intense conversations between the
political and the personal that I encountered while conducting research in
Turkey and while writing every page of this book.
Growing up in communist Poland, I had heard of Bakhtin long before I
learned of Baldwin’s existence. In an instance of cross-cultural exchange,
years before attempting Bakhtinian readings of James Baldwin’s works as
an international scholar, I may have seen his face on Polish national tele-
vision around 1982. That first, real or imagined, sighting of James Bald-
win in an unlikely location coincided with an event at the Polish United
Workers’ Party headquarters in my hometown of Kielce, where many high
school students like myself had been herded to welcome a delegation of
visiting Yemeni students earlier that day. After I returned home, I glimpsed
a television program that featured African Americans, their faces vivid and
moving, but their voices muted with the dispassionate voice-over of the
Polish narrator.5 The program referred to events in the United States, whose
documentary footage the Polish propaganda ministry deemed important
enough to include in a series of mind-numbing shows that exposed and
critiqued American imperialism domestically and internationally.6 Perhaps
because they resonated with my naive conceptions of race and racism at the
time, the images of the African Americans on the TV screen connected in
my mind with those of the students from the People’s Democratic Republic
of Yemen. We welcomed the Yemeni students and cheered for their coun-
try’s striving toward “socialist progress”; all of us obediently applauded the
same slogans at the Party headquarters. But in reality the smiling Yemeni
students seemed nearly as remote and foreign to us as the serious American
black men and women on television. Perhaps to us they all seemed merely
Preface xv
1. Architecture (yalı) along the Bosphorus, Boğaziçi,
Istanbul, 2005. Photo by author.
xvi Preface
between stints as a maid and graduate teaching fellow (GTF) in American
studies and composition.8 As I was finishing my dissertation on East Euro-
pean immigrant women writers in 1992, with Eva Hoffman’s “It is in my
misfittings that I fit” (164) taped to the screen of my Mac Plus computer, I
read Baldwin’s second novel, Giovanni’s Room, to “get away from my field.”
When I found myself coteaching that novel in my first academic job, at
a private liberal arts college in the South, I realized that I had gotten far
away from anything remotely familiar. I was as intrigued when some of my
predominantly white, Baptist, and privileged undergraduate students com-
plained to the dean that my colleague and I were “promoting homosexu-
ality” by having them read Giovanni’s Room as I was by those who claimed that
“a black writer should not write white books” or that “Baldwin was making
everybody fall in love with Giovanni, regardless of gender.”9
This experience of “getting away from my field” and the attendant reve-
lations, shocks, punishments, and lessons of my early career helped me
to embrace more fully the interdisciplinary imperatives of scholarship in
American and African American studies. A productive sense of disloca-
tion—literary, geographic, political, and regional—became my modus
operandi in the years that followed my immigration from Poland to the
United States in 1996. As a newly minted “resident alien,” I soon realized
that I could not continue teaching “my immigrant writers” until I knew
enough about black writers, and especially Baldwin and his contexts.10 This
meant not simply learning more about African American literature but
rather coming to terms more fully with what my first book on Mary Antin
and Anzia Yezierska had already taught me: how incredibly “worldly”—in
Edward Said’s elegant formulation—all literature is.
I offer these observations not to indulge my immigrant nostalgia but to
explain how an international trajectory that has led me to Baldwin’s works
has also partially shaped this project on Baldwin in Turkey. I come from a
country whose ties with Turkey have a long and complicated history; I was
born and raised in a region that was, and might still be considered, part of
the Orient.11 Ever since teaching Giovanni’s Room in the American South, I
have been on the road with Baldwin, whom I saw more and more as putting
a completely new spin on being an immigrant writer. I visited Paris and
Saint-Paul de Vence in France; Istanbul, Ankara, and Bodrum in Turkey;
as well as the American South, and Harlem and Greenwich Village in that
country-within-a-country of New York City. As I read everything Baldwin
wrote many times, and talked to people who knew him, I also taught his
works in the United States and Denmark, always returning to Poland for
Preface xvii
visits with family, during which my mother would sometimes ask with a
puzzled smile: “But why would you not write about your own people?” This
book is a product of my international peregrinations in Baldwin’s footsteps
and an answer to my parents in the Old Country, to whom I owe my first
understanding of what Baldwin said so well in The Fire Next Time: “If you
know whence you came, there is really no limit to where you can go.”
In a 1970 interview, Baldwin proclaimed, “I don’t believe in nations any
more. Those passports, those borders are as outworn and useless as war.”12
While he was privileged to travel and live all over the world, he was still de-
fined by his nationality and race until the end of his days. Thirty years after
his passing, nationalisms of all stripes flourish, and walls and borders are
still with us, more than ever in this time of brutal military conflicts around
the world. James Baldwin lived in no less troubling times than ours and was
vocal about the writer’s responsibility to speak truth to power; we should
be reading him today. In an interview from 1970, he explained: “My talent
does not belong to me. . . . It belongs to you; it belongs to everybody. It’s
important only insofar as it can work toward the liberation of other people.
. . . I didn’t invent it. I didn’t make myself, and I wouldn’t have chosen to be
born as I was, when I was, where I was. But I was, and you do what you can
with the hand life dealt you.”13 Baldwin’s deceptively fatalistic approach to
authorship was an expression of strength, not resignation. It enabled him
to persevere in his vocation as a poet and prophet, as he liked to call himself,
despite his experience of racism and homophobia and despite his inability
to find peace in his home country.
Baldwin’s acclaimed first novel, Go Tell It on the Mountain (1953) includes a
scene that encapsulates the richness of his perspective on being black and
male and American. The teenage protagonist, John Grimes, confronts his
face in the mirror, “as though it were, as it indeed soon appeared to be, the
face of a stranger, a stranger who held secrets that John could never know”
(30). This compelling moment is signature Baldwin in its reliance on literal
and metaphorical reflections and refractions of the gendered and racialized
American self that his protagonist encounters. At the same time, it aptly
illustrates Bakhtin’s claim that self-knowledge depends on a confrontation
with the other. When John Grimes “tried to look at [his face] as a stranger
might, and tried to discover what other people saw,” he saw only his physi-
cal features, or “details: two great eyes, and a broad, low forehead, and the
triangle of his nose, and his enormous mouth, and the barely perceptible
cleft in his chin” (31). Bakhtin’s statements in the epigraph that “one can-
not even really see one’s own exterior” and that it “can be seen and under-
xviii Preface
stood only by other people” help us to understand that while John sees his
physical reflection in the mirror, he can look at himself only through his
father’s eyes.
This moment of intense self-perception echoes Du Bois’s well-known
concept of double consciousness and Bakhtin’s notion of double-voiced
discourse, as John realizes that both he and his father see blackness and
maleness through the eyes of white American culture.14 In John’s eyes the
“barely perceptible cleft in his chin” suddenly becomes “the mark of the
devil’s little finger” because that is what his unforgiving, self-hating, and
fanatically religious father saw in his stepson (31). Baldwin’s third-person
narrator stresses that John desires “to know: whether his face was ugly or
not” (31), but also to know how to free himself from his father’s projec-
tions, that is, how to know himself, his humanity and beauty as a black
male, by means of love and acceptance of others. While Go Tell It on the Moun-
tain ends with hope that such love and acceptance are within John Grimes’s
grasp, Baldwin’s own life story as a transnational black gay writer suggests
that the price they exacted from him necessitated estrangement and exile.
In “Intellectual Exile: Expatriates and Intellectuals” (1993), Edward Said
evocatively links immigration and intellectual dissent in ways that help to
represent Baldwin’s predicament as a transnational black writer: “Exile is a
model for the intellectual who is tempted, and even beset and overwhelmed,
by the rewards of accommodation, yea-saying, settling in. Even if one is
not an actual immigrant or expatriate, it is still possible to think as one, to
imagine and investigate in spite of barriers, and always to move away from
the centralizing authorities toward the margins, where you see things that
are usually lost on minds that have never traveled beyond the conventional
and comfortable.”15 As we know well from the examples of Henry James,
Richard Wright, Nella Larsen, Gertrude Stein, George Lamming, and many
others, writers abroad often tell us as much about where they are speaking
from as their actual birthplaces. We need them and we need literature to
make sense of who we are and where we stand. I hope that reading Baldwin
now through his unexpected location in Turkey, and through the lens of the
migratory literary misfittings that I deploy in these pages, will make the tale
of transnational American literature even richer.
Baldwin’s intensely personal rhetoric, imagery, and concern with the
American self echo a large body of works in American literary history, includ-
ing those of Emerson, Whitman, Douglass, and Du Bois, and challenge the
genre of what Sacvan Bercovitch has termed “Auto-American-Biography.”16
Writing about the uniquely Baldwinian, black queer variation on this genre
Preface xix
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