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 CompRef_2010 / Java: The Complete Reference, Twelfth Edition / Schildt / 126046-341-9 / blind folio: i

The
Complete Java™
Reference Twelfth Edition

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 CompRef_2010 / Java: The Complete Reference, Twelfth Edition / Schildt / 126046-341-9 / blind folio: ii

About the Author

Best-selling author Herbert Schildt has written extensively about programming
for over three decades and is a leading authority on the Java language. Called “one
of the world’s foremost authors of books about programming” by International
Developer magazine, his books have sold millions of copies worldwide and
have been translated into all major foreign languages. He is the author of
numerous books on Java, including Java: A Beginner’s Guide, Herb Schildt’s
Java Programming Cookbook, Introducing JavaFX 8 Programming, and Swing:
A Beginner’s Guide. He has also written extensively about C, C++, and C#.
Featured as one of the rock star programmers in Ed Burns’ book Secrets of
the Rock Star Programmers: Riding the IT Crest, Schildt is interested in all
facets of computing, but his primary focus is computer languages. Schildt
holds both BA and MCS degrees from the University of Illinois. His website is
www.HerbSchildt.com.

About the Technical Editor

Dr. Danny Coward has worked on all editions of the Java platform. He led the
definition of Java Servlets into the first version of the Java EE platform and
beyond, web services into the Java ME platform, and the strategy and planning
for Java SE 7. He founded JavaFX technology and, most recently, designed the
largest addition to the Java EE 7 standard, the Java WebSocket API. From
coding in Java, to designing APIs with industry experts, to serving for several
years as an executive to the Java Community Process, he has a uniquely broad
perspective into multiple aspects of Java technology. In addition, he is the
author of two books on Java programming: Java WebSocket Programming and
Java EE 7: The Big Picture. Most recently, he has been applying his knowledge
of Java to helping scale massive Java-based services for one of the world’s most
successful software companies. Dr. Coward holds a bachelor’s, master’s, and
doctorate in mathematics from the University of Oxford.

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 CompRef_2010 / Java: The Complete Reference, Twelfth Edition / Schildt / 126046-341-9 / blind folio: iii

The
Complete Java™
Reference Twelfth Edition

Herbert Schildt

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Milan New Delhi Singapore Sydney Toronto

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Copyright © 2022 by McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976,
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 CompRef_2010 / Java: The Complete Reference, Twelfth Edition / Schildt / 126046-341-9

Contents at a Glance
PART I The Java Language
1 The History and Evolution of Java 3
2 An Overview of Java 21
3 Data Types, Variables, and Arrays 39
4 Operators 67
5 Control Statements 87
6 Introducing Classes 117
7 A Closer Look at Methods and Classes 137
8 Inheritance 171
9 Packages and Interfaces 199
10 Exception Handling 227
11 Multithreaded Programming 247
12 Enumerations, Autoboxing, and Annotations 277
13 I/O, Try-with-Resources, and Other Topics 315
14 Generics 347
15 Lambda Expressions 391
16 Modules 421
17 Switch Expressions, Records,
  and Other Recently Added Features 449
PART II The Java Library
18 String Handling 483
19 Exploring java.lang 511
20 java.util Part 1: The Collections Framework 571
21 java.util Part 2: More Utility Classes 653
22 Input/Output: Exploring java.io 713
23 Exploring NIO 763
24 Networking 795
25 Event Handling 819
26 Introducing the AWT: Working with
  Windows, Graphics, and Text 851
27 Using AWT Controls, Layout Managers, and Menus 879
28 Images 929
29 The Concurrency Utilities 955
30 The Stream API 1005
31 Regular Expressions and Other Packages 1031

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vi  Java: The Complete Reference

PART III Introducing GUI Programming with Swing

32 Introducing Swing 1061
33 Exploring Swing 1079
34 Introducing Swing Menus 1109
PART IV Applying Java
35 Java Beans 1145
36 Introducing Servlets 1157
PART V Appendixes
A Using Java’s Documentation Comments 1183
B Introducing JShell 1191
C Compile and Run Simple Single-File Programs in
  One Step 1201

Index
1203

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 CompRef_2010 / Java: The Complete Reference, Twelfth Edition / Schildt / 126046-341-9

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxi

Part I The Java Language

Chapter 1 The History and Evolution of Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Java’s Lineage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Birth of Modern Programming: C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
C++: The Next Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
The Stage Is Set for Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The Creation of Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The C# Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
How Java Impacted the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Java Applets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Portability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Java’s Magic: The Bytecode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Moving Beyond Applets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
A Faster Release Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Servlets: Java on the Server Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Java Buzzwords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Object-Oriented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Robust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Multithreaded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Architecture-Neutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Interpreted and High Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Distributed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Dynamic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
The Evolution of Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
A Culture of Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Chapter 2 An Overview of Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Object-Oriented Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Two Paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
The Three OOP Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

vii

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viii  Java: The Complete Reference

A First Simple Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Entering the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Compiling the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
A Closer Look at the First Sample Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
A Second Short Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Two Control Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
The if Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
The for Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Using Blocks of Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Lexical Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Whitespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
The Java Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
The Java Class Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Chapter 3 Data Types, Variables, and Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Java Is a Strongly Typed Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
The Primitive Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
byte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
short . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
int . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Floating-Point Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
float . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Booleans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
A Closer Look at Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Integer Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Floating-Point Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Boolean Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Character Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
String Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Declaring a Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Dynamic Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
The Scope and Lifetime of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Type Conversion and Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Java’s Automatic Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Casting Incompatible Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

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Contents   ix

Automatic Type Promotion in Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

The Type Promotion Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
One-Dimensional Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Multidimensional Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Alternative Array Declaration Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Introducing Type Inference with Local Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Some var Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
A Few Words About Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Chapter 4 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Arithmetic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
The Basic Arithmetic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
The Modulus Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Arithmetic Compound Assignment Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Increment and Decrement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
The Bitwise Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
The Bitwise Logical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
The Left Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
The Right Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
The Unsigned Right Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Bitwise Operator Compound Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Relational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Boolean Logical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Short-Circuit Logical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
The Assignment Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
The ? Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Operator Precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Using Parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Chapter 5 Control Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Java’s Selection Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
if . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
The Traditional switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Iteration Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
while . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
do-while . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
The For-Each Version of the for Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Local Variable Type Inference in a for Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Nested Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Jump Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Using break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Using continue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

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Chapter 6 Introducing Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Class Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
The General Form of a Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
A Simple Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Declaring Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
A Closer Look at new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Assigning Object Reference Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Introducing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Adding a Method to the Box Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Returning a Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Adding a Method That Takes Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Parameterized Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
The this Keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Instance Variable Hiding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Garbage Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
A Stack Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Chapter 7 A Closer Look at Methods and Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Overloading Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Overloading Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Using Objects as Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
A Closer Look at Argument Passing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Returning Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Recursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Introducing Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Understanding static . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Introducing final . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Arrays Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Introducing Nested and Inner Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Exploring the String Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Using Command-Line Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Varargs: Variable-Length Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Overloading Vararg Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Varargs and Ambiguity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Local Variable Type Inference with Reference Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Chapter 8 Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Inheritance Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Member Access and Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
A More Practical Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
A Superclass Variable Can Reference a Subclass Object . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Using super . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Using super to Call Superclass Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
A Second Use for super . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

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Creating a Multilevel Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

When Constructors Are Executed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Method Overriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Dynamic Method Dispatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Why Overridden Methods? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Applying Method Overriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Using Abstract Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Using final with Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Using final to Prevent Overriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Using final to Prevent Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Local Variable Type Inference and Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
The Object Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Chapter 9 Packages and Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Defining a Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Finding Packages and CLASSPATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
A Short Package Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Packages and Member Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
An Access Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Importing Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Defining an Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Implementing Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Nested Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Applying Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Variables in Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Interfaces Can Be Extended . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Default Interface Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Default Method Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
A More Practical Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Multiple Inheritance Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Use static Methods in an Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Private Interface Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Final Thoughts on Packages and Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Chapter 10 Exception Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Exception-Handling Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Exception Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Uncaught Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Using try and catch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Displaying a Description of an Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Multiple catch Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Nested try Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
throw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
throws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

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finally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Java’s Built-in Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Creating Your Own Exception Subclasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Chained Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Three Additional Exception Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Using Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Chapter 11 Multithreaded Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
The Java Thread Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Thread Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Messaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
The Thread Class and the Runnable Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
The Main Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Creating a Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Implementing Runnable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Extending Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Choosing an Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Creating Multiple Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Using isAlive( ) and join( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Thread Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Using Synchronized Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
The synchronized Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Interthread Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Deadlock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Suspending, Resuming, and Stopping Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Obtaining a Thread’s State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Using a Factory Method to Create and Start a Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Using Multithreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Chapter 12 Enumerations, Autoboxing, and Annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Enumerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Enumeration Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
The values( ) and valueOf( ) Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Java Enumerations Are Class Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Enumerations Inherit Enum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Another Enumeration Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Type Wrappers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Boolean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
The Numeric Type Wrappers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Autoboxing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Autoboxing and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Autoboxing/Unboxing Occurs in Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Autoboxing/Unboxing Boolean and Character Values . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

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Autoboxing/Unboxing Helps Prevent Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

A Word of Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Annotation Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Specifying a Retention Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Obtaining Annotations at Run Time by Use of Reflection . . . . . . . . . 296
The AnnotatedElement Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Using Default Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Marker Annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Single-Member Annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
The Built-In Annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Type Annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Repeating Annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Some Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Chapter 13 I/O, Try-with-Resources, and Other Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
I/O Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Byte Streams and Character Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
The Predefined Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Reading Console Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Reading Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Reading Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Writing Console Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
The PrintWriter Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Reading and Writing Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Automatically Closing a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
The transient and volatile Modifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Introducing instanceof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
strictfp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Native Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Using assert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Assertion Enabling and Disabling Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Static Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Invoking Overloaded Constructors Through this( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
A Word About Value-Based Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Chapter 14 Generics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
What Are Generics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
A Simple Generics Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Generics Work Only with Reference Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Generic Types Differ Based on Their Type Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
How Generics Improve Type Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
A Generic Class with Two Type Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
The General Form of a Generic Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Bounded Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

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Using Wildcard Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

Bounded Wildcards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Creating a Generic Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Generic Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Generic Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Raw Types and Legacy Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Generic Class Hierarchies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Using a Generic Superclass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
A Generic Subclass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Run-Time Type Comparisons Within a Generic Hierarchy . . . . . . . . 378
Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Overriding Methods in a Generic Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Type Inference with Generics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Local Variable Type Inference and Generics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Erasure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Bridge Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Ambiguity Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Some Generic Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Type Parameters Can’t Be Instantiated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Restrictions on Static Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Generic Array Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Generic Exception Restriction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Chapter 15 Lambda Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Introducing Lambda Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Lambda Expression Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Functional Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Some Lambda Expression Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Block Lambda Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Generic Functional Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Passing Lambda Expressions as Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Lambda Expressions and Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Lambda Expressions and Variable Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Method References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Method References to static Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Method References to Instance Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Method References with Generics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Constructor References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Predefined Functional Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Chapter 16 Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Module Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
A Simple Module Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Compile and Run the First Module Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
A Closer Look at requires and exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428

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java.base and the Platform Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

Legacy Code and the Unnamed Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Exporting to a Specific Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Using requires transitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Use Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Service and Service Provider Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
The Service-Based Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
A Module-Based Service Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Module Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Three Specialized Module Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Open Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
The opens Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
requires static . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Introducing jlink and Module JAR Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Linking Files in an Exploded Directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Linking Modular JAR Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
JMOD Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
A Brief Word About Layers and Automatic Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Final Thoughts on Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Chapter 17 Switch Expressions, Records, and Other Recently Added Features . . . . 449
Enhancements to switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Use a List of case Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Introducing the switch Expression and the yield Statement . . . . . . . . 452
Introducing the Arrow in a case Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
A Closer Look at the Arrow case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Another switch Expression Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Text Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Text Block Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Understanding Leading Whitespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Use Double Quotes in a Text Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Escape Sequences in Text Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Record Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Create Record Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Another Record Constructor Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Create Record Getter Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Pattern Matching with instanceof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Pattern Variables in a Logical AND Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Pattern Matching in Other Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Sealed Classes and Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Sealed Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Sealed Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

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Part II The Java Library

Chapter 18 String Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
The String Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
String Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Special String Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
String Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
String Concatenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
String Concatenation with Other Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
String Conversion and toString( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Character Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
charAt( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
getChars( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
getBytes( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
toCharArray( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
String Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
equals( ) and equalsIgnoreCase( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
regionMatches( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
startsWith( ) and endsWith( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
equals( ) Versus == . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
compareTo( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Searching Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Modifying a String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
substring( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
concat( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
replace( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
trim( ) and strip( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Data Conversion Using valueOf( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Changing the Case of Characters Within a String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Joining Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Additional String Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
StringBuffer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
StringBuffer Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
length( ) and capacity( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
ensureCapacity( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
setLength( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
charAt( ) and setCharAt( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
getChars( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
append( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
insert( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
reverse( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
delete( ) and deleteCharAt( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
replace( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
substring( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Additional StringBuffer Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
StringBuilder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

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Chapter 19 Exploring java.lang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Primitive Type Wrappers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Double and Float . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Understanding isInfinite( ) and isNaN( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Byte, Short, Integer, and Long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Additions to Character for Unicode Code Point Support . . . . . . . . . . 528
Boolean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Void . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Runtime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Executing Other Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Runtime.Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
ProcessBuilder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Using currentTimeMillis( ) to Time Program Execution . . . . . . . . . . 540
Using arraycopy( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Environment Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
System.Logger and System.LoggerFinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Using clone( ) and the Cloneable Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
ClassLoader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Rounding Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Miscellaneous Math Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
StrictMath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Compiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Thread, ThreadGroup, and Runnable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
The Runnable Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
ThreadGroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
ThreadLocal and InheritableThreadLocal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
ModuleLayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
RuntimePermission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Throwable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
SecurityManager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
StackTraceElement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
StackWalker and StackWalker.StackFrame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
Enum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565

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ClassValue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
The CharSequence Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
The Comparable Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
The Appendable Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
The Iterable Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
The Readable Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
The AutoCloseable Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
The Thread.UncaughtExceptionHandler Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
The java.lang Subpackages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
java.lang.annotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
java.lang.constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
java.lang.instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
java.lang.invoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
java.lang.management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
java.lang.module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
java.lang.ref . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
java.lang.reflect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Chapter 20 java.util Part 1: The Collections Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Collections Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
The Collection Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
The Collection Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
The List Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
The Set Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
The SortedSet Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
The NavigableSet Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
The Queue Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
The Deque Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
The Collection Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
The ArrayList Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
The LinkedList Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
The HashSet Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
The LinkedHashSet Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
The TreeSet Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
The PriorityQueue Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
The ArrayDeque Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
The EnumSet Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Accessing a Collection via an Iterator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Using an Iterator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
The For-Each Alternative to Iterators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Spliterators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
Storing User-Defined Classes in Collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
The RandomAccess Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Working with Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
The Map Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
The Map Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612

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Contents   xix

Comparators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Using a Comparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
The Collection Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
The Legacy Classes and Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
The Enumeration Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Hashtable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Using store( ) and load( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
Parting Thoughts on Collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
Chapter 21 java.util Part 2: More Utility Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
StringTokenizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
BitSet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
Optional, OptionalDouble, OptionalInt, and OptionalLong . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
GregorianCalendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
TimeZone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
SimpleTimeZone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
Locale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
Random . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
Timer and TimerTask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
Currency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
Formatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
The Formatter Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
The Formatter Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
Formatting Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
Formatting Strings and Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
Formatting Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
Formatting Time and Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
The %n and %% Specifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
Specifying a Minimum Field Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
Specifying Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Using the Format Flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
Justifying Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
The Space, +, 0, and ( Flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
The Comma Flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
The # Flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
The Uppercase Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
Using an Argument Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
Closing a Formatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
The Java printf( ) Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691

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Scanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
The Scanner Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Scanning Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Some Scanner Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Setting Delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
Other Scanner Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
The ResourceBundle, ListResourceBundle,
and PropertyResourceBundle Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
Miscellaneous Utility Classes and Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
The java.util Subpackages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
java.util.concurrent, java.util.concurrent.atomic,
and java.util.concurrent.locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
java.util.function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
java.util.jar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
java.util.logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
java.util.prefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
java.util.random . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
java.util.regex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
java.util.spi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
java.util.stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
java.util.zip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
Chapter 22 Input/Output: Exploring java.io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
The I/O Classes and Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
Directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
Using FilenameFilter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
The listFiles( ) Alternative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
Creating Directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
The AutoCloseable, Closeable, and Flushable Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
I/O Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
Two Ways to Close a Stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
The Stream Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
The Byte Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
InputStream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
OutputStream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
FileInputStream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
FileOutputStream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
ByteArrayInputStream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
ByteArrayOutputStream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
Filtered Byte Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
Buffered Byte Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
SequenceInputStream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
PrintStream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
DataOutputStream and DataInputStream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
RandomAccessFile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742

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 CompRef_2010 / Java: The Complete Reference, Twelfth Edition / Schildt / 126046-341-9

Contents   xxi

The Character Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742

Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
Writer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
FileReader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
FileWriter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
CharArrayReader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
CharArrayWriter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
BufferedReader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
BufferedWriter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
PushbackReader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
PrintWriter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
The Console Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
Serialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
Serializable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
Externalizable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
ObjectOutput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
ObjectOutputStream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
ObjectInput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
ObjectInputStream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
A Serialization Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
Stream Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
Chapter 23 Exploring NIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
The NIO Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
NIO Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
Buffers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
Charsets and Selectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
Enhancements Added by NIO.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
The Path Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
The Files Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770
The Paths Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
The File Attribute Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
The FileSystem, FileSystems, and FileStore Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
Using the NIO System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
Use NIO for Channel-Based I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
Use NIO for Stream-Based I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
Use NIO for Path and File System Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
Chapter 24 Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
Networking Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
The java.net Networking Classes and Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
InetAddress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
Factory Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
Instance Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
Inet4Address and Inet6Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799
TCP/IP Client Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799

00-FM.indd 21 22/09/21 6:45 PM

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First 2024 - Center

Prepared by: Assistant Prof. Garcia

Date: August 12, 2025

Results 1: Fundamental concepts and principles

Learning Objective 1: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Research findings and conclusions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 2: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 3: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 5: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 7: Best practices and recommendations
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Methodology 2: Learning outcomes and objectives
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 12: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 14: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 16: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 3: Critical analysis and evaluation
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 22: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 26: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 27: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 29: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Chapter 4: Theoretical framework and methodology
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 32: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 32: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 33: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Appendix 5: Theoretical framework and methodology
Practice Problem 40: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 44: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 49: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Discussion 6: Critical analysis and evaluation
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 54: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 56: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 57: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 58: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 59: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 59: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Review 7: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 61: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 63: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 63: Research findings and conclusions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 64: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 65: Literature review and discussion
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Quiz 8: Case studies and real-world applications
Practice Problem 70: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 71: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 75: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Topic 9: Best practices and recommendations
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 82: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 83: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 84: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 84: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 89: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Summary 10: Interdisciplinary approaches
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 92: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 93: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 95: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 99: Best practices and recommendations
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Unit 11: Critical analysis and evaluation
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 101: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 105: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 107: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Chapter 12: Best practices and recommendations
Example 110: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 112: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 113: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 115: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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